ICT

Information & Communication Technology

Information Technology
The combination (merging) of computer and communication is called Information Technology.
Information Technology is the technology that uses computing with high speed communication links to
spread information from one place to another. The interconnection of computer enables people to send
and receive information. The communication links also are used to interact with different people in the
world.

Computer is an important component of information technology. It makes possible to use information

technology for solving problems.

The world has become a global village due to advancement in information technology. It means that
people living in the world know one another as if they are living in a village. Information can be
transferred from one place to another place easily and quickly. It manages a network of computers for
creating WEB Pages, producing videos digitally, selling, buying, and any type of business on the Internet.
For example, telephone and radio equipment’s and switches used for voice communication.

A computer and communication system is made up six elements .

Information Technology (IT) is the use of computers to create, Process, store, retrieve, and exchange all
kinds of data and information.

Information technology (IT) is the use of any computers, storage, networking and other physical devices,
infrastructure and processes to create, process, store, secure and exchange all forms of electronic data.

Information technology is the use of computers to create, process, store, retrieve, and exchange all
kinds of data and information. IT is typically used within the context of business operations as opposed
to personal or entertainment technologies. IT forms part of information and communications
technology.

I) People 2) Procedure 3) Data/Information 4) Hardware 5) Software 6) Communication

People:
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Difference between "manual data processing and electronic data processing":
Manual data processing requires humans to "manage and process the data". It requires more effort and
cost.

A computer system is the best example of an "electronic data processing machine".

Electronic data processing is a frequent term used term automatic information processing. It uses the
computer system to "record, manipulate, retrieve, and to summarize data".

The Electronic Data Processing system over time it reduces the effort and cost, further increase the
accuracy and efficiency in processing data.

What is Data?
Data is a collection of raw, unorganised facts and details like text, observations, figures, symbols and
descriptions of things etc. In other words, data does not carry any specific purpose and has no
significance by itself. Moreover, data is measured in terms of bits and bytes – which are basic units of
information in the context of computer storage and processing.

What is Information?
Information is processed, organised and structured data. It provides context for data and enables
decision making. For example, a single customer’s sale at a restaurant is data – this becomes
information when the business is able to identify the most popular or least popular dish.

Different between the Data and Information.

Data Information

Data is unorganised and unrefined facts Information comprises processed, organised data
presented in a meaningful context
Data is an individual unit that contains raw materials Information is a group of data that collectively
which do not carry any specific meaning. carries a logical meaning.
Data doesn’t depend on information. Information depends on data.

Raw data alone is insufficient for decision making Information is sufficient for decision making

An example of data is a student’s test score The average score of a class is the information
derived from the given data.

Data Processed usefully Information

What is the Data Processing Cycle?

The data processing cycle is the set of operations used to transform data into useful information. The
intent of this processing is to create actionable information that can be used to enhance a business.

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Type Uses

Data is collected and processed in batches. Used for large amounts of data.
Batch Processing
Eg: payroll system

Data is processed within seconds when the input is given. Used for small
Real-time Processing amounts of data.

Eg: withdrawing money from ATM

Data is automatically fed into the CPU as soon as it becomes available. Used for
Online Processing continuous processing of data.

Eg: barcode scanning

Data is broken down into frames and processed using two or more CPUs within
Multiprocessing a single computer system. Also known as parallel processing.

Eg: weather forecasting

Allocates computer resources and data in time slots to several users

Time-sharing
simultaneously.

Input: in this step, data is collected and give to the computer for processing.
Process: In this step, Compute processes data to generate information.
Output: In this step, the information is stored in the computer for future use. This step is optional
.

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Define Computer?
Computer is an electronic device / machine, which accept input data, process the data, and give the
result of the process data according to the instruction.

A computer is a device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized data) and manipulates it for
some result based on a program, software, or sequence of instructions on how the data is to be
processed.

What is computer full name?

Full-Form. COMPUTER. 

Common Operating Machine Purposely Used for Technological and Educational Research.

Early History of Computer

One of the earliest and most well-known devices was an abacus. Then in 1822, the father of computers,
Charles Babbage began developing what would be the first mechanical computer. And then in 1833 he
actually designed an Analytical Engine which was a general-purpose computer.

What is history of a computer?

The history of computers goes back over 200 years. At first theorized by mathematicians and
entrepreneurs, during the 19th century mechanical calculating machines were designed and built to
solve the increasingly complex number-crunching challenges.

Discuss different types of computer (w.r.t internal Structure)?

Computers are divided into three types according to their structure, speed architecture: Analogue
computers. Digital computers. Hybrid computers.

Analog Computer:-
Analog computers were the earliest computer machines developed and were the among the most
complicated machines for analog computation and process control. Analog data is not discrete, but
rather is of a continuous nature. Examples of such data are pressure, temperature, voltage, speed and
weight

Digital Computer:-

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Digital computers are computers that process data in binary forms ie. 0's and 1's. The main benefit of
digital computers is that they are quick and re-programmable. Some examples are laptops,
smartphones, and calculators.

In computer science, a digital electronic computer is a computer machine which is both an electronic
computer and a digital computer. Examples of a digital electronic computers include the IBM PC, the
Apple Macintosh as well as modern smartphones.

Hybrid Computers:-
Hybrid computers are mainly used for specialized applications where both analog and digital data
processing is done. For Example, Hybrid computers installed on a petrol pump do not only measure the
amount of petrol but also calculates its value. In this way, It is capable of both functions.

Definition of hybrid computer

: a computer system consisting of a combination of analog and digital computer systems.

Explain or discuss Classification of Computer (w.r.t Size)

On the basis of size, there are four types of computer. They are minicomputer, microcomputer,
mainframe computer and supercomputer. The supercomputer is the fastest, most expensive, big in size,
and the most powerful computer that can perform multiple tasks within no second. Mini Computers are
medium-sized computer.

minicomputer

A minicomputer is also called as a mid-range computer. Minicomputers are mainly multi-users systems
where more than one user can work simultaneously. Mini computer examples: IBM's AS/400e,
Honeywell200, TI-990. Minicomputer can support multi-users at a time or you can say that
minicomputer is a multiprocessing system.

minicomputer, computer that was smaller, less expensive, and less powerful than a mainframe or
supercomputer but more expensive and more powerful than a personal computer. Minicomputers were
used for scientific and engineering computations, business transaction processing, file handling, and
database management.

Microcomputer

Common microcomputers include laptops and desktops. Beyond standard PCs, microcomputers also
include some calculators, mobile phones, notebooks, workstations and embedded systems. Smaller than
a mainframe or minicomputer, a microcomputer uses a single integrated semiconductor chip for its
central processing unit (CPU).

Microcomputer was formerly a commonly used term for personal computers, particularly any of a class
of small digital computers whose CPU is contained on a single integrated semiconductor chip. Thus, a
microcomputer uses a single microprocessor for its CPU, which performs all logic and arithmetic
operations.

Mainframe computer

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What are examples of mainframe computers? Examples of mainframe computers include the universal
automatic computer from UNIVAC series and the ZSeries mainframe computer from IBM. Another
example is a system named Non-Stop by the manufacturers of Hewlett Packard

Mainframes are computers. At their core, mainframes are high-performance computers with large
amounts of memory and processors that process billions of simple calculations and transactions in real
time

Supercomputer

Examples of special-purpose supercomputers include Belle, Deep Blue, and Hydra for playing chess,
Gravity Pipe for astrophysics, MDGRAPE-3 for protein structure prediction and molecular dynamics, and
Deep Crack for breaking the DES ciphe

General purpose computer

Personal computers, including desktops, notebooks, smartphones and tablets, are all examples of
general-purpose computers. The term is used to differentiate general-purpose computers from other
types, in particular the specialized embedded computers used in intelligent systems.

All mainframes, servers, laptop and desktop computers, as well as smartphones and tablets are general-
purpose devices.

Special purpose computer

Examples include Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), mobile phones, palm-top computers, pocket-
PCs etc. As they are handheld devices, their weights and sizes have certain limitations as a result they
are equipped with small memories, slow processors and small display screens, etc.

As an example, “My specific purpose is to persuade the students in my residence hall to protest the
proposed housing cost increase” is a specific statement of purpose, while “My speech will be about why
we should protest the proposed housing cost increase” is not. Specific purposes should be statements,
not questions.

Generations of Computers:

Although, the development of computer is a continuous process, however, it can be categorized into the
following into the following generations based on the technology used for the Computer System.

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5 types of generation of computer?
This long period is often conveniently divided into the subsequent phases called computer generations:

First Generation Computers (1940-1956)

Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)

Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)

Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)

Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Beyond)

What is 7th generation of computer?

Using improved memory technologies and energy-efficient chipsets, they work faster and use less
energy than any previous Intel CPUs. The 7th generation Core i3, Core i5 and Core i7 desktop processors
consume as little as 35W of power – with even the top-end CPU consuming a mere 95W.

How many generations of computers are there?

First generation (1940 - 1956)

Second generation (1956 - 1963)

Third generation (1964 - 1971)

Fourth generation (1971 - 2010)

Fifth generation (2010 to present)

Sixth generation (future generations)

Discuss Different components (Input, CPU, Output)? Or main component of Computer.

Input
In computing, an input device is a piece of equipment used to provide data and control signals to an
information processing system, such as a computer or information appliance. Examples of input devices
include keyboards, mouse, scanners, cameras, joysticks, and microphones.

In computer input unit is defined as an input device, a piece of computer hardware apparatus used to
supply a data processing system including a computer or information device with control and data
signals. Examples of input device: Mouse, keyboards, scanners, joysticks, and digital cameras.

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CPU
The computer's central processing unit (CPU) is the portion of a computer that retrieves and executes
instructions. The CPU is essentially the brain of a CAD system. It consists of an arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU), a control unit, and various registers. The CPU is often simply referred to as the processor.

The component of a computer system that controls the interpretation and execution of instructions. The
CPU of a PC consists of a single microprocessor, while the CPU of a more powerful mainframe consists of
multiple processing devices, and in some cases, hundreds of them.

Control Unit (CU)

A control unit or CU is circuitry that directs operations within a computer's processor. It lets the
computer's logic unit, memory, and both input and output devices know how to respond to instructions
received from a program. Examples of devices that utilize control units include CPUs and GPUs.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

An arithmetic-logic unit is the part of a central processing unit that carries out arithmetic and logic
operations on the operands in computer instruction words.

In some processors, the ALU is divided into two units: an arithmetic unit (AU) and a logic unit (LU). Some
processors contain more than one AU -- for example, one for fixed-point operations and another for
floating-point operations.

In computer systems, floating-point computations are sometimes done by a floating-point unit (FPU) on

a separate chip called a numeric coprocessor.

Output
An output device is a piece of computer hardware that receives data from a computer and then
translates that data into another form.

Monitor - The main output device of a computer. It forms images by converting electrical energy into
light in the form of tiny dots on the screen called pixels.

Examples include monitors, printers, speakers, headphones, projectors, GPS devices, optical mark
readers, and braille readers.

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DATA: data is a collection of raw facts and figures. On the basis of data we are unable to take
any decision. Data is input to the computer. It may be in the form of texts, numbers, audio,
videos etc.

INFORMATION: the processed form of data is called information. On the basis of which we are
able to take any decision. It is output from the computer.

INPUT DEVICES: Those devices of computer that are used to give input to the computer are
called Input Devices. These are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner and microphone etc.

OUTPUT DEVICES: Those devices using them the computer can show the information or out are

APPLICATION
SOFTWARE
SOFTWARE
SYSTEM
computer
SOFTWARE
HARDWARE
called Output Devices. These are monitor, printer and speaker etc.

HARDWARE
All the physical component of computer that we can touch and see are called the hardware of
the computer. Monitor, system unit, CPU, memories, keyboard, mouse printer, mother board
etc etc.

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SOFTWARE
Those parts of computer that we can’t see or touch are called software of the computer
system. OR In other words we can define software as “the set of instructions that can perform
some task are called software “of the computer system.

Types of software
There are two types of software

 System software
 Application software

Application software
It is set of instruction that can perform some specific tasks. These are developed to perform
some specific tasks like anti-viruses, MS Office, media players etc.

All these software has some specific tasks like all the anti-viruses are only used to scan our
system for viruses and remove that viruses it can’t perform some other tasks, similarly MS
office has specific tasks and also media players has their specific tasks like using them we are
only able to play audio or video. If there is no any specific application software installed on our
computer then we are unable to perform that specific task, it can’t effect any other
functionality of our system.

System software
Those software that are designed to performed general tasks. These are designed to control the
overall system. If the system software is not installed on our computer then the computer is not
able to perform any task. All the operation systems are the example of the system software.
Windows XP, android, Macintosh operating system are the example of system software.

Types of computer
There are three types of computer on the basis of application. That are digital computer, analog
computer and hybrid computer.

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ANALOG COMPUTER

Digital computer

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Hybrid computer

Types of computer on the basis of size

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

[Link] Type Specifications

It is a single user computer system having moderately

1 PC(Personal Computer)
powerful microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to

2 Workstation personal computer however has a more powerful
microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of

3 Mini Computer
supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of

4 Main Frame supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. Software
technology is different from minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute

5 Supercomputer
hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

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PC COMPUTERS
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed
for an individual user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that
enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing,
and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At
home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and
surfing the Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these

systems are normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power,
now-a-days high-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same
computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun
Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

WORKSTATION
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM),
desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of
applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen,

large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user
interface. Most workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk
drive, but a special type of workstation, called diskless workstation, comes
without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT.
Like PC, workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are
typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can
also be used as stand-alone systems.

MINI COMPUTER
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250
users simultaneously.

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MAINFRAM COMPUTERS
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe
executes many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous
execution of programs.

SUPER COMPUTERS
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations
(number crunching).

For
example,
weather

forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic

calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of
geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

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COMPUTER GENERATION
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer
is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish
between varying hardware technologies. Nowadays, generation includes
both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer
system.

There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has
been discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In
the following table, approximate dates against each generation has been
mentioned, which are normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers.

[Link] Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3 The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit
based.

Fourth Generation
4 The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI
microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
5 The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI
microprocessor based.

COMPUTER MEMORIES
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and
instructions. Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where
data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size
minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory

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unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these
locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can
speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main
memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred
from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the
CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of
time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

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  It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the
computer is currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost
when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor
device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is
divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is
slower than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information
permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they
are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can
access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

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Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
NOW LETS DISCUSS ONE BY ONE EACH OF THE TYPES

RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for
storing data, program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which
stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is
switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is

independent of the
address, that is, each
storage location inside
the memory is as easy
to reach as other
locations and takes the
same amount of time.
Data in the RAM can be
accessed randomly but
it is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer
or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System
(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its
physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types −

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as
power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down
due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no

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capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not be refreshed on a regular basis.

There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM
for the same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs
higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain
the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that
rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most
system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of
memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only
read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The
information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A
ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This
operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.

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Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as
masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The
user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open
during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up
to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region.
The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no
leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a
quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the
charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only

Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming
take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a

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time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of
reprogramming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −

 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified

CPU
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

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Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit
supplies information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also
known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage
or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and
secondary memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions
of the memory unit are −

 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are
released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not
carry out any actual data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions
among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and
directs the operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or
results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations
are done by making repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.

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Concept of programing language
In computer programing each problem is solved by the following three methods that are:

 Flow charts
 Algorithms
 Programing

Flow charts
 A computer program consists many processes and flows. Flowcharts are used to
visualize the processes and make it understandable for nontechnical people. They are
also used to visualize algorithms and comprehend pseudo code which is used in
programming.

Flowchart Symbols Meaning

Algorithms
Algorithm is a step-by-step procedure, which defines a set of instructions to
be executed in a certain order to get the desired output. Algorithms are
generally created independent of underlying languages, i.e. an algorithm can
be implemented in more than one programming language.

Example
Let's try to learn algorithm-writing by using an example.
Problem − Design an algorithm to add two numbers and display the result.

Step 1 − START

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Step 2 − declare three integers a, b & c
Step 3 − define values of a & b
Step 4 − add values of a & b
Step 5 − store output of step 4 to c
Step 6 − print c
Step 7 − STOP

Programing language

Programming languages are the languages in which a programmer writes the

instructions that the computer will ultimately execute
Types of Languages
There are three main kinds of programming language:

 Machine language
 Assembly language
 High-level language

Machine language
We just went over what machine language is - it's the language of machines,
consisting of bits (1s and 0s) put together into chunks like bytes, a group of 8 bits, and
lots of other larger sizes. It's highly unlikely you will ever have to write in machine
language, but in the old days, we used to plot 1s and 0s on graph paper and then type
them in, to make pictures appear on the computer screen. 

Assembly language
Assembly language is a little easier than machine language, but not much! It uses
more convenient numbers, symbols, and abbreviations to describe the huge strings of
1s and 0s, to make it both easier and more memorable to type in instructions. The
computer knows that certain strings of numbers are commands, so assembly language
lets you use English-like strings instead of numbers to refer to those. Plus, with
assembly language you have access to all kinds of resources to organize your
programming code. Then you tell a program called an assembler to assemble your
instructions, which just means they get turned into 1s and 0s for you.

High-level language
The third type of language are the high-level languages. These languages use
English-like statements and symbols, and are independent of the type of computer you
are using. You can even put in lots of English labels and comments to help remember
what the instructions are doing. This makes your programs much easier to read and
modify.

Prepared by: Mr. Manzoor Elahi (IT Instructor ELA)

Program translation
Computer programs written in any language other than machine language must be
either interpreted or compiled. An Interpreter is software that examines a computer
program one instruction at a time and calls on code to execute the operations required
by that instruction. This is a rather slow process. A compiler is software that translates
a computer program as a whole into machine code that is saved for subsequent
execution whenever desired. Much work has been done on making both
the compilation process and the compiled code as efficient as possible. An
Assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions and converts them into
a pattern of bits that the computer's processor can use to perform its basic operations.
Some people call these instructions assembler language and others use the term
assembly language.

Productive enhancement software packages

Word processor
A word processor is a computer program or device that provides for input, editing,
formatting and output of text, often plus other features.
Early word processors were stand-alone devices dedicated to the function, but current
word processors are word processor programsrunning on general purpose computers.
The functions of a word processor program fall somewhere between those of a
simple text editor and a fully functioned desktop publishing program.
MS word, word art etc are the example of the word processors.

Spread sheet
A spreadsheet is an interactive computer application for organization, analysis and
storage of data in tabular form.[1][2][3] Spreadsheets are developed as computerized
simulations of paper accounting worksheets.[4] The program operates on data entered in
cells of a table. Each cell may contain either numeric or text data, or the results
of formulas that automatically calculate and display a value based on the contents of
other cells. A spreadsheet may also refer to one such electronic document.
MS excel, Zoho sheet etc are the example of spreadsheet softwares.

Database
A database program is the heart of a business information system and provides file creation, data entry,
update, query and reporting functions. The traditional term for database software is
"database management system".

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MS Access, SQL, etc are the example of the database s/w packages.

Introduction to Number system and their inter conversion

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in
numbers as computers can understand only numbers. A computer can
understand the positional number system where there are only a few
symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values
depending on the position they occupy in the number.
The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −

 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the
total number of digits available in the number system)

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal
number system. Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits
from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left
of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the
decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the
tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position.
Its value can be written as

(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)

(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand
the following number systems which are frequently used in computers.

[Link]. Number System and Description

Binary Number System

1
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

Octal Number System

2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

Hexa Decimal Number System

3
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

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Binary Number System
Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −

 Uses two digits, 0 and 1

 Also called as base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a  0 power of the base
(2). Example 20
 Last position in a binary number represents a  x power of the base (2).
Example 2x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example
Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1

x 20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
 Also called as base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a  0 power of the base
(8). Example 80
 Last position in an octal number represents a  x power of the base (8).
Example 8x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Octal Number: 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Octal Decimal Number

Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x

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 80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −

 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

 Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C =
12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15
 Also called as base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a  0 power of the
base (16). Example, 160
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a  x power of the
base (16). Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x

Step 2 19FDE16
160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Number conversion
There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert
numbers from one base to another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the
following −

 Decimal to Other Base System

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  Other Base System to Decimal
 Other Base System to Non-Decimal
 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary
Decimal to Other Base System
Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the
new base.
Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least
significant digit) of the new base number.
Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.

Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of
the new base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the
quotient becomes zero in Step 3.

The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of
the new base number.

Example
Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the

reverse order so that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit
(LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.

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Other Base System to Decimal System
Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this
depends on the position of the digit and the base of the number system).
Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in
the corresponding columns.
Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent
value in decimal.
Example
Binary Number: 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base
number.
Example
Octal Number : 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step 1 - Convert to Decimal
Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10

Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110

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Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary
Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1
Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012
Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the
right).
Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example
Binary Number : 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

Step 2 101012 28 58

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258
Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary
Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal
digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a
single binary number.

Example
Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

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Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the
right).
Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal
symbol.
Example
Binary Number : 101012
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101

Step 2 101012 110 510

Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the
hexadecimal digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a
single binary number.
Example
Hexadecimal Number : 1516
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

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 Step 2 1516 00012 01012

Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 101012

Computer codes
BCD, EBCDIC, ASCII
March 1, 2014   

Binary Coded Decimal Numbers BCD

Another number system that is encountered occasionally is Binary Coded Decimal. In
this system, numbers are represented in a decimal form, however each decimal digit is
encoded using a four bit binary number.

For example: The decimal number 136 would be represented in BCD as follows:

136 = 0001 0011 0110

1        3         6

Conversion of numbers between decimal and BCD is quite simple. To convert from
decimal to BCD, simply write down the four bit binary pattern for each decimal digit. To
convert from BCD to decimal, divide the number into groups of 4 bits and write down the
corresponding decimal digit for each 4 bit group.

There are a couple of variations on the BCD representation, namely packed and
unpacked. An unpacked BCD number has only a single decimal digit stored in each
data byte. In this case, the decimal digit will be in the low four bits and the upper 4 bits
of the byte will be 0. In the packed BCD representation, two decimal digits are placed in
each byte. Generally, the high order bits of the data byte contain the more significant
decimal digit.

An example: The following is a 16 bit number encoded in packed BCD format:

01010110 10010011

This is converted to a decimal number as follows:

0101 0110 1001 0011

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5      6        9        3

The value is 5693 decimal

Another example: The same number in unpacked BCD (requires 32 bits)

00000101 00000110 00001001 00000011

5                 6                 9               3

The use of BCD to represent numbers isn’t as common as binary in most computer
systems, as it is not as space efficient. In packed BCD, only 10 of the 16 possible bit
patterns in each 4 bit unit are used. In unpacked BCD, only 10 of the 256 possible bit
patterns in each byte are used. A 16 bit quantity can represent the range 0-65535 in
binary, 0-9999 in packed BCD and only 0-99 in unpacked BCD.

EBCDIC
Abbreviation of Extended  Binary-Coded  Decimal  Interchange  Code. Pronounced eb-
sih-dik, EBCDIC is an IBM code for representing characters as numbers. Although it is
widely used on large IBM computers, most other computers,
including PCs and Macintoshes, use ASCII codes.
ASCII Character Encoding
The name ASCII is an acronym for: American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. It is a character encoding standard developed several decades ago to
provide a standard way for digital machines to encode characters. The ASCII code
provides a mechanism for encoding alphabetic characters, numeric digits, and
punctuation marks for use in representing text and numbers written using the Roman
alphabet.

As originally designed, it was a seven bit code. The seven bits allow the representation
of 128 unique characters. All of the alphabet, numeric digits and standard English
punctuation marks are encoded. The ASCII standard was later extended to an eight bit
code (which allows 256 unique code patterns) and various additional symbols were
added, including characters with diacritical marks (such as accents) used in European
languages, which don’t appear in English.

There are also numerous non-standard extensions to ASCII giving different encoding for
the upper 128 character codes than the standard. For example, The character set
encoded into the display card for the original IBM PC had a non-standard encoding for
the upper character set. This is a non-standard extension that is in very wide spread
use, and could be considered a standard in itself.

Some important things to note about ASCII code:

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1) The numeric digits, 0-9, are encoded in sequence starting at 30h

2) The upper case alphabetic characters are sequential beginning at 41h

3) The lower case alphabetic characters are sequential beginning at 61hEE-314

Number Systems 7

4) The first 32 characters (codes 0-1Fh) and 7Fh are control characters. They do not
have a standard symbol (glyph) associated with them. They are used for carriage
control, and protocol purposes. They include 0Dh (CR or carriage return), 0Ah (LF or
line feed), 0Ch (FF or form feed), 08h (BS or backspace).

5) Most keyboards generate the control characters by holding down a control key
(CTRL) and simultaneously pressing an alphabetic character key. The control code will
have the same value as the lower five bits of the alphabetic key pressed. So, for
example, the control character 0Dh is carriage return. It can be generated by pressing
CTRL-M. To get the full 32 control characters a few at the upper end of the range are
generated by pressing CTRL and a punctuation key in combination. For example, the
ESC (escape) character is generated by pressing CTRL-[ (left square bracket).

 
 Conversions Between Upper and Lower Case ASCII Letters.
Notice on the ASCII code chart that the uppercase letters start at 41h and that the lower
case letters begin at 61h. In each case, the rest of the letters are consecutive and in
alphabetic order. The difference between 41h and 61h is 20h. Therefore the conversion
between upper and lower case involves either adding or subtracting 20h to the
character code.

To convert a lower case letter to upper case, subtract 20h, and conversely to convert
upper case to lower case, add 20h. It is important to note that you need to first ensure
that you do in fact have an alphabetic character before performing the addition or
subtraction. Ordinarily, a check should be made that the character is in the range 41h–
5Ah for upper case or 61h-7Ah for lower case.

 
Conversion Between ASCII and BCD.
Notice also on the ASCII code chart that the numeric characters are in the range 30h-
39h. Conversion between an ASCII encoded digit and an unpacked BCD digit can be
accomplished by adding or subtracting 30h. Subtract 30h from an ASCII digit to get
BCD, or add 30h to a BCD digit to get ASCII. Again, as with upper and lower case
conversion for alphabetic characters, it is necessary to ensure that the character is in
fact a numeric digit before performing the subtraction. The digit characters are in the
range 30h-39h

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COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

 A CAD system is a combination of hardware and software that enables engineers and
architects to design everything from furniture to airplanes. In addition to the software,
CAD systems require a high-quality graphics monitor; a mouse, light pen, or digitizing
tablet for drawing; and a special printer or plotterfor printing design specifications.
CAD systems allow an engineer to view a design from any angle with the push of
a button and to zoom in or out for close-ups and long-distance views. In addition,
the computer keeps track of design dependencies so that when the engineer changes
one value, all other values that depend on it are automatically changed accordingly.

COMPUTER AIDED MANUFECTURING

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is an application technology that uses
computer software and machinery to facilitate and automate manufacturing
processes. CAM is the successor of computer-aided engineering (CAE) and is often
used in tandem with computer-aided design (CAD).

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ARTIFICAIL INTELLIGENCE
Artificial intelligence (AI) is an area of computer science that emphasizes the creation
of intelligent machines that work and react like humans. Some of the activities computers with  artificial
intelligence are designed for include: Speech recognition. Learning

 NEURAL NETWORK
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are the pieces of a computing system designed to simulate
the way the human brain analyzes and processes information. They are the foundations
of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and solve problems that would prove impossible or difficult by
human or statistical standards.

EXPERT SYSTEM
In artificial intelligence, an expert system is a computer system that emulates the
decision-making ability of a human expert. Expert systems are designed to solve
complex problems by reasoning through bodies of knowledge, represented mainly as if–
then rules rather than through conventional procedural code.

VIRUSES
A computer virus, much like a flu virus, is designed to spread from host to host and has the
ability to replicate itself. Similarly, in the same way that viruses cannot reproduce without a host
cell, computer viruses cannot reproduce and spread without programming such as a file or
document.

ANTIVIRUSE
Antivirus software is a program or set of programs that are designed to prevent, search for,
detect, and remove software viruses, and other malicious software like worms, trojans, adware,
and more. ... Scan specific files or directories for any malware or known malicious patterns.

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Topic A: Computer generations

Click play on the following audio player to listen along as you read this section.

Basic Terms

Vacuum tube – an electronic device that controls the flow of electrons in a vacuum. It used as a
switch, amplifier, or display screen in many older model radios, televisions, computers, etc.

Transistor – an electronic component that can be used as an amplifier or as a switch. It is used to

control the flow of electricity in radios, televisions, computers, etc.

Integrated circuit (IC) – a small electronic circuit printed on a chip (usually made of silicon) that
contains many its own circuit elements (e.g. transistors, diodes, resistors, etc.).

Microprocessor – an electronic component held on an integrated circuit that contains a

computer’s central processing unit (CPU) and other associated circuits.

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CPU (central processing unit) – It is often referred to as the brain or engine of a computer where
most of the processing and operations take place (CPU is part of a microprocessor).

Magnetic drum – a cylinder coated with magnetic material, on which data and programs can be
stored.

Magnetic core – uses arrays of small rings of magnetized material called cores to store
information.

Machine language – a low-level programming language comprised of a collection of binary

digits (ones and zeros) that the computer can read and understand.

Assembly language is like the machine language that a computer can understand, except that
assembly language uses abbreviated words (e.g. ADD, SUB, DIV…) in place of numbers (0s and
1s).

Memory – a physical device that is used to store data, information and

program in a computer.

Artificial intelligence (AI) – an area of computer science that deals with the simulation and
creation of intelligent machines or intelligent behave in computers (they think, learn, work, and
react like humans).

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 First Generation of Computers

Classification of generations of computers

The evolution of computer technology is often divided into five generations.

Five Generations of Computers

Generations of computers Generations timeline Evolving hardware

First generation 1940s-1950s Vacuum tube based

Second generation 1950s-1960s Transistor based

Third generation 1960s-1970s Integrated circuit based

Fourth generation 1970s-present Microprocessor based

Fifth generation The present and the future Artificial intelligence based

The main characteristics of first generation of computers (1940s-1950s)

 Main electronic component – vacuum tube

 Main memory – magnetic drums and magnetic tapes
 Programming language – machine language

 Power – consume a lot of electricity and generate a lot of heat.

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 Speed and size – very slow and very large in size (often taking up entire room).
 Input/output devices – punched cards and paper tape.
 Examples – ENIAC, UNIVAC1, IBM 650, IBM 701, etc.
 Quantity – there were about 100 different vacuum tube computers produced between 1942 and1963.

Second Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of second generation of computers (1950s-1960s)

Main electronic component – transistor

 Memory – magnetic core and magnetic tape / disk

 Programming language – assembly language

 Power and size – low power consumption, generated less heat, and smaller in size (in comparison with
the first generation computers).
 Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the first generation computers).
 Input/output devices – punched cards and magnetic tape.
 Examples – IBM 1401, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC 1107, etc.

Third Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of third generation of computers (1960s-1970s)

 Main electronic component – integrated circuits (ICs)

 Memory – large magnetic core, magnetic tape / disk

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 Programming language – high level language (FORTRAN, BASIC, Pascal, COBOL, C, etc.)
 Size – smaller, cheaper, and more efficient than second generation computers (they were called
minicomputers).
 Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the second generation computers).

 Input / output devices – magnetic tape, keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.

 Examples – IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, UNIVAC 1108, etc.

Fourth Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of fourth generation of computers (1970s-present)

 Main electronic component – very large-scale integration (VLSI) and

microprocessor.
 VLSI– thousands of transistors on a single microchip.
 Memory – semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.)
o RAM (random-access memory) – a type of data storage (memory element) used in computers that
temporary stores of programs and data (volatile: its contents are lost when the computer is turned off).

o ROM (read-only memory) – a type of data storage used in computers

that permanently stores data and programs (non-volatile: its contents are retained even when the
computer is turned off).
 Programming language – high level language (Python, C#, Java, JavaScript, Rust, Kotlin, etc.).
o A mix of both third- and fourth-generation languages
 Size – smaller, cheaper and more efficient than third generation computers.
 Speed – improvement of speed, accuracy, and reliability (in comparison with the third generation
computers).

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 Input / output devices – keyboard, pointing devices, optical scanning,
monitor, printer, etc.

 Network – a group of two or more computer systems linked together.

 Examples – IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, etc.

Fifth Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of fifth generation of computers (the present and the future)

 Main electronic component: based on artificial intelligence, uses the

Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI) technology and parallel processing method.
o ULSI – millions of transistors on a single microchip
o Parallel processing method – use two or more microprocessors to run tasks simultaneously.
 Language – understand natural language (human language).
 Power – consume less power and generate less heat.
 Speed – remarkable improvement of speed, accuracy and reliability (in comparison with the fourth
generation computers).
 Size – portable and small in size, and have a huge storage capacity.

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 Input / output device – keyboard, monitor, mouse, trackpad (or
touchpad), touchscreen, pen, speech input (recognise voice / speech), light scanner, printer, etc.
 Example – desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.

The computer – this amazing technology went from a government/business-only technology to

being everywhere from people’s homes, work places, to people’s pockets in less than 100 years.

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