Conduction 2

Objectives
• One dimensional steady conduction in plane wall, composite wall and
cylinder is introduced. The approach is to reduce the heat diffusion
equation for the case chosen.

• Using the appropriate boundary conditions, the heat diffusion equation is

solved for temperature distribution and heat transfer rate is computed

• Analogy between thermal and electrical systems is drawn in order to aid

the solving of conduction problems on the basis of electrical circuits

ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE CONDUCTION

• We treat situations for which heat is transferred by diffusion under one
dimensional, steady state conditions.

• In a one-dimensional system, temperature gradients exist along a single

coordinate direction, and heat transfer occurs exclusively in that
direction.

• The system is characterized by steady state conditions if the

temperature at each point is independent of time.
 We begin our consideration of one-dimensional, steady state conduction
by discussing heat transfer with no internal generation.

THE PLANE WALL

For one dimensional conduction in a plane wall, temperature is a function
of the x coordinate only and heat is transferred exclusively in this
direction.
In Figure 2.5, a plane wall separates two fluids of different temperatures.

Heat transfer occurs,

• by convection from the hot fluid at Tf ,1 to one surface of the wall at Ts,1
• by conduction through the wall, and
• by convection from the other surface of the wall at Ts,2 to the cold fluid at Tf ,2
.

Let us first determine the temperature distribution, from which we can

then obtain the conduction heat transfer rate.
 Too,1

Ts,1 Ts,2
Too,2

Too,1 h1 x=0 x=L Too,2 h2

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

FIGURE 2.5 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A PLANE WALL

Temperature Distribution
• The temperature distribution in the wall can be determined by solving the
heat equation using proper boundary conditions. For steady state
conditions with no energy source within the wall, the appropriate form of
the heat equation is
 d § wT ·
k
dx ¨© wx ¸¹
0 (2.22)

Integrating the above equation twice to obtain the general solution

T  x C1 x  C 2 (2.23)

Applying boundary conditions of the first kind at x=0 and x=L to obtain the
constants of integration,C1 and,C2.
T  0  Ts,1 and T  L  TS ,2

Applying the condition at x = 0 to the general solution, it follows that

Ts,1 C2

Similarly, at x=L, Ts,2 C1 L  C2 C1 L  Ts,1

Ts,2  Ts,1
which gives, C1
L
substituting into the general solution, the temperature distribution is then

T  x  Ts ,2  Ts ,1  Lx  Ts ,1 (2.24)

From this result, it is evident that, for one dimensional, steady state
conduction in a plane wall with no heat generation and constant thermal
conductivity, the temperature varies linearly with x.

Using Fourier's law, to determine the conduction heat transfer rate. That
is,

qx  kA
dT
dx
kA

T  Ts ,2
L s ,1
 (2.25)

Note that A is the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat transfer
and for the plane wall, it is a constant independent of x.
The heat flux is then,
q"x
qx
A
k

T T
A s ,1 s ,2

(2.26)
Equations 2.25 and 2.26 indicate that both the heat rate qx and heat flux are
constants, independent of x.

Thermal Resistance
• There exists an analogy between the diffusion of heat and electrical
charge.
• Thermal resistance may be associated with the conduction of heat in the
same fashion as an electrical resistance is associated with the
conduction of electricity.
• Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding
transfer rate
• it follows from Equation 2.25 that the thermal resistance for conduction is

Rt , cond
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2  L
qx kA
(2.27)

Similarly, for electrical conduction, Ohm's law provides an electrical

resistance of the form

Re
 Es ,1  Es ,2  L
(2.28)
l VA
Therefore,
• the rate of heat transfer through a plane wall corresponds to the electric
current
• the thermal resistance corresponds to electrical resistance and
• the temperature difference corresponds to voltage difference across the
plane wall. (Figure. 2.6)

Figure 2.6 Analogy Between Thermal And Electrical Resistance Concepts

Consider convection heat transfer from a solid surface of area A (Figure 2.7)
and temperature Ts to a fluid whose temperature sufficiently far from the
surface is , with a convection heat transfer coefficient h. Newton's law of
cooling forr convection
co heat transfer rate
The thermal resistance for convection is
q hA  Ts  Tf  (2.29)

 Ts  Tf  1
Rt , conv (2.30)
q hA

Figure 2.7 Schematic For Convection Resistance at a Surface

 Consider steady one-dimensional heat flow through a plane wall of
thermal conductivity k and thickness L that is exposed to convection on
both sides to fluids at temperatures and with heat transfer coefficients
h1and h2, respectively, as shown in Figure. 2.8.
Too,1

Ts,1 Ts,2
Too,2

Too,1 h1 x=0 x=L Too,2 h2

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

q
x
Too,1 Ts,1 Ts,2 Too,2
1 L 1
h1 A kA h2 A

Figure 2.8 Thermal Resistance Network For Heat Transfer Through A Plane
Wall
Under steady state conditions, we have
§ Rate of Heat Convection · § Rate of Heat Conduction · § Rate of Heat Convection ·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
© int o theWall ¹ © through theWall ¹ © from theWall ¹

qx 
h1 A Tf ,1  Ts ,1   Ts ,1  Ts ,2  kA
L

h2 A Ts ,2  Tf ,2  (2.31)

qx
 Tf ,1  Ts ,1   Ts ,1  Ts ,2   Ts ,2  Tf ,2 
1 L 1 (2.32)
h1 A kA h2 A

In terms of the overall temperature difference, , and the total thermal

resistance, Rtot the heat transfer rate may also be expressed as

qx
 Tf ,1  Tf ,2 
(2.33)
Rtot

Equivalent thermal circuits concepts is used for more complex systems,

such as composite walls (i.e. any number of series and parallel thermal
resistances due to layers of different materials). Consider the series
composite wall of Figure. 2.9. The one dimensional heat transfer rate for
this system may be expressed as
  Tf ,1  Tf ,4 
qx (2.34)
¦ Rt

where Tf ,1  Tf ,4 is the overall temperature difference and the summation

includes all thermal resistances. Hence,
 Tf ,1  Tf ,4 
qx
ª§ 1 · § LA · § LB · § LC ·§ 1 ·º
(2.35)
«¬©¨ h1 A ¹¸  ©¨ k A A ¹¸  ©¨ k B A ¹¸  ©¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
kC A ¹ © h4 A ¹ ¼»

Too,1 LA LB LC

Ts,1

Ts,2
Too,2
Too,1 h1 x=0 x=L Too,2 h2

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

q
x
Too,1 Ts,1 T2 T3 Ts,4 Too,4
1 LA LB LC 1
h1 A kA A kB A kC A h4 A
Figure 2.9 Equivalent Thermal Circuit For A Series Composite Wall
Also, the heat transfer rate can be related to the temperature difference
and resistance associated with each element. For example,
Tf ,1  Ts ,1 Ts ,1  T2 T2  T3
qx ....
§ · §L · § LB · (2.36)
¨ 1h A¸ ¨ A k A¸ ¨ k B A ¹¸
© 1 ¹ © A ¹ ©

With the composite systems, it is usually convenient to work with an

overall heat transfer coefficient, U, which is defined by the expression
analogous to Newton's law of cooling. Accordingly,
q x UA 'T (2.37)

where ǻT is the overall temperature difference.

From Equations 2.34 and 2.37 we see that UA = 1/Rtot. Hence, for the
composite wall of Figure.2.9,

1 1
U
Rtot A ª§ 1 · § LA · § LB · § LC ·  § 1 ·º (2.38)
¨ ¸  ¨ ¸  ¨ ¸ 
«¬© h1 ¹ © kA ¹ © kB ¹ © ¨ kC ¸¹ ¨© h4 ¸¹ »¼
In general, we write
'T 1
Rtot ¦ Rtot (2.39)
q UA

LE LF= LG LH
Composite walls may also be kF
F
kE
characterized by series-parallel T1 H T2
configurations, such as that E kG G k
shown in Figure.2.10 LF
kF (A/2)
LE LH
qx kE A kH A
T1 T2

LG
kG (A/2)

LE LF LG
kE (A/2) kF (A/2) kG (A/2)

qx T1 T2
LE LG LG
kE (A/2) kG (A/2) kG (A/2)

Figure 2.10 Equivalent Thermal

Circuits For A Series-Parallel Composite Wall
Contact Thermal Resistance:
x In heat conduction analysis through composite walls, we have assumed
"perfect contact" at the interface of two layers, and thus no temperature
drop at the interface.
x This would be the case when the surfaces are perfectly smooth and they
produce a perfect contact at each point.
x In reality, however, even flat surfaces that appear smooth to the eye turn
out to be rather rough when examined under a microscope, as shown in
Figure 2.11, with numerous peaks and valleys.
x That is, a surface is microscopically rough no matter how smooth it
appears to be.

Layer 1 Layer 2

Interface

T1=T2

• Ideal Thermal Contact

 Layer 1 Layer 2

T1
T2

Interface

• Actual Thermal Contact

Figure 2.11 Temperature Distribution Along Two Solid Plates
Pressed Against Each Other

x When two such surfaces are pressed against each other, the peaks
will form good material contact but the valleys will form voids filled with
air.
x As a result, an interface will contain numerous air gaps of varying
sizes that act as insulation because of the low thermal conductivity of
air.
 Thus, an interface offers some resistance to heat transfer, and this
Rt",c resistance,
resistance per unit interface area is called thermal contact
given by
T1  T2
R"t,c (2.40)
q"x

x For solids whose thermal conductivities exceed that of the interfacial fluid,
the contact resistance may be reduced by increasing the area of the
contact spots.
x Such an increase may be effected by increasing the joint pressure and/or
by reducing the roughness of the mating surfaces.
x The contact resistance may also be reduced by selecting an interfacial
fluid of large thermal conductivity.
x In this respect, no fluid (an evacuated interface) eliminates conduction
across the gap, thereby increasing the contact resistance.
PROBLEM 2.2

A leading manufacturer of household appliances is proposing a self-

cleaning oven design that involves use of a composite window separating
the oven cavity from the room air. The composite is to consist of two high
temperature plastics (A and B) of thicknesses LA= 2LB and thermal
conductivities kA=0.15 W/m.K and kB= 0.08 W/m.K. During the self-
cleaning process, the oven wall and air temperatures, Tw and Ta, are
4000C, while the room air temperatureTf is 250C. The inside convection
and radiation heat transfer coefficients hi and hr, as well as the outside
convection coefficient ho, are each approximately 25 W/m2.K. What is the
minimum window thickness, L=LA+LB, needed to ensure a temperature
that is 500C or less at the outer surface of the window? This temperature
must not be exceeded for safety reasons
Diag:
Composite LA LB
Oven cavity window
L A =2L B

o
w
Ts,i Ts,o 50
hr=25W/m2K

o A B
a
Air
2
hi =25W/m K

kA=0.08W/mK
o kB=0.15W/mK
oo

Air ho=25W/m2K

Known: The properties and relative dimensions of plastic materials used for
a composite oven window, and conditions associated with self-cleaning
operation

Find : Composite thickness LA + LB needed to ensure safe operation

Assumptions:
• Steady state conditions exist
• Conduction through the window is one dimensional
• Contact resistance is negligible
• Radiation absorption within the window is negligible; hence no internal
heat generation
• Radiation exchange between window outer surface and surroundings is
negligible
• Each plastic is homogeneous with constant properties
Analysis:
The thermal circuit can be constructed by recognizing that resistance to
heat flow is associated with convection at the outer surface, conduction in
the plastics, and convection and radiation at the inner surface.
Accordingly, the circuit and the resistances are of the following form:
Tw
1
Tw= Ta
hr A Ts,i Ts,o Too
LA LB 1
Ta kA A kB A hoA
1
hi A
 Since the outer surface temperature of the window, Ts,o is prescribed, the
required window thickness may be obtained by applying an energy
balance at this surface. That is, from Equation 1.7
Ein E out

where, from Equation 2.39, with Tw = Ta,

T T
Ein q a s,o
¦ Rt
and from Equation 2.29
E out q ho A Ts,o  Tf 

The total thermal resistance between the oven cavity and the outer
surface of the window includes an effective resistance associated with
convection and radiation, which act in parallel at the inner surface of the
window, and the conduction resistances of the window materials. Hence,
1
§ ·
¨ 1

1 ¸  LA  LB
¦ Rt ¨ 1 ¸
¨ hA 1 ¸ k A A kB A
© i h A
r ¹

or
 1§ 1 LA LA ·
¦ Rt ¨   ¸
A © hi  hr k A 2k B ¹

substituting into the energy balance, it follows that

Ta  Ts,o
ho Ts,o  Tf 
§L · § L ·
 hi  hr 1  ¨ A ¸ ¨ A ¸
© k A ¹ © 2k B ¹

hence for solving LA,

ª§ 1 · º
¨ ¸
«© ho ¹  Ta  Ts,o  » 1
« Ts,o  Tf  »
  h  h 
«  »
i r

LA ¬ ¼
§ 1 1 ·
¨  ¸
© Ak 2 k B ¹

§ 400  50 ·
0.04 ¨ ¸  0.02
© 50  25 ¹
LA 0.0418
1 / 0.15  1 / 0.16 
 since LB = LA/2 = 0.0209 m,
L = LA+ LB= 0.0627 m = 62.7 mm

Comments:
1. The self cleaning operation is a transient process, as far as the thermal
response of the window is concerned, and steady state conditions may
not be reached in the time required for cleaning. However, the steady
state condition provides the maximum possible value of Ts,o and hence
is well suited for the design calculation.

2. Radiation exchange between the oven walls and the composite window
actually depends on the inner surface temperature Ts,1 , and although it
has been neglected, there is radiation exchange between the window
and the surroundings, which depends on Ts,o.

A more complete analysis may be made to concurrently determine Ts,1

and Ts,o. Approximating the oven cavity as a large enclosure relative to
the window and applying an energy balance, equation 1.12, at the inner
surface it follows that
q"rad ,i  q"conv,i q"cond
or
Ts,i  Ts,o 
HV  4
Tw,i  Ts,i
4
  h T
i a  Ts,i   LA k A    LB k B 
Approximating the kitchen walls as a large isothermal enclosure relative
to the window, with Tw,o Tf ,and this time applying energy balance at the
outer surface, it follows that
q"cond q"rad ,o  q"conv,o
or

Ts,i  Ts,o 
 LA k A    LB k B 
HV Ts,o
4
 Tw,o
4

 h o Ts,o  Tf 

If all other quantities are known, Equations 1 and 2 may be solved for
Ts,1 and Ts,0.

We wish to explore the effect on Ts,0 of varying velocity, and hence the
convection coefficient, associated with airflow over the outer surface.
With ѣ = 0.9 and all other conditions remaining the same, equations 1
and 2 have been solved for values of h0 in the range 0 d ho d 100 W/m2 K
and the results are represented graphically.
3. Increasing h0 reduces the corresponding convection resistance, and a
value of h0 =30 W/m2 K would yield a safe to touch temperature of
Ts,0 = 43°C . Because the conduction resistance is so large, the change
h0 in has a negligible effect on Ts,1 . However it does influence the outer
surface temperature, and as ho o f , Ts,o o f .
THE CYLINDER
Consider a hollow cylinder, whose inner and outer surfaces are exposed
to fluids at different temperatures (Figure. 2.12). For steady state
conditions with no heat generation, the appropriate form of the heat
equation,
1 d § dT ·
kr
r dr ¨© dr ¸¹
0 (2.41)

where, for a moment k is treated as a variable. The physical significance

of this result becomes evident if we also consider the appropriate form of
Fourier's law. The rate at which energy is conducted across the cylindrical
surface in the solid may be expressed as
dT dT
qr  kA  k ( 2S rL )
dr dr (2.42)

where A = 2ʌrL is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer.

dT
NOTE: Since, Equation 2.41 prescribes that the quantity kr is
dr
independent of r, it follows from Equation 2.42 that the conduction heat
"
transfer rate qr(not the heat flux qr ) is a constant in the radial direction.
 Figure 2.12 Hollow Cylinder With Convective Surface Conditions

Assuming the value of k to be constant, Equation 2.41 may be integrated

twice to obtain the general solution

T ( r ) C1 ln r  C 2 (2.43)

Applying the boundary conditions to the general solution,

i.e. T(r1 ) = Ts,1 and T(r2 ) = Ts,2
we obtain,
 Ts,1 C1 ln r1  C2
Ts,2 C1 ln r2  C2

Solving for C1and C2 and substituting into the general solution, we then
obtain
Ts ,1  Ts ,2 § r ·
T( r ) ln ¨ ¸  T (2.44)
§ r1 · © r2 ¹ s ,2
ln ¨ ¸
© r2 ¹

NOTE: that the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction

through a cylindrical wall is logarithmic, not linear, as it is for the plane wall.
The logarithmic distribution is shown in Figure. 2.12.

If the temperature distribution, Equation 2.44, is now used with Fourier's

law, Equation 2.42, we obtain the following expression for the heat transfer
rate:

qr

2 S L k Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
ln §¨ · (2.45)
r2
© r1 ¸¹
 1 d § dT · Ts ,1  Ts ,2
¨ kr ¸ 0 ?C2 Ts ,2  ln r2
r dr © dr ¹ §r ·
ln¨¨ 1 ¸¸
d § dT · © r2 ¹
¨r ¸ 0
dr © dr ¹ Ts ,1  Ts ,2 Ts ,1  Ts ,2
T ln r  Ts ,2  ln r2
Integrating §r · §r ·
ln¨¨ 1 ¸¸ ln¨¨ 1 ¸¸
dT © r2 ¹ © r2 ¹
r C1
dr
dT C1 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 §r·
T Ts ,2  ln¨¨ ¸¸
dr r §r · © r2 ¹
ln¨¨ 1 ¸¸
© r2 ¹
T C 1 ln r  C 2
Ts ,1  Ts ,2
Ts ,1 C 1 ln r1  C 2 ?C2 Ts ,1  ln r1
§r ·
Ts ,2 C 1 ln r2  C 2 ln¨¨ 1 ¸¸
© r2 ¹
Ts ,1  Ts ,2
? C1 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 §r·
§r · T Ts ,1  ln¨¨ ¸¸
ln¨¨ 1 ¸¸ §r ·
© r2 ¹ ln¨¨ 1 ¸¸ © r1 ¹
© r2 ¹
 dT dT
qr  kA  k ( 2S rL )
dr dr

Ts ,1  Ts ,2 §r·
T Ts ,2  ln¨¨ ¸¸
§r · © r2 ¹
ln¨¨ 1 ¸¸
© r2 ¹

dT dT
qr  kA  k ( 2S rL )
dr dr

Ts ,1  Ts ,2 1
qr  k 2SLr 
§ r1 · r
ln¨¨ ¸¸
© r2 ¹

Ts ,1  Ts ,2
2S L k ln §¨ 2 ·¸
qr r
§ r2 · © r1 ¹
ln¨¨ ¸¸ Rt ,cond
2S Lk
© r1 ¹
From this result it is evident that, for radial conduction in a cylindrical wall,
the thermal resistance is of the form

ln §¨ 2 ·¸
r
Rt ,cond © r1 ¹ (2.46)
2S Lk

This resistance is shown in Figure. 2.12. Note that since the value of qr is
independent of r , the foregoing result could have been obtained by using
the alternative method, that is, by integrating Equation 2.42.

Consider now the composite system of Figure 2.13. Recalling how we

treated the composite plane wall and neglecting contact resistances
between the interface, the heat transfer rate may be expressed as

Tf ,1  Tf ,2
qr
§ § r2 · · § § r3 · · § § r4 · · (2.47)
· ¨ ©¨ r1 ¹¸ ¸ ¨ ©¨ r2 ¹¸ ¸ ¨ ©¨ r3 ¹¸ ¸ §
ln ln ln
§ 1 1 ·
¨ ¸  ¨ ¸  ¨ ¸  ¨ ¸  ¨ ¸
© 2 S r1 L h1 ¹ ¨¨ 2 S k A L ¸¸ ¨¨ 2 S k B L ¸¸ ¨¨ 2 S kC L ¸¸ © 2 S r4 L h4 ¹
© ¹ © ¹ © ¹

The above result may also be expressed in terms of an overall heat

transfer coefficient. That is,
 Tf ,1  Tf ,4
qr
Rtot

UA Tf ,1  Tf ,4  (2.48)

If U is defined in terms of the inside area, A1=2ʌr1L Equations 2.47 and

2.48 may be equated to yield

1
U (2.49)
 1 ln §¨ 2 ·¸  1 ln §¨ 3 ·¸  1 ln §¨ 4 ·¸  1
1 r r r r r r r 1
h1 k A © r1 ¹ k B © r2 ¹ kC © r3 ¹ r4 h4
 Ts,4
T3
T2
Ts,1 r2 r3
r 1 r4

Too,1 h1

Too,4 h4

Too,1
Ts,1

T2
T3
Ts,4
Too,4
q
r
Too,1 Ts,1 T2 T3 Ts,4 Too,4

1 ln(r2/r1) ln(r3/r2) ln(r4/r3) 1

h12 r1 l 2 kA l 2 kB l 2 kC l 2
h4 r4 l

Figure 2.13 Temperature Distribution For A Composite Cylindrical Wall

Objectives
x One dimensional steady conduction in sphere is introduced
x The approach is to reduce the heat diffusion equation for the case
chosen.
x Using the appropriate boundary conditions, the heat diffusion equation is
solved for temperature distribution.
x Concept of critical radius of insulation is presented.
THE SPHERE
Consider a hollow sphere, whose inner and outer surfaces are exposed
to fluids at different temperatures (Fig. 2.14).

Fig. 2.14 Conduction in a spherical shell

For steady state conditions with no heat generation, the appropriate form
of the heat equation,

1 d § 2 dT ·
2 ¨ kr dr ¸ 0 (2.50)
r dr © ¹

where, for a moment k is treated as a variable. The physical significance

of this result becomes evident if we also consider the appropriate form of
Fourier's law. The rate at which energy is conducted across the cylindrical
surface in the solid may be expressed as

dT dT
qr  kA  k ( 4S r 2 ) (2.51)
dr dr

where A =4ʌr2 is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer. Since,
dT
Equation 2.50 states that the quantity kr 2 is independent of r, it follows
dr
from Equation 2.51 that the conduction heat transfer rate qr (not the heat
flux qr") is a constant in the radial direction.

Assuming the value of k to be constant, Equation 2.50 may be integrated

twice to obtain the general solution
 C
T  1  C2 (2.52)
r

Applying, the following boundary conditions

T(r1 ) = T s,1 and T(r2 ) = T s,2
we then obtain C
Ts ,1  1  C2
r1

C
Ts ,2  1  C2
r2

Solving for C1and C2 and substituting into the general solution, we then
obtain
Ts ,1  Ts ,2 ª 1 1 º
T ( r ) Ts ,1  «  »
§ 1 1 · ¬ r1 r ¼ (2.53)
¨  ¸
© r2 r1 ¹

Note that the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction

through a spherical wall is not linear, as it is for the plane wall under the
same conditions.
If the temperature distribution, Equation 2.53, is now used with Fourier's
law, Equation 2.51, we obtain the following expression for the heat
transfer rate:

qr

4 S k Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
(2.54)
§1 1·
¨  ¸
© r1 r2 ¹

From this result it is evident that, for radial conduction in a spherical wall,
the thermal resistance is of the form
§1 1·
¨  ¸ (2.55)
Rt ,cond © r1 r2 ¹
4S k

Note that since the value of qr is independent of r , the above result could
have been obtained by using the alternative method, that is, by
integrating Equation 2.51.

Spherical composites may be treated in much the same way as

composite walls and cylinders, where approximate forms of the total
resistance and overall heat transfer coefficient may be determined
 C C § 1 1·
1 d § 2 dT ·
¨ kr ¸ 0 Ts ,1  Ts ,2  1 1 C 1 ¨¨  ¸¸
r dr © dr ¹ r1 r2 © r2 r1 ¹
d § 2 dT · Ts ,1  Ts ,2
¨r ¸ 0 C1
dr © dr ¹ § 1 1·
¨¨  ¸¸
Integrating © r2 r1 ¹

dT 1 Ts ,1  Ts ,2
r 2
C1 Ts ,1   C2
dr r1 § 1 1 ·
¨¨  ¸¸
dT C1 © r2 r1 ¹
dr r2
Ts ,1  Ts ,2 1
C ? C2 Ts ,1 
T  1  C2 § 1 1 · r1
¨¨  ¸¸
r
© r2 r1 ¹
C
Ts ,1  1  C2
r1 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 § 1 1 ·
T Ts ,1  ¨¨  ¸¸
§ 1 1 · © r1 r ¹
C ¨¨  ¸¸
Ts ,2  1  C2 © r2 r1 ¹
r2
 dT dT
qr  kA  k ( 4S r 2 )
dr dr

Ts ,1  Ts ,2 § 1 1 ·
T Ts ,1  ¨¨  ¸¸
§ 1 1 · © r1 r ¹
¨¨  ¸¸
© r2 r1 ¹
 Ts ,2
qr 
k 4 S r 2  T§s ,1
 1 1r  1 1
1 1·
¨¨  ¸¸
© r2 r1 ¹

Ts ,1  Ts ,2
qr  4 S k 
§ 1 1·
¨¨  ¸¸
© r2 r1 ¹

qr

4 S k Ts ,1  Ts ,2  §1 1·
¨  ¸
§1 1· © r1 r2 ¹
¨  ¸ Rt ,cond
4S k
© r1 r2 ¹
Problem 2.3
A spherical thin walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at
80 K. The container has a diameter of 0.5 m and is covered with an
evacuated, reflective insulation composed of silica powder. The insulation
is 25 mm thick, and its outer surface is exposed to ambient air at 310K.
The convection coefficient is known to be 20 W/m2 K. The latent heat of
vaporization and the density of the liquid nitrogen are 2 x 105J/kg and 804
kg/m3, respectively. Thermal conductivity of evacuated silica powder (300
K) is 0.0017 W/m.K
• what is the rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen ?
• what is the rate of liquid boil-off ?
Diag:
Known: Liquid nitrogen is stored in spherical container that is insulated and
exposed to ambient air.
Find:
• The rate of heat transfer to the nitrogen.
• The mass rate of nitrogen boil-off.

Assumptions:
1. Steady state conditions
2. One dimensional transfer in the radial direction
3. Negligible resistance to heat transfer through the container wall and
from the container to the nitrogen
4. Constant properties
5. Negligible radiation exchange between outer surface of insulation and
surroundings
Analysis:
1. The thermal circuit involves a conduction and convection resistance in
series and is of the form
Too,1 Too,2 q
Rt,cond R t,conv
where, from Equation 2.55
§1 1·
¨  ¸
Rt ,cond © r1 r2 ¹
4S k
and from Equation 2.30
1 1
Rt ,conv

h A h 4S r22 
The rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen is then
Tf ,2  Tf ,1
q
1 / 4S k  ª¬1 / r1   1 / r2 º¼  1 / h 4S r22 
310  80
q
1 4S  0.0017   ª¬1 0.25  1 0.275º¼  1  20  4S  0.2752 
230
q 13.47 W
17.02  0.05

2. Performing an energy balance for a control surface about the nitrogen, it

follows from Equation 1.7 that
Ein  E out 0
where Ein q and E out  fg is associated with the loss of latent energy due
mh
to boiling. Hence,
q  m h fg 0
and the boil off is,
q 13.47
m 6.74 u 105 kg s
h fg 2 u 105

The loss per day is

m 6.74 u 105 kg s u 3600s hours u 24 hours day
m 5.82 kg day
or on a volumetric basis
m 5.82 kg day
V 0.00724 m3 day 7.24 liters day
U 804 kg day
Comments:
1. Rt ,conv  Rt ,cond
2.With a container volume of (4/3)( S r13 ) =0.065 m3= 65 litres, the daily loss
to (7.24liters/65 liters) 100% = 11.14% of capacity.
 THE CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION

x We know that by adding more insulation to a wall always decreases heat

transfer.
x This is expected, since the heat transfer area A is constant, and adding
insulation will always increase the thermal resistance of the wall without
affecting the convection resistance.
x However, adding insulation to a cylindrical piece or a spherical shell, is a
different matter.
x The additional insulation increases the conduction resistance of the
insulation layer but it also decreases the convection resistance of the
surface because of the increase in the outer surface area for convection.
x Therefore, the heat transfer from the pipe may increase or decrease,
depending on which effect dominates.
 Is always increasing thickness of insulation beneficial - ?
T1  Tf T1  Tf
Q
L Insulation L 1 Rcond  Rconv

T1 kA hA

With the increase of thickness of insulation,

k Rcond - Increases
h,Tf
Rconv – Remains constant

qr
 T1  Tf  T1  Tf
ln §¨ 2 ·¸ Rcond  Rconv
r
© r1 ¹  1
2S Lk h  2 S r2 L 

With the increase of thickness of insulation,

Rcond - Increases
Rconv – Decreases
Consider a cylindrical pipe (Figure. 2.15), where,
r1 -- outer radius
T1 -- constant outer surface temperature
k -- thermal conductivity of the insulation
r2 -- outer radius
- temperature of surrounding medium
h - convection heat transfer coefficient

Figure 2.15 Insulated Cylindrical Pipe

 The rate of heat transfer from the insulated pipe to the surrounding air can
be expressed as (Eqn. 2.56)

qr
 T1  Tf 
ln §¨ 2 ·¸
r (2.56)
© r1 ¹  1
2S Lk h  2 S r2 L 

The variation of heat transfer rate with the outer radius of insulation r2 is
plotted in Figure 2.16. The value of r2 at which heat transfer rate reaches
maximum is determined from the requirement that dqr (zero slope).
dr

Performing the differentiation and solving for r2 gives us the critical radius
of insulation for a cylindrical body to be
k
rcr ,cylinder (2.57)
h

NOTE: The rate of heat transfer from the cylinder increases with the addition
of insulation for r2< rcr, reaches a maximum when r2= rcr, and starts to
decrease for r2> rcr. Thus, insulating the pipe may actually increase the rate
of heat transfer from the pipe instead of decreasing it when r2< rcr .
 k
r2 h
r1

.
Q
.
Qmax
.
Qbare

0 r1 r2
rcr =k/h
Figure 2.16 Variation Of Heat Transfer Rate With Radius
The important question to answer at this point is,

x Whether we need to be concerned about the critical radius of insulation

when insulating hot water pipes or even hot water tanks?
x Should we always check and make sure that the outer radius of insulation
exceeds the critical radius before we install any insulation?

Probably not, as explained below.

x The value of the critical radius rcr will be the largest when k is large and h
is small.
x Noting that the lowest value of h encountered in practice is about 5
W/m2K for the case of natural convection of gases
x Also, the thermal conductivity of common insulating materials is 0.05
W/m2K,
x The largest value of the critical radius we are likely to encounter is
kmax,insulation 0.05
rcr 0.01 m 10 mm
hmin 5

• This value would be even smaller when the radiation effects are
considered.
• The critical radius would be much less in forced convection, often less
than 1 mm, because of much larger h values associated with forced
convection.
• Therefore, we can insulate hot water or steam pipes freely without
worrying about the possibility of increasing the heat transfer by insulating
the pipes.
• The radius of electric wires may be smaller than the critical radius.
• Therefore, the plastic electrical insulation may actually enhance the heat
transfer from electric wires and thus keep their steady operating
temperatures at lower and thus safer levels.

Similarly for a sphere, it can be shown that the critical radius of insulation for
a spherical shell is

2k
rcr ,sphere (2.58)
h

where k is the thermal conductivity of the insulation and h is the convection

heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface.
Problem 2.4:
A 3 mm diameter and 6 m long electric wire is tightly wrapped with a 2
mm thick plastic cover whose thermal conductivity is k=0.15 W/m.0C.
Electrical measurements indicate that a current of 10 A passes through
the wire and there is a voltage drop of 8 V along the wire. If the insulated
wire is exposed to a medium at = 27oC with a heat transfer coefficient of
h=12 W/m2.oC, determine the temperature at the interface of the wire and
the plastic cover in steady operation. Also determine whether doubling
the thickness of the plastic cover will increase or decrease this interface
temperature.
Diag:

T1

r1 h,Too
r2

T2 T1 T2 Too
q R plastic R conv
Known : Size of the electric wire, thermal conductivity of the wire, current
and voltage supplied to the wire, ambient conditions and heat transfer
coefficient.

Find : Convection heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of the
wire and the air in the room.
1. Heat transfer is steady since there is no indication of any change with
time.
2. Heat transfer is one dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about
the center line and no variation in the axial direction.
3. Thermal conductivities are constant.
4. The thermal contact resistance at the interface is negligible.
5. Heat transfer coefficient incorporates the radiation effects, if any.

Analysis:
Heat is generated in the wire and its temperature rises as a result of
resistance heating. We assume heating is generated uniformly
throughout the wire and is transferred to the surrounding medium in the
radial direction. In steady operation, the rate of heat transfer becomes
equal to the heat generated within the wire, which is determined from

Q VI 8 10  80 W
The thermal resistance network for this problem involves a conduction
resistance for the plastic cover and a convection resistance for the outer
surface in series, as shown in Schematic. The values of these two
resistances are determined to be
A2 2S r2 L 2S  0.0035  6  0.132 m 2

1 1
Rconv 0.63deg C W
hA 12  0.132 

ln  r2 r1  ln  3.5 1.5 
Rplastic 0.15deg C W
2S kL 2S  0.15  6

and therefore
Rtotal= Rtotal + Rconv = 0.63 + 0.15 = 0.78 oC/W
Then the interface temperature can be determined from
T1  Tf
Q
Rtotal
T1 T  QR 
f total
T1 27  80  0.78 
89.4qC
 Note that we did not involve the electrical wire directly in the thermal
resistance network, since the wire involves heat generation.
To answer the second part of the question, we need to know the critical
radius of insulation of the plastic cover.
k 0.15
rcr 0.0125 m = 12.5 mm
h 12
which is larger than the radius of the plastic cover. Therefore, increasing
the thickness of the plastic cover will enhance heat transfer until the outer
radius of the cover reaches 12.5 mm. As a result, the rate of heat transfer
will increase when the interface temperature T1 is held constant, or T1 will
decrease when is held constant, which is the case here.

Comments:
It can be shown by repeating the calculations above for a 4 mm plastic
cover that the interface temperature drops to 77.54oC when the thickness
of the plastic cover is doubled. It can also be shown in a similar manner
that the interface reaches a minimum temperature of 71.14oC when the
outer radius of the plastic cover equals the critical radius.
 92

88

84
Temperature ( C)

80

76

72

68
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Radius(mm) : Thickness (1.5 mm)
SUMMARY OF 1-D STEADY STATE CONDUCTION

Many important problems are characterized by one-dimensional steady-

state conduction in plane, cylindrical or spherical walls without thermal
energy generation. Key results for these geometries are summarized in
Table 2.1, where 'T refers to the temperature difference, Ts,1–Ts,2 ,
between the inner and outer surfaces identified in Figures. 2.5, 2.12 and
2.14. In each case, beginning with the heat equation, you should be able
to derive the corresponding expression for the temperature distribution,
heat flux, heat rate, and thermal resistance.
 Plane Wall Cylindrical Spherical Wall
Wall

d 2T 1 d § dT · 1 d § 2 dT ·
0 2 dr ¨
kr ¸ 0
Heat Equation 2 ¨ kr ¸ 0
r © dr ¹
dx r dr © dr ¹

Temperature 'T §r · 'T ª 1 1º

x ln ¨ ¸  Ts,2 Ts,1  «  »
Ts,1  'T § 1 1 · ¬ r1 r ¼
Distribution ln §¨ 1 ·¸ © r2 ¹
r
L ¨  ¸
© r2 ¹ © r2 r1 ¹
k 'T k 'T
Heat Flux (q” ) 'T §1 1·
r ln §¨ 2 ·¸
k r r2 ¨  ¸
L
© r1 ¹ © r1 r2 ¹
2 S L k 'T 4S k 'T
'T §1 1·
ln §¨ 2 ·¸
kA r
Heat Rate (q) ¨  ¸
L © r1 ¹
© r1 r2 ¹
Thermal ln §¨ 2 ·¸
r §1 1·
Resistance L © r1 ¹ ¨  ¸
© r1 r2 ¹
kA 2S L k
(Rt, cond) 4S k
Table 2.2 One-Dimensional Steady State Solutions to the Heat
Equation With No Generation
Objectives

x One dimensional steady state conduction in plane wall and radial systems
with thermal energy generation is appreciated.
x Here again, the approach is to reduce the heat diffusion equation for the
case chosen.
x Using the appropriate boundary conditions, the heat diffusion equation is
solved for temperature distribution and heat transfer rates are computed.

In the preceding lecture we considered conduction problems for which the

temperature distribution in a medium was determined solely by conditions
at the boundaries of the medium. We shall now consider the additional
effect on the temperature distribution of processes that may be occurring
within the medium. Specifically we will consider situations for which
thermal energy is being generated due to conversion from some other
energy form.

A very common thermal energy generation process involves the

conversion from electrical to thermal energy in a current carrying medium
(resistance heating). The rate at which energy is generated by passing a
current I through a medium of electrical resistance Re is
 E g I 2 Re (2.59)

If this power generation occurs uniformly throughout the medium of

volume V, the volumetric generation rate (W/m3) is then

E g I 2 Re
q (2.60)
V V

THE PLANE WALL

Consider the plane wall of Figure 2.17, in which there is uniform energy
generation per unit volume (q is constant) and the surfaces are maintained
at Ts,1 and Ts,2. For constant thermal conductivity k , the appropriate form
of the heat equation,
d 2T q
 0
dx 2
k (2.61)
The general solution is

q 2
T  x  C1 x  C 2 (2.62)
2k
 -L +L
.
q
T(x)
Ts,1

Too,1 h1 Too,2 h2

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

Asymmetrical Boundary Condition

-L x +L
.
q
To
Ts q"
Ts T(x) q"cond conv

Too ,h Too ,h

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

Symmetrical Boundary Condition
 x
.
q
To
T(x)
Ts
q"conv
q"cond

Adiabatic Surface At Midplane

Figure 2.17 Conduction In A Plane Wall With Uniform Generation
where C1and C2 are the constants of integration. For the prescribed
boundary conditions,
T   L  Ts,1 and T  L  Ts,2

The constants may be evaluated and are of the form

Ts,2  Ts,1 q 2 Ts,1  Ts,2

C1 and C2 L 
2L 2k 2
 in which case the temperature distribution is

q L2 § x 2 · Ts ,2  Ts ,1 x Ts ,1  Ts ,2
T  x ¨ 1  2 ¸¸   (2.63)
2k ¨© L ¹ 2 L 2

The heat flux at any point in the wall may, be determined by using
Equation 2.63 with Fourier's Law.

NOTE: That with generation, the heat flux is no longer independent of x.

The preceding result simplifies when both surfaces are maintained at a
common temperature, Ts,1=Ts,2=Ts. The temperature distribution is then
symmetrical about the midplane, Figure 2.17 b, and is given by

q L2 § x2 ·
T  x ¨ 1  2 ¸¸  Ts (2.64)
2k ¨© L ¹
The maximum temperature exists at the midplane

 2
qL
T  0  T0  Ts (2.65)
2k
In which case the temperature distribution, Equation 2.64, may be
expressed as
 T  x   T0 § x·
2

¨ L¸ (2.66)
Ts  T0 © ¹

x It is important to note that the plane of symmetry in Figure 2.17b, the

temperature gradient is zero, (dT/dx)x=0=0 .
x Accordingly, there is no heat transfer across this plane, and it may be
represented by the adiabatic surface shown in Figure. 21.7 c.
x One implication of this result is that Equation 2.64 also applies to
plane walls that are perfectly insulated on one side (x=0) and
maintained at a fixed temperature Ts on the other side (x=L).

To use the above results the surface temperature Ts must be known.

However, a common situation is one for which it is the temperature of an
adjoining fluid,, and not Ts, which is known. It then becomes necessary to
relate Ts to. This relation may be developed by applying a surface energy
balance. Consider the surface at x=L for the symmetrical plane wall
(Figure 2.17 b) or the insulated plane wall (Figure 2.17 c). Neglecting the
radiation and substituting the appropriate rate equations, the energy
balance is given by
 dT
k h  Ts  Tf  (2.67)
dx x L

Substituting from Equation 2.64 to obtain the temperature gradient at x=L

, it follows that
q L
Ts Tf  (2.68)
h

Hence, Ts may be computed from knowledge of Tf , q ,L and h .

RADIAL SYSTEMS
Consider the long, solid cylinder of Figure 2.18, which could represent a
current carrying wire. For steady state conditions the rate at which heat is
generated within the cylinder must equal the rate at which heat is
convected from the surface of the cylinder to a moving fluid. This
condition allows the surface temperature to be maintained at a fixed value
of Ts.
Figure 2.18 Conduction In A Solid Cylinder With Uniform Heat
Generation
To determine the temperature distribution in the cylinder, we begin with
the appropriate form of the heat equation. For constant thermal
conductivity k , heat equation reduces to
1 d § dT · q (2.69)
r 
r dr ¨© dr ¸¹ k
0
Separating variables and assuming uniform generation, this expression
may be integrated to obtain
dT q 2
r  r  C1 (2.70)
dr 2k
Repeating the procedure, the general solution for the temperature
distribution becomes
q 2
T r  r  C1 ln  r   C 2 (2.71)
4k
To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2, we apply the boundary
conditions
dT
0 and T(ro) = Ts
dr r 0

The first condition results from the symmetry of the situation. That is, for
the solid cylinder the centerline is a line of symmetry for the temperature
distribution and the temperature gradient must be zero. Recall the similar
conditions existed at the midplane of a wall having symmetrical boundary
conditions (Figure 2.17b). From the symmetry condition at r=0 and
Equation 2.70, it is evident that C1=0 . Using the surface boundary
condition at r = ro with Equation 2.70, we then obtain
 q 2
C 2 Ts  r
4k 0 (2.72)

The temperature distribution is therefore

 02 §
qr r2 ·
T r Ts  ¨ 1  2 ¸¸ (2.73)
4k ¨© r0 ¹

Evaluating Equation 2.73 at the centerline and dividing the result into
Equation 2.73, we obtain the temperature distribution in non-dimensional
form,
T  r   Ts
2
§r · (2.73)
1 ¨ ¸
T0  Ts © r0 ¹

Where T0 is the center line temperature. The heat rate at any radius in the
cylinder may, be evaluated by using Equation 2.73 with Fourier's Law.
The surface temperature, Ts, may be related to the temperature of the
cold fluid, Tf , by surface energy balance. We obtain
 
q S r02 L h  2S r0 L  Ts  Tf  (2.74)
or,

qr
Ts Tf  (2.76)
2h
Problem 2.5:
A plane wall is a composite of two materials, A and B. The wall of material
A has uniform heat generation q = 1.5 x 106 W/m3 kA=75 W/m.K, and
thickness LA=50 mm. The wall material B has no generation with kB=150
W/m.K and thickness LA= 20 mm. The inner surface of material A is well
insulated, while the outer surface of material B is cooled by water stream
Tf = 300C and h=1000 W/m2.K.
• Sketch the temperature distribution that exists in the composite under
steady state conditions.
• Determine the temperature To of the insulated surface and the temperature
T2 of the cooled surface.
Diag: To T1 T2 oo
kA=75W/mK 2
. 6 3
h=1000W/m K
qB=1.5x10 W/m
q"

Insulation A B water
kB=150W/mK
.
LA = 50m LB =20m qB=0

x
Known : Plane wall of material A with internal heat generation is insulated
on one side and bounded by a second wall of material B, which is
without heat generation and is subjected to convection cooling

Find : Convection heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of the
wire and the air in the room.

Assumptions:
1. Heat transfer is steady since there is no indication of any change with
time.
2. Heat transfer is one dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about
the center line and no variation in the axial direction.
3. Thermal conductivities are constant.
4. The thermal contact resistance at the interface is negligible.
5. Heat transfer coefficient incorporates the radiation effects, if any.

Analysis:
1. From the prescribed physical conditions, the temperature distribution in
the composite is known to have the following features, as shown:
1. Parabolic in material A
2. Zero slope at insulated boundary
3. Linear in material B
4. The temperature distribution in the water is characterized by large
gradients near the surface
5. Slope change = kA/ kB= 2 at interface

b
T0 a

d c
T1
T2
e

A B
Too
0 LA LA+ LB x

The outer surface temperature T2 may be obtained by performing an

energy balance on the control volume about material B. since there is
no generation in this material, it follows that, for steady state conditions
and a unit surface area , the heat flux into the material at x = LA must
equal the heat flux from the material due to convection at x = LA+ LB.
Hence
 q" h T2  Tf 

3. The heat flux may be determined by performing a second energy

balance on a control volume about material A. In particular, since the
surface at x = 0 is adiabatic, there is no inflow and the rate at which the
energy is generated must equal the outflow. Accordingly, for a unit
surface area,
q LA q"
Combining above two Equations , the outer surface temperature is,
q LA
T2 Tf 
h
1.5 u 106  0.05 
T2 30  105qC
1000
From Equation 2.65, the temperature at the insulated surface is,
q L2A
To T1 
2 kA
where T1 may be obtained from the thermal circuit:
T1 T2 Too
q" R"cond,B R"conv
That is,
T1 
Tf  Rcond
" "

,B  Rconv q
"

where the resistances for a unit surface area

" LB " 1
Rcond ,B and Rconv
Hence kB h

§ 0.02 1 ·
T1 30  ¨  ¸ u 105 u 10 u 0.05
6
© 150 1000 ¹
T1 30  85 115qC

Comments:
1. Material A, having heat generation, cannot be represented by a thermal
circuit element
2. Since the resistance to heat transfer by convection is significantly larger
" "
than due to conduction in material B, Rcond ,B Rconv 7.5 ,the surface-to-
fluid temperature difference is much larger than the temperature drop
across material B, T2  Tf  T1  T2  7.5

This result is consistent with the temperature distribution plotted in part

(1).
3. The surface and interface temperatures (To,T1,and T2) depend on the
generation rate , the thermal conductivities kA and kB, and the
convection coefficient h. Each material will have a maximum allowable
operating temperature, which must not be exceeded if thermal failure
of the system is to be avoided. We explore the effect of one of these
parameters by computing and plotting the temperature distribution for
values of h=200 and 1000 W/m2.K, which would be representative of
air and liquid cooling respectively.
For h = 200 W/m2.K, there is a significant increase in temperature
throughout the system, and depending on the selection of materials,
thermal failure could be a problem. Note the slight discontinuity in
the temperature gradient dT/dx, at x = 50 mm.
Problem 2.6
A long copper bar of rectangular cross-section, whose width w is much
greater than its thickness L, is maintained in contact with a heat sink at its
lower surface, and the temperature throughout the bar is approximately
equal to that of the sink, To. Suddenly an electric current is passed
through the bar and an air stream of temperature Tf is passed over the top
surface, while the bottom surface continues to be maintained at To. Obtain
the differential equation and the boundary and initial conditions that could
be solved to determine the temperature as a function of position and time
in the bar.
Diag:
Known : Copper bar initially in thermal equilibrium with heat sink is
suddenly heated by passage of an electric current .

Find : Differential equation and boundary and initial conditions needed to

determine temperature as a function of position and time within the bar.

Assumptions:
1. Since w>>L , side effects are negligible and heat transfer within the bar
is primarily one dimensional in the x-direction.
2. Uniform volumetric heat generation, .
3. Constant properties.

Analysis:
The temperature distribution is governed by the heat equation (2.13),
which, for the one-dimensional and constant property conditions of the
present problem, reduces to
w 2T q 1 wT

wx 2 k D wW
where the temperature is a function of position of time, T (x, t) . Since this
differential equation is second-order in the spatial co-ordinate x and first
order in time t, there must be two boundary conditions for the x-direction
and one condition termed initial condition, for time. The boundary condition
at the bottom surface corresponds to case 1 of Table 2.1. In particular,
since the temperature of this surface is maintained at a value, To, which is
fixed with time, it follows that
T  0 ,t  To
In contrast, the convection surface condition is appropriate for the top
surface. Hence wT
k h ª¬T  L,t   Tf º¼
wx x L

The initial condition is inferred from recognition that, the change in

conditions, the bar is at uniform temperatureTo. Hence
T  x, 0  To
If To ,Tf ,q and h are known, above four equations may be solved to obtain
the time-varying temperature distribution T (x, t) following imposition of the
electric current.
Comments:
1. The heat sink at x = 0 could be maintained by exposing the surface to an
ice bath by attaching it to a cold plate. A cold plate contains coolant
channels machined in a solid of large thermal conductivity (usually
copper). By circulating a liquid (usually water) through the channels, the
plates and hence the surface to which it is attached, may be maintained
at a nearly uniform temperature.

2. The temperature of the top surface T (L, t ) will change with time. This
temperature is unknown and may be obtained after finding T (x, t ).
Problem 2.7
To determine the effect of the temperature dependence of the thermal
conductivity on the temperature distribution in a solid, consider a
material for which this dependence may be represented as k = ko+ a T
where ko is a positive constant and a is a coefficient that may be
positive or negative. Sketch the steady-state temperature distribution
associated with the heat transfer in a plane wall for three cases
corresponding to a ! 0,a 0,a  0 .
Known : Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature.
Find : Effect of temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity on
temperature distribution in a solid.

Assumptions:
1. One-dimensional steady state heat conduction.
2. No internal heat generation

Analysis:
Equation for one-dimensional steady state heat conduction without any
internal heat generation is given by Fourier's Law as follows,
dT
Q kA
dx
 dT
Q   ko  D T  A
dx
Qdx   ko  D T  A dT
L T2

³ Qdx
0
A ³ k
T1
o  D T  dT

Q  L  0
§
 A ¨ ko T2  T1   a

T22  T12  ·¸
¨ 2 ¸
© ¹
­° T  T  ½°
QL  A T2  T1  ® K o  a 2 1 ¾
°¯ 2 °¿
QL A T1  T2  ^K o  aTm `

T1  T2 
where, Tm is the mean temperature
2
km A T1  T2 
Q
L
where, km ko  aTm is the mean thermal conductivity evaluated at
mean temperature.
 a -ve
A a=0
T1
a +ve

B T2

L
Comments:
1. When a = 0, thermal conductivity doesn't vary with temperature and
equals constant value ko. Further under steady-state conditions, the
rate of heat flow is constant. Therefore slope of temperature curve is
constant and the temperature profile is linear.

2. With variable thermal conductivity, temperature profile along the wall

thickness follows a curved line and it's curvature depends upon the
value of a . From relation k = ko + a T; dk .
D
dk dT
Hence dT is positive if a is positive and k increases with increasing
temperature. Also from Fourier's Law, Q § dT · .
k ¨ ¸
A © dx ¹
Hence as x increases, t decreases and k also decreases. Thus to keep
(Q/A) constant; (dt/dx) must increase. Accordingly absolute values of
slope (dt/dx) increases from point A to B that means that the curve
should go steeper from A to B. Evidently the positive values of
coefficient a , the temperature profile is convex.

3. With the same reasoning, for the negative values of D , the temperature
profile is concave.
Problem 2.8:
Consider a plane wall 100mm thick and of thermal conductivity 100
W/m.K. Steady state conditions are known to exist with T1= 400 K and
T2= 600 K . Determine the heat flux and the temperature gradient dT/dx
for the co-ordinate systems shown.
T(x) T(x) T(x)

T2 T2 T1

T1 T1 T2
(a) x x (b) x (c)
Known : Thickness, thermal conductivity, temperatures, temperature
profiles.
Find : Heat flux and temperature gradients.
Assumptions:
1. One-dimensional steady state heat conduction.
2. No internal heat generation.
Analysis:
Equation for one-dimensional steady state heat conduction without any
internal heat generation is given by Fourier's Law as follows,
dT
Q kA
dx
negative sign is taken into consideration to account for decrease in
temperature in the positive direction of x . The heat flux is given as
dT
q"x k
dx
Case (a): In this case temperature increases in the positive direction of x,
and hence temperature gradient would be positive, and therefore Fourier
equation becomes,
dT
q"x k
dx
Integrating,
L T2

³ 0
q"x dx ³
k dT
T1

T2  T1   600  400 
q"x k 100 200 kW m 2
L 0.1
 dT q"x 200 u 103
2000 K m
dx k 100
Case (b): In this case temperature decreases in the positive direction of
x, and hence temperature gradient would be negative, and therefore
Fourier equation becomes,
dT
q"x k
dx
Integrating,
L T2

³
0
q"x dx ³
k dT
T1

T2  T1   600  400 
q"x k 100 200 kW m 2
L 0.1
dT q"x 200 u 103
  2000 K m
dx k 100

Case (c): In this case temperature increases in the positive direction of x,

and hence temperature gradient would be positive, and therefore Fourier
equation becomes,
dT
q"x k
dx
Integrating, T2
L

³
0
q"x dx ³
k dT
T1

T2  T1   600  400 
q"x k 100 200 kW m 2
L 0.1
dT q"x 200 u 103
2000 K m
dx k 100

Comments:
1. In case (a), the direction of heat transfer is in the negative direction of
x.
2. In case (b), the direction of heat transfer is in the positive direction of x
3. In case (c), the direction of heat transfer is in the negative direction of x
.