Guidelines for academic writing

As the subject requires you to write according to academic standards, your

essay should fulfill the following requirements:

Your answers should be supported by the theoretical principles you have

learnt throughout the unit. This is important because your views and
judgements will be more solidly grounded. This does not mean you
should completely agree with authors’ statements or positions; rather, it
means that your answers should be thoughtful and pedagogically
explained or justified.

You should acknowledge the sources you use, i.e. you should be explicit
about which viewpoints are yours and which sources you quote. This is
very important in academic writing.

The sources you quote should be reliable, i.e. the information provided
can be trusted to be accurate.

You should give examples from your teaching or learning experience

whenever you think such examples may help reinforce your viewpoints
and ideas. This is important because it shows you can integrate theory
with practice.

The language used should be adequate to academic writing. Make sure

you use language related to the concepts and ideas developed in the
unit and related to the issue being discussed. Your ideas should be
well developed, that is, properly organised and clearly expressed.

How to cite:

In-text quotations:

- When you paraphrase what the author states you should write his / her
surname and year of publication between parentheses, e.g. Tudor
(2001).
- When you write the exact words the author has used you should use
inverted commas and include the author’s surname, year of publication
and page numbers, e.g. Freeman and Richards (1996, p.22) suggest
that ‘the external prescriptive views of method that generally prevail in
the field of language teaching bear little resemblance to teachers’ and
students’ lived experience of methods in the classroom.’

- If the quotation is longer than 3 lines, you should write it as follows:

The former assumes that a programme is implemented: in a

linear manner from top to bottom: overall educational
objectives are set by a ministry or planning body, a syllabus
is designed to carry out these objectives, materials are
developed to instantiate the syllabus, the teaching is carried
out to teach the content presented in the materials, and,
finally, the learners are evaluated on the degree to which
they have learned the content. (Woods, 1991, p.1)

References (at the end of the writing)

- For books:

van Lier, L. (1996) Interaction in the Language Curriculum. Awareness,

Autonomy & Authenticity. England: Longman Group Limited.

- For articles:
Ushioda, E. (2011) Motivating Learners to Speak as Themselves. In G.
Murray, G. Xuesong and T. Lamb (Eds.), Identity, Motivation and
Autonomy in Language Learning (pp.11-24). Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.

- For articles on the web:

Smith, R. (2003) Teacher education for teacher-learner autonomy. In J.

Gollin, G. Ferguson and H. Trappes-Lomax (Eds.), Symposium for
Language Teacher Educators: Papers from Three IALS Symposia.
Edinburgh: IALS, University of Edinburgh. Retrieved May 2, 2012, from
http://homepages.warwick.ac.uk/~elsdr/Teacher_autonomy.pdf
 These are two sample essays

Sample Essay 1

The following winning essay was submitted in 2009 by a UK higher education student
for an essay writing competition sponsored by the Learn Higher Centre of Excellence in
Teaching and Learning (CETL) network. The set title was ‘What is the point of
referencing?’, and there was a maximum word limit of 1,500 words.

There is a tutor commentary on the points made by the student to the left of the essay.

The introduction to an essay is What is the point of referencing?

very important. Here the The reasons why accurate referencing is essential for academic work are not immediately
student immediately addresses apparent, particularly for students new to higher education. This essay will, therefore,
the question. examine why referencing is an essential part of academic writing and in the process
address the question: ‘what is the point of referencing?’

The student introduces the There are three main reasons for referencing. Firstly, referencing helps student writers to
main reasons for referencing. construct, structure, support and communicate arguments. Secondly, references link the
writer’s work to the existing body of knowledge. Thirdly, only through referencing can
academic work gain credibility.

Summarises the structure of This essay will discuss these three aspects of referencing in detail, examine their validity,
the essay. identify how referencing affects a writer’s writing style, and show how referencing helps
students to present their own ideas and opinions in assignments.

Engages with the first of the Becker (1986) believes the construction of arguments is the most important function of
reasons for referencing: referencing systems. There are four dimensions to this. Firstly, drawing on existing
construction of arguments. The literature, academic writers can construct their own arguments - and adopting a referencing
student draws on the work of a system supports this process. Secondly, it helps to structure the existing information and
published writer (Becker) in arguments by linking published authors to their respective works. Third, referencing helps
support of the four points academic writers identify sources, gather evidence, as well as show the relationships
made. between existing knowledge. Finally, referencing also provide a framework to enable writers
to structure their arguments effectively by assessing, comparing, contrasting or evaluating
Note the systematic way the different sources.
ideas are presented: ‘Firstly…;
Secondly…; Thirdly…; Finally’.

The writing is descriptive at

this point in the essay.
The word ‘However’, signals a However, merely describing existing research, rather than producing their own contributions
change of direction: the writing to the discussion, is inadequate for most academic writers. It is important for every
becomes more analytical. It academic writer to avoid this narrow-minded argumentation trap; academic writing is not just
goes beyond the four points about compiling existing arguments, but adding new perspectives, finding new arguments,
described in the previous or new ways of combining existing knowledge.
paragraph to make a new For example, Barrow and Mosley (2005) combined the fields Human Resources and Brand
contribution to the discussion. Management to develop the ‘Employer Brand’ concept.

The student illustrates the

point made with a practical
example (Barrow & Mosley).

Develops the point s made in When the argument has been constructed, it needs academic support – and only references
the previous paragraph, and can provide this required support. We all know that academic works are not about stating
focuses on the importance of opinions - as that would be akin to journalistic comment - but arguments are supported by
supporting arguments in evidence, and only arguments presented with sufficient and valid support are credible.
assignments with valid Hence arguments are only as strong as the underlying evidence: arguments relying on
evidence. questionable sources are – well, questionable.

The word ‘Hence’ is a word

that can be used to present a
particular point of view.

The student is still developing Referencing also enables writers to communicate their arguments efficiently. The
the issue about construction of referencing framework allows them to produce a holistic work with different perspectives,
arguments, but moves on to an whilst still emphasising their own positions; quotations, for example, help the reader to
important point about differentiate the writer’s opinions from others. Again, if arguments are badly referenced,
referencing: that it provides a readers might not be able to distinguish the writers’ own opinions from their sources.
framework to distinguish the Especially for academic beginners, referencing helps them to adapt to the precise and
student’s ideas from those of accurate academic writing style required for degree level study. Neville (2007, p. 10)
other writers. emphasises this issue of writing style, and identifies the quest to “find your own voice” as
one of the main reasons for referencing. In academic writing, this requires developing an
The student reinforces and individual style that is neither convoluted nor convivial in tone, but which is clear, open but
supports the point made by measured, and is about identifying and using evidence selectively to build and support one’s
citing the work of a published own arguments.
author.

The student uses a quote to Immanuel Kant said “Science is organized knowledge.” This short quote brilliantly captures
give interest to the writing and the point that the primary mission of science and other disciplines is not to promote
as a lead-in to the second of individual achievements, but to establish a connected, collective, and recognised body of
the four reasons for knowledge.
referencing: about linking to This is the most fundamental reason for referencing from a theoretical point of view. Hence
established bodies of some authors identify this as the principal reason for referencing: “The primary reason for
knowledge. citation [...] is that it encourages and supports the collective construction of academic
Uses a quotation to reinforce knowledge” (Walker & Taylor, 2006, pp.29-30).
the main point in this
paragraph.

Explains why linking into The writer’s references are links to this network of knowledge. Without these links an
existing knowledge is academic work would operate within an academic vacuum, unrelated to existing academic
important for academic writers. knowledge. A writer needs to show how his or her work relates to current research and
debates in their chosen subject area.

The student returns to a point Referencing not only connects a student writer’s work to existing research, but clearly
made earlier (about separating distinguishes the writer’s own ideas from established arguments –and failing to indicate that
out own ideas from those of ideas are taken from the existing body of knowledge would be plagiarism. This is one of the
others) but links it this time five principles of referencing identified by Walker and Taylor (2006).
with the issue of plagiarism. Neville also identifies the link to existing knowledge as one of the main reasons for adopting
a referencing style; he highlights “tracing the origin of ideas”, “spreading knowledge” and
Cites and quotes from a
“indicating appreciation” (2007, pp.9-10), which leads to the next point.
published source to support
the points made in this
paragraph. Note how the
student makes a writing bridge
from this paragraph to the
next.

The previous paragraph was Referencing a work indicates that the writer finds the referenced material important: hence
largely descriptive in nature. references create ‘academic clout’ in an assignment. In the global academic community a
But the word ‘however’ again more-cited article will find more recognition. However, this practice is not without its critics.
signals a change to more Thody, for example, calls this the “sycophantic” use of referencing - and it can certainly be
analysis. The student brings in used to “flatter your mentors” (2006, p.186). Thompson calls this “ritualized obedience to the
a criticism of referencing made reigning authorities” (2003, p.27). So the important issue here is not about selecting
by two commentators, Thody references for their expediency value, but for their enduring quality. This brings us to the
(2006) and Thompson (2003). next point: credibility.

Note the way the student

makes a writing ‘bridge’ to the
next paragraph

Uses a quotation as a way into Martin Joseph Routh said in 1878: “You will find it a very good practice always to verify your
the discussion about credibility. references, sir!” Correct referencing enables, therefore, the reader to check sources and
Also uses quotes from verify conclusions. The issue of credibility is identified by commentators as a key issue in
published authors to lend referencing. Nygaard, for example, identifies credibility as the main reason for referencing:
support to the points made. “The goal of referencing is to enhance [...] your credibility as an author” (2008, p.177).
Neville came to the same conclusion that “to be taken seriously, [a writer] needs to make a
transparent presentation of valid evidence” (2007, p.10). Also the Academic Learning
 Support from Central Queensland University (2007) sees the credibility of arguments as
primary motive for correct referencing.

Note the way a point is References allow the reader to trace the source of the writer’s arguments, consult the
introduced and then original independently and verify whether the writer’s usage of the sources is valid. Some
emphasised with a practical readers, for example, interested in a point in question, might want to verify the writer’s
illustration: “Some readers, for interpretation of a referenced work. The quality of references is, therefore, extremely
example, …” important for the credibility of an academic work. Arguments are only as good as the
underlying references - untrustworthy and unreliable sources can even invalidate an
The word ‘therefore’ introduces
argument, while reliable and dependable sources strengthen the writer’s argument.
a summary of the main point in
this paragraph.

‘Finally’: the student signals Finally, the writer’s selection of sources also demonstrates whether the writer has evaluated
that the essay is reaching its all important arguments and has a thorough understanding of the subject. Only a credible
conclusion. work that takes all important arguments into account will find acceptance in the academic
world.

The concluding paragraph So what is the point of referencing? This essay has presented three main arguments why
reminds the reader of the academic writers have to adopt a referencing system: Firstly, it helps to structure, support
essay question and of the main and communicate arguments. Secondly, it links the work to the existing body of knowledge,
points made in the essay. although it is also important for writers not merely to present the ideas of others, but to
contribute where possible with innovative ideas of their own. Thirdly, only referencing can
We are left with a sense that
give the argument credibility – and this is a particularly significant element for success in the
the student has answered the
academic world. (1200 words)
question.

The student presents all the References:

sources cited in the essay in
ACADEMIC LEARNING SUPPORT (2007), Division of Teaching & Learning Services,
the author-date (Harvard) style
Central Queensland University. Harvard (author-date) referencing guide. 2007 edn.
of referencing.
Rockhampton, Queensland: Central Queensland University.

BARROW, S. & R. MOSLEY (2005). The employer brand. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons,
BECKER, H. S., (1986). Writing for social scientists. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.

NEVILLE, C., (2007). The complete guide to referencing and avoiding plagiarism.
Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill/Open University Press.

NYGAARD, L. P., (2008). Writing for scholars. Universitetforlaget.

THODY, A., (2006). Writing and presenting research. London: Sage Publications.

THOMPSON, A., 2003. Tiffany, friend of people of colour. International Journal of

Qualitative Studies in Education, 16(1), pp.7-30.

WALKER, J. R. & T. TAYLOR, (2006). The Columbia guide to online style. 2nd ed. New
York: Columbia University Press.
Sample 2

Discuss why assignment essays are common assessment tasks in undergraduate

tertiary coursework, and evaluate the effectiveness of assignments as an avenue for
learning. (Word limit 500 words - 10% leeway) Please note that the APA referencing
style is used in this sample essay.

Assignment essays are developed from set questions that give students a period of
time to research a topic and produce their answer with references to their sources of
information. While there are some disadvantages with using assignment essays as an
assessment tool, there are sound educational purposes underpinning this practice.
This essay examines the reasons why assignment essays are beneficial for student
learning and considers some of the problems with this method of assessment.

Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of their study
subject. Firstly, assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter. Yang
and Baker (2005) reason that "to master your learning materials and extend your
understandings, you need to write about the meanings you gain from your research" (p.
1). Secondly, research (Jinx, 2004; Zapper, 2006) clearly demonstrates that students
learn the writing conventions of a subject area while they are researching, reading and
writing in their discipline. This activity helps them to "crack the code" of the discipline
(Bloggs, 2003, p. 44). Thus, students are learning subject matter and how to write in
that disciplinary area by researching and writing assignment essays.

Using assignment essays for assessment supports student learning better than the
traditional examination system. It is considered that course-work assignment essays
can lessen the extreme stress experienced by some students over 'sudden-death' end
of semester examinations:

If we insist that all students write about everything they have learned in
their study courses at the same time and in the same place (e.g. in
examinations), we are not giving all of our students equal opportunities.
Some students are not daunted by the exam experience while others suffer
'exam nerves' and perform at the lowest level of their capabilities.
(Wonderland University, 2006, p. 4)

Additionally, Jones et al. (2004, pp. 36-37) propose that assignment essays can be
used to assess student learning mid-course and so provide them with helpful feedback
before they are subjected to the exam experience. Exams only provide students with a
mark rather than specific feedback on their progress. Therefore, setting assignment
essays for a substantial part of student assessment is a much fairer approach than
one-off examination testing.

As an assessment tool, assignment essays have some disadvantages for lecturers and
students. It has been found that assignment essays consume a great deal of staff time
and money to mark and student time to prepare (Sankey & Liger, 2005, p. 192). A
consequence of this is that feedback to students is frequently delayed, and this is much
less useful to students than rapid feedback (p. 294). It is partly because of these
disadvantages of time and expense that other assessments such as multiple-choice
tests and short answer questions have an enduring place in the tertiary learning
environment.
To conclude, it seems that assignment essays continue to have a prominent role in
tertiary education as an assessment tool. This is mainly because they are very effective
in developing knowledge and writing skills for subject areas. Also, assignment essays
can be less stressful than examinations as they allow students to show their
understanding of content in less pressured circumstances. On the other hand, the time
consuming nature of writing and marking essays points to some disadvantages that
also need to be considered. The weight of evidence, however, supports the writing of
assignment essays for student assessment because this approach has such positive
and proven effects for improved student learning.

References

Bloggs, J. (2003). Linking teaching, learning and succeeding in higher education.

London: Bookworld.

Jinx, J.M. (2004). Student essay writing. Journal of Research in University Education, 9
(2), 114-125.

Jones, J., Smith, P.L., Brown, K., Zong J., Thompson, K. & Fung, P.A. (2004). Helpline:
Essays and the university student. Tokyo: Courtyard Printers.

Sankey, J.M. & Liger, T.U. (2003). Learning to write essays [CD-ROM]. Sydney:
Wonderland University.

Taylor, G. (1989). The student's writing guide for the arts andsocial sciences.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wonderland University (2006). Attributes of a university graduate. Retrieved from

doi:10.1098/063-112

Yang, S. & Baker, O.E. (2005). Essay writing and the tertiary student. Melbourne:
Diamond Press.

Zapper, Y. (2006). Learning essay-writing. In F.T. Fax & Y. Phoney (Eds.), Learning
Experiences at University (pp. 55-70). Calcutta: Academic Scholar Press.

Source: http://learninghub.une.edu.au/tlc/aso/aso-online/academic-writing/sample-essay.php