SAE NS PS & Harley Syliabus Chapter 6/27: 1. Evolution of nutrition 2. The metabolic fates of nutrients in heterotrophs 3. Digestion 4. Animal Strategies for getting and using food 5. Diversity in digestive Structures of invertebrates and vertebrates 8. The mammalian digestive system: Gastrointestinal Motility and its contro} oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus, stomach, small intestine: main site of digestion, Large intestine, role of pancreas in digestion, role of the liver and gall bladder in digestion. EVOLUTION OF NUTRITION Nutrients provide the necessai Production. The nutritional re synthesize molecules, The ai less amount of food. The org: of mode of nutrition. 7 1. Autotrophs: The organisms which can synthesize their own food are called autotrophs. Green plants and Photosynthetic organism can synthesize all their complex molecules from simpler inorganic substances. Thus they need a few nutritional requirements. They are autotrophs. 2. Heterotrophs: The organisms which cannot synthesize their food and get food from external resources are called heterotrophs. Animals, fungi, and bacteria are heterotrophs. They cannot synthesize many of their organic molecules. Tney obtain these compounds by consuming other organisms. are different types of heterotrophs: ; ta Herbivoress The animals which get food from plant material are called herbivores. Its example is rabbit. ry chemicals for growth, maintenance and energy quirement of an animal is related to its ability to nimals which synthesize more molecules require anisms are divided into different types on the basis Seamed with CamScamner6> Nutntion & Dig {b) Carnivores: The animals which eat meat of the other animals are called camivores, Its examples are hawks, (c) Omnivores: The anim: which eat both plant and animal are called omnivores Its examples are humans, bears, raccoons and pigs (d) Insectivores; The animals which eat primarily arthropods are called insectivores. Its example are bats. Evolution of mode of nutritions The animals lost their abilities to synthesize compounds during their evolution is For example. an animal obtains essential complex molecules in its diet. Thus they lost the ability to synthesize those molecules. This loss of ability has an advantage for the animal. The animal saves the energy and resout for the thy g these compounds. Thus the diet of the animal has dive Now they not synthesize molecules like amino acids. These compounds widely available in nature. THE METABOLIC FATES fy F NUTRIENTS IN HETEROTROPHS The nutrients of heterotrophs can be divided into two type: micronutrients. Tnese nutrients make up the dietary requirements of the ai The animals require water. (a) Macronutrients are needed in large quantities. They are carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. 2 (b) Micronutrients are needed in small quantities. They are organic vitamins and inorganic minerals. CALORIES AND ENERGY The energy value of food is measured in the form of calories or Calories: A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of water for 1° C. It is also called gram calorie. It is denoted by small “ce”. A kilocalorie is also known as a Calorie or kilogram calorie (kcal). It is equal to 4,000 calories. Mostly the larger unit Calorie is used. MACRONUTRIENTS The macronutrients, are need in large quantity. These are carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Enzymes break down these molecules into components. These components can be used for energy production. Or they acts as “building blocks” Of Jife. (a) Carbohydrates: Carbon and Energy from Sugars and Starches Carbohydrates are major dietary source of enorgy for heterotrophs. 4. Most of carbohydrates come from plant sources. Our diet contains various polysaccharices, disaccharides and simple sugars (monosaccharide). 2. Carbohydrates also are major carbon source. It forms important organic ill Seamed with CamScamnere Master Success series Zoology C Steet humans and other animals can y i supply cellulose. The i , 3. Many eon nemneesean digest cellulose. Cellulose Is also called dicta; fieer. Ik ae “i the transport of food through the alimentary cane! o¢ fiber. It helps in ren iherstoreae ila d dui a Mutagenic compounds are formes t fe Ponies ‘eliminates these feces efficiently. Therefore, it reduced the risk of cancer of the colon. © wo ©) carbonydraies Upids nd 7 fal iE i | Steroids tho Proteins the | * ‘Olher lipids the [— nitrogen Sra animal needs . > waste es 7 Acelyi-CoA ete Electron = . transport chain Sa energy Fig: Macronutrients in the diet (b) Lipids: Highly Compact Energy Storage Nutrients _ Neutral lipids (fats) are triacylglycerols. They are present in fats and oils, meat and dairy products and nuts. Some fruits and vegetables like avocados are rich in fats. Lipids are the most concentrated source of food energy. They produce about 9 Calories (kcal) of energy per gram.-It is more than twice the energy produced by the carbohydrate or protein. Many heterotrophs have an absolute dietary requirement for lipids. Sometimes, they need specific types of lipids. For example 1. Many animals require unsaturated fatty acids. Its examples are linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and arachidonic acid. These fatty acids act as precursor ” Seamed with CamScamner169 6» Nutrition & Digestion molecules for the synthesis of sterols. The most common sterol is cholesterol. 2. The sterols are also fequited for the synthesis of sterold hormones and cholesterol Cholesterol is | corporated into cell membranes. 3, Other lipids insulate the bodies of some vertebrates. They help them to maintain a constant temperature (c) Protetr Basic to the Structure and Function of Cells The animal source of proteins is other animals and rnilk Plant sources are beans, peas, and nuts. Proteins are 1 ded for their amino acids. The heterotrophs obtain their Proteins fre: th amino acids, alorie Values of Macronutrients Calorie per gram The Average c: ™ cronutri Carbohydrates Proteins 44 MICRONUTRIENTS Micronutrients are needed in minerals, and other mole enzymatic reactions, hemocyanin and iron animals cannot synthe: Minerals There are two types of minerals: 1. Essentlal minerals or macrominerals ‘ large amounts are called essent are sodium and potassium. Na muscle. Animals lose large qu: small quantity. These are vitamins, inorganic cules, These molecules are used repeatedly in They act as part of proteins. For example copper in in hemoglobin, They are needed in small amounts. But size them. Thus, they must be obtained from the diet. + The minerals which are needed in tial minerals or macrominerals. Its examples and K are vital for the functioning of nerve and antities of these minerals like Na in the urine every day. Animals also lose sodium in their Sweat. A daily supply of calcium is needed for muscular activity, Phosphorus is required for bone formation, 2. Trace minerals microminerals: sniall amount are called’ trace min junctions. The minerals which are required in very erals. They are used in various enzymatic Physiological Role of the Essential minerals © ___][Major physiological role —— 1. Forms components of bones and teeth, 2. Essential for normal blood clotting. 7 3._Needed for normal muscles, neuron, and cellular function 1 2 . Principal negative ion in the extracellular fluid Important in acid base and fluid balance. a Seamed with CamScamner170 Master Success series Zoology C 3,_Needed to produce stomach HC! ] Magnesium (Mg) | 1. Component of many coenzymes. / 2. Needed for normal neuron and muscle function. 3. Needed for carbohydrate and protein metabolism Potassium (K) 4. Major constituent of bones and blood plasma 2. Needed for energy metabolism Phosphorus (P) 1. Needed for energy metabolism 2. Major positive ion in cells. 3. Influences muscles contraction and neuron excitability 4. Part of DNA, RNA and ATP energy metabolism Sodium (Na) 1. Principal positive ion in extracellular fluid 2. Important in fluid balance 3. Essential for conduction of action potentials 4. Essential for active transport Sulfur (S) 1. Play role in protein structure. : +] 2. Involve in detoxification reactions and other metabolic activity Major physiolog ‘1, Component of vitamin By. 2. Essential for red blood cell production Copper (Cu) 1. Component of many enzymes 2. Essential for melanin and hemoglobin synthesis 3._ Part of cytochromes 1. Component of bone and teeth 2. Prevents tooth deca Component of thyroid hormones Component of hemogfobin, myoglobin, enzymes, and |. cytochromes Activates many enzymes. Activate an enzyme essential for urea formation and parts of the Krebs cycle Molyodenum Constituent of some enzymes - 0} Selenium (Se) Needed in fat metabolism Zinc (Zn) 1. Component of at least 70 enzymes 2. Needed for wound healing and fertilization Cobalt(Co) lodine (I Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Seamed with CamScamnerVitamins Ti sential Organic co; in the body are called yi ins. Vitami ™mpounds which are needed in very small amount mins, \ ivity of ' (2) Water soluble vitemins: The: din m (b) Fat soluble vitamins: Requirement of Vitamins in The vitamin C and fat in the vert d in limited amount ts of vitamins. For t radbits do not require it. require it, Water Soluble Vitamins (vitamin Riboflavin (vitamin 82) 2. destroy: and light vegetables, whola.- Grain cereals Niacin 1Stable to heat, acids, Liver, lean meats, (nicotinic acid) and alkalis poultry, peanuts, . 2.converted to niacin Of glucose and legumes Zé amide by cells synthesis of proteins, 3. synthesized from fats, and nucleic acids Vitamin Be 1.Group of three compounds 2. stable to heat and acids 3. destroyed by oxidation, alkalis, and ultraviolet light 1.Coenzyme needed for synthesis of Proteins and different amino acids 2.For conversion of tryptophan to niacin, for production of antibodies Liver, meats, fish, poultry, bananas, avocados, beans, Peanuts, whole-grain cereals, egg yolk Seamed with CamScamner172 Master Success series Zoology C 3.For synthesis of nucleic acids Pantothenic acid Destroyed by heat, [Par of coenzyme Meats, fish, whole- acids, and alkalis needed for oxidation | grain cereals, of carbohydrates and | legumes, mik, fruits, [fats vegetables Liver, meats, poultry, Cyanocobalamin 1.Complex, cobalt- 4.Part of coenzyme (vitamin B12) containing compound; | needed for synthesis | fish, milk, cheese, 2. Stable to heat; of nucleic acids and eggs 3.lnactivated by light, | for metabolism of strong acids, and carbohydrates strong alkalis; 2.plays role in 4.Absorption regulated | synthesis of myelin by stimulation of gastric Glands 5. Stored:In liver Folate (folic acid) 1,Occurs an several forms Liver, leafy green vegetables, whole- grain cereals, legumes 1, Coenzyme needed for metabolism of 2.destroyed by certain amino acids oxidation in acid and for synthesis of environment or by heat | DNA in alkaline environment; | 2.promotes production 3. Stored in live; where | of normal red blood itis converted into cells | folinic acid }1. Stable to heat, acids, | Coenzyme needed for | Liver, egg yolk, nuts, and light metabolism of amino | Legumes, mushrooms acids and fatty acids and for synthesis of nucleic acids 1, Needed for production of collagen, 2. conversion of folate fo folinic acid, and metabolism of certain amino acids 3.Promotes absorption of iron and synthesis of hormones from cholesterol 2. destroyed by oxidation and alkalis Citrus fruits, citrus juices, tomatoes, cehbage, potatoes, leafy green vegetables, fresh fruits 1.Closely related to monosaccharide 2. stable in acids, but destroyed by oxidation, heat, light, and alkalis Ascorbic acid Seamed with CamScamner173 &> Nutrition & Digestion Fat Soluble Vitamins Characteristics I Functions = — Sources 1.Occurs in several forms | 1.Nece Liver, fish, whole | synth from carotenes | visual pi milk, butter, eggs, 2, store in ive and mucopalys leafy green 3. Stable in hear, acids, and ] 2.For normal development of etables, and alkalis ; bones and teeth yellow and orange 4. Unstable in light 3.Maintenance of epithelial vegetables and cells fruits 1.A group of sterols 1,Promotes absorption of Produced in skin D 2.Resistant to heat, calcium and phosphorus exposed to oxidation, acids, and alkalis | 2.Promotes development of | ultraviolet light; in . 3.Stored in liver, skin, brain, | teeth and bones milk, egg yolk, fish- spleen, and bones liver oils, fortified foods (creamy food) Vitamin | 1.Agroup of compounds; | 1.An antioxidant Oils from cereal E resistant fo heat and visible | 2. prevents oxidation of vitamin | s22ds, salad oils, light ‘Aand polyunsaturated fatty’ | margarine, 2. Unstable in presence of | acids snortenings, fruits, “ oxygen and ultraviolet light} 3. Maintain stability of cell nuts, and 3.stored in muscles and membranes vegetables adipose tissue Vitamii T.Ocours in several forms _| 1.Needed for synthesis of Leafy green K 2. Resistant to heat, but prothrombin vegetables, egg destroyed by acids, alkalis, 2.needed for blood clotting yolk, pork liver, soy oll, tomatoes, and light; stored in liver cauliflower DIGESTION ede SS aS mT The break down of large non-diffusible molecules into small diffusible molecules is called digestion. There are two type of digestion: 1. Intracellular digestion: The digestion which takes place within the cell is called intraceliular digestion. The protists and sponges have simplest form of life. Some cells of these organisms take food particles directly from the environment by diffusion, active transport and endocytosis. they break down this food with the help of enzymes and obtain nutrients. It is called intracellular (“within the cell’) digestion. Gut or digestive cavity is not need for intracellular di: n. They use only small particles of food. Intracellular digestion ig present in protozoan, sponges, cnidarians, platyhelminths, Seamed with CamScamner174 Master Success series Zoo! rotifers, bivalve molluscan, and primitive chordates __._. . Extracellular digestion: The digestion which takes place outside the cells within the digestive cavity is called exiracellular digestion. These animals have evolved structures and mechanisms for extracellular digestion, It breaks the larger molecules into smaller molecules with the help of enzymes in a digestive cavity. Their cells then absorb these Molecules from the digestive cavity. It examples are annelids, arthropods and all vertebrates Difference between intracellu Intracellular digestion _ The digestion wi within the cell is called intracellular digestion. h takes place . Gut or digestive cavity is not need for intracellular digestion. animals use only 3. small 1. The digestion which takes place Goigh © complex Food “vacuole Fig: Intracellular digestion lar and extracellular digestion Extracellular digestion outside the cells within the digestive cavity is called — extracellular digestion. 2. Extracellular digestion take place in jut 3. Animal can use particle of different molluscan, and primitive chordates. articles of food. sizes. 4. Intracellular digestion is present in] 4. Its examples are —_annelids, Protozoan, sponges, cnidarians, arthropods and all vertebrates. platyhelminths, rotifers, bivalve V‘VANIMAL STRATEGIES FOR GETTING AND USING FOOD Only a few protists and animals can environment. Most animals work for different adaptations for digestion and absorption absorb food directly from the external their nutrients. Different animals have of food. CONTINUOUS VERSUS DISCONTINUOUS FEEDRS Different animals may be continuous or disco! different structure of digestive systems, 1. Continuous feeder: Many continuous feeders are sessjle-animals. For example, aquatic suspen B and barnacles. They remain in one place and Continuously “strain” sr — —_— eee Ntinuous feeder, They also have slcw moving or completely feeders like tul forms od Seamed with CamScamner175 1 & Digestion particles from the water. 2. Discontinuous feeders: These are active and highly mobile animals The have specializations in the dig ystem Discontinuous feeders take in large meals. It is ground up and stored. F ample, many camivores fallow and capture large prey T! S. Thus they need not to s more time in capturing m ability to store this food. TI infrequent meals Herbivores 5 carnivores have lly. Thus they receive time eating than carnivores. But they are also discontinuous rs. They need to move from area to area in natural environments. But they have to limit their grazing time for saving themselves from the Predators. Thus, their digestive systems rapidly gather food. But it is digested gradually. Suspension Feeders t/Ahe removal of suspended food particles from the surrounding water by capturing trapping, or filtration is called suspension feeding. It has three steps: 1. Transport of water through the feeding structure 2, Removal of nutrients from the water 3. Transport of the nutrients to the mou Examples: Sponges, _ ascidians,_ _branchiopods, _ectaprocts, _entoprocts, Phoronids, most bivalves, and many n crustaceans, polychaete, gastropods, and "Some non vertebrate choidates are suspension feeders. Deposit Feeders The obtaining of nutrients from the sediments of soft bottom habitats (mud and sands) or terrestrial soils is called deposit feeding. Deposit feeding is Present in primanly omnivorous animals. These animals simply swallow large quantities of sediment (mud, soil, sand, organic matter). The usable nutrients are digested. The remaining material is passed out of the anus. Direct deposit feeding occurs in many polychaete annelids, some snails, some sea urchins, and in most earthworms. Other direct deposit feeders use tentacle like structures. Its examples are sea cucumbers, most sipunculans, certain clams, and several types of polychaete. - 7 Herbivory The consum, feeding strat ‘ood is ith of the digestive system. ptiun of macroscopic plants Is called herbivory. It is common egy. It requires the ability to “bite and chew” large pieces of plant matter (macroherbivory). The herbivores develop some hard surfaces like teeth Powerful muscles move these teeth, Herbivory is also present in some invertebrates like molluscs Polychaete worms, arthropods, and sea U | 1. Molluscs: Many molluscs have radula. A radula is a muscular belt-like rasping (rough) organ. It is armed with chitifous teeth. Molluscs use the a ~~ é Seamed with CamScamner176 series Zoology C Master Suc radula to scrape (rub) algae from the rocks. They also use radula to tear the leaves of terrestrial plants. , . 2. Polychaete: Many polychaetes have sets of large chitinous teeth. These teeth are present on an eversible (which can come out) proboscis or pharynx. It is used to scrape algae. This toothed pharynx is also suitable for capturing prey. 3. Arthropods: Macroherbivory is found in almost every group of arthropods, For example, insects_and_crustaceans_have large, powerful mandibles, These mandibles are used for biting plant material. Predation The capturing and killing of a prey for obtaining food is called predation. It ‘is the most sophisticated feeding strategy. It requires capluri live prey, Predators can be classified on the basis of methods of capluiing their prey: These are motile stalkers, lurking predators, sessile opportunists, v' gre res, 1. Motile stalkers: They actively pursue their prey. Its examples “re ciliate Protozoa, nemerteans, polychaete worms, gastropods, octopuses and squids, crabs, sea stars, and many vertebrates. ©) Lio olay 2. Lurking predators: They sit and wait for their prey to come within seizing distance. Its examples are certain species of praying mantises, shrimp, c.abs, spiders, polychaete, and many vertebrates. — — 3. Sessile opportunists: They are not very mobile. They can only capture prey when the prey organism comes into contact with them. Its examples are certain protozoa, barnacles, and cnidarians. F 4. Grazing carnivores: They move about the substrate and pick up small organisms. Their diet consists of sessile and slow moving animals. Their examples are sponges, ectoprocts, tunicates, snails, worms, and small crustaceans. Surface Nutrient Absorption These animals directly absorb nutrients through their body surface from the external medium. This medium may be nutrient rich sea water, fluid in. the digestive tracts of other animal, or the body fluid of other animals, Surface nutrient absorption is present in some highly specialized animals. These animals have discarded all the mechanisms for capturing of prey, ingestion of food particles, and digestive. Its examples are: (a) Some free-living protozoa like chitomonas absorb all of their nutrients through their body surface, (b) The endoparasitic Protozoa, cestode Worms, endoparasitic gastropods, and crustaceans also absorb all of their nutrients through their body surface, (c)A few non parasitic multicellular animals also lack a mouth and digestive system. They absorb nutrients through their body surface. Its examples are Seamed with CamScamner177 4 ention & Digestion Pogonopheran worns t body surface. Symbiotic These bacteria supplement and plants is called fluid feeding. The ni of nutrients. Ick biood, sites) like Jaeches, ticks, have a variety of mouth parts. ay fuids. For example, the sea i The funnel is lined ey uses the funnel . It rasps (make) a The lamprey then mites, lam These mouth part lamprey has a fun: with 200 rasping as suction cup hole in the body v sucks blood and body f 3. Insects: Insects h For example, butte: parts enable thein to suck complex mouthparts. They have piercing stylets for sucking blood. 4, Birds: Most pollen- and nectar-feeding birds have long bills and tongues. The r pai 7 types of flowers. The tongues of some birds have a brus' Or it is hollow. It is used to collect the nectar from flowers. Other nectar-feeding birds have short bills. They make a hole at the base of a flower. They use their tongue to obtain nectar through the hole. 5. Vampire bats are the only fluid feeder mammals Desmodus is a vampire bat. It lives in tropical South and tral America. These bats attack birds, cattle and horses. They have sharp front teeth. These teeth are used to pierce the surface blood vessels of the host. It then lap (“¥) at the wound. Nectar-feeding bats have a long tongue. It extracts the nectar from flowering ‘plants. it has reduced dentition. The nectar-feeding honey possum has a long, brush-tigped tongue. It has reduced dentition. DIVERSITY IN DIGESTIVE STRUCTURES INVERTEBRATES a There are two types of digestive systems. These ai 1. Sac like digestive system The gut is blind in primitive and multicellular animals. Their gut is closed sac called gastrovascular cavity tt has only one opening. This opening is act as both + ve “A Seamed with CamScamner ucking structures for fluid feeding. ids have tube like mouthparts. These178 Master Success series Zoology C e tract. Some specialized cells in zymes start the process of Ils line the digestive cavity, liular digestion inside food entrance and exit. it is an incomplete digestive ymes. These en: the cavity secrete digestive enzy e extracellular digestion. Some other phagocytic ce They iif food material and continue intrace vacuoles Some flatworms have similar digestive patterns. 2. Tube like digestive system a The development of the anus completes the digestive tract. It wes first developed passage of food Now an ingested food in the ascheiminths. It allows one way an does net mix witn previously ingested food or waste Complete digestive tracts also have an advantage. Digestion takes place progressively along the digestive canal The digestive canal have specialized regions for digestion. Food can be digested efficiently in a series of steps. The Variations in complete digestive tract corfelate wiin different food gathering mechanisms and diets. J/PROTOZOA The protozoan may be autotrophic, saprozoic or heterotrophic. Giliated protozoa take place in ciliated protozoans. are heterotrophic. Following steps 4. Giliary action transfers the food from the environment into the buccal cavity and cytostome. Food: 2. The cytostome opens into the Buccal cavlly~S9: cytopharynx. It enlarges as rottenow food enters it. It pinches off forming at as vacuole. The food vacuole then moves into the Fytere, water cytoplasm. 3. Excess water is removed from lysosomes the vacuole. This food is enymests acidified. Then it is made alkaline. Then lysosomes add cece digestive enzymes into the a . jon In wacuole, The enzymes digest Residual the food particles within the vacuole. The nutrients are — Waste from absorbed into the cytoplasm. * vacuol’ 4, The residual vacuole then excretes the waste produces through cytopyge. ABIVALVE MOLLUSCS Many bivaive molluscs are suspension feeder. They ingest small food particles. The digestive tract has.a short esophagus a stomach, midget, hindgut and rectum. The stomach contains a crystalline style, gastric shield and diverticulae. These diverticulae are blind sacs sac like. They Increase the surface area for abso:piion and intracellular digestion. The midgut, hindgut, and rectum play role Seamed with CamScamner179 8> Nutrition & Digestion xtracellular digesti i net digestion and absorption. The process of digestion has three 4, Feeding 2. Extracellular digestion 3. Intracellular digestion, Mba and mechanical Process break the food into small particles for it 7 e Stion. Intracellular digestion releases the nutrients into the blood. It Us uces fragmentation spherules (rounded fragments). These spherules excrete Wastes and lower the pH for extracellular digestion. These three cycles are linked to tidal immersion (sink) and emersion (float) of the molluscs. . (dy + Fig: Extra and intracellular digestion in Bivalve Molluscs \ INSECTS (GRASSHOPPER) Grasshopper has a complete digestive tract. Extracellular digestion takes place in it. There are following steps in the digestion of grasshopper. 4. The mandible and maxillae break the food. It is then taken into the mouth. Food is then passed into crop though esophagus. . . The salivary glands add saliva into food during mastication. Saliva lubricates the food, Saliva also contains the enzyme amylase. It starts the enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates. This digestion continues during food ‘storage of food in the crop. The midgut secretes other enzymes. These enzymes are carbohydrases, lipases, proteases. They act on food. Then food enters into the crop. 4. Food passes slowly from the crop to the stomach. It is mechanically brokenin . 3 Seared with CamScamner180 Master Success saries Zoology C stomach and the nutrient particles are sorted. Large particles are returned to the crop. The small particles enter the gastric cecae. Extracellular digestion is completed in these cecae. Nutrient absorption takes place in the intestine. Undigested food is moved along the intestine. It is passes into the rectum. Water and ions are absorbed in rectum. The solid fecal pellets are formed. The pellets pass out of the anus. The nervous system and the endocrine system control the enzyme production in different parts of the digestive tract. es . Eyespot Tentacles ™ with Gastrovescular nematocysts cavity Gastrovascular. cavity A ya ‘Opening of pharynx a= Ny Food particle | ‘Food vacuole (b) Planarian Stomach (a) Caldarlan (Hydra) crop praronk Esophagus Rectum ‘Anus ry Mouth “Se ‘anus Gastric Mouth caeca Intestine (d) insect (c) Nematode Fig: Various types of Digestive Structures in Invertebrates: (a) Hydra (b) Planarian (c) Nematodes DIVERSITY IN DIGESTIVE STRUCTURES: VERTEBRATES lete digestive tract. It is highly specialized in both The Vvarlabrales. hava complete te structure and function for the digestion, The digestive tube is composed of buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus/cloaca. Three important glandular systems are associated with the digestive tract: (1) The salivary glands, (2) The liver, gallbladder, and bile duct (3) Pancraas and pancreatic duct. Most vertebrates spend their most.of time in acquiring food. Therefore, feeding is their universal pastime. The oral cavity (mouth), teeth, intestines, and other mejor structures determine the type of feeding in vertebrates. digesti Seamed with CamScamnerFig: Arrangement of teeth; (2) Snakes, (b) Wolf, (c) Deer, (d) Beaver, (2) Elephant, (f) Human TONGUES A tongue or tongue like structure develops in the floor of the oral Vertebrates. 7 1. Lamprey has a Protrusible tongue. It has horny teeth, These teeth rasp the flesh of its Prey. . Fishes have a Primary tongue. It has teeth. These teeth hold pr: tongue is not muscular. 3% Te etrapods have mobile tongues for cavity in many 2 +y. But their gathering food. Frogs and Can project part of their tongue for Capturing an ji 4A woodpecker has a long, spiny tongue. It is used for gathering grubs, 5. Ant and termite eating mammals have long and Sticky tongues, 6. ‘Spiny papillae are present on the tongues of Cats and other carnivores. These animals rasp flesh froma bone. TEETH Most vertebrates have teeth. But teeth ar Whales. Bir @ absent in bir It reduces their body weigh SPécialized for different types of feeding, 1. The teeth of snakes slope bact ~ The canine teeth of wolves ari 3. Herbivores like deer have gri ds, turtles, and baleen ids lack teeth. t for flight, Teeth are kward. They hold the Prey during Swallowing, @ Specialized for tipping (tear) food, inding teeth, Seamed with CamScamner182 Master Success serias Zoology C seling trees and branches aver are used for chi 5 5 th. These teeth are specialized for 4, The front teeth of a be: large, upper front teet &, The elephant has two moving objects 6. Humans, pigs, bears, raccoons, and Their teeth can perform a number of t grinding. 7 Incisors a few other mammals are omnivores, asks like tearing, ripping, chiseling, and Premolars Mola SALIVARY GLANDS 4, Most fishes lack salivary glands in the head region. But lampreys have a pair of glands, These glands secrete an anticoagulant. It keeps the blood of prey flowing during feeding. 2. Some snakes have modified salivary glands. They produce venom (poison). Venom is injected through fangs. It immobilizes prey. 3. The secretion of oral digestive enzymes has not important function in amphibians or reptiles. Therefore, salivary glands are absent in them. 4. Most birds lack salivary glands. Salivary glands are present in mammals. - ESOPHAGUS (Esophagi) . The esophagus is short in fishes and amphibians. But amniotes have longer necks. So they have much longer esophagus. Grain and seed eating birds have a crop. This crop develops from the last portion of the esophagus. Food is stored in the crop. It provides continuous supply of food to the stomach and intestine for digestion. It reduces the frequency of feeding in birds. But they still maintain @ high metabolic rate. STOMACH The stomach is an ancestral vertebrate structure. Vertebrates feed on larger coe They caught them irregularly. Thus they store food in stomach. Some acid (HC) pave that they developed gastric glands and secrete hydrochloric estential fox digestion Theleton ees food in the stomach. Stomach is not GIZZARDS . , enzyme pepsinogen evolved later. Gizzard i i "zard is present in some fishes, some reptiles like crocodilians and all birds. It Seamed with CamScamner183 6> Nutrition & Digestion is used for grinding of food. The gizzard of bird is developed from the posterior part of the stomach called ventriculus. Birds swallow pebbles (stones). They retain these pebbles in the gizzard. They help in grinding process. Doetiommm case! Garber __ernach in - Fig: Arrangement of stomach and intestine (a) Pigeons (b) Lungfishes, (c) Teleost, (4) Frog RUMENS ~ The mammals which chew their cud are called ruminant mammals. Its examples are cows, sheep and deer. They have great modification in stomach. These animals eat large amounts of food quickly. But they need to chew the food slowly. A large numbers of microorganisms live in the ruminant stomach These microorganisms digest the cellulose present in the cell wall of grasses. Cellulose contains a large amount of energy. But these animals lack enzyme cellulase. Cellulase is used for digesting cellulose. The gut microorganisms can produce cellulase. It digests thé cellulose. The stomach of ruminants is divided into four chambers. 4. Rumen: The upper portion of the stomach expands to form a large pouch called rumen Reticulum: It is also part of upper portion of stomach. Omasum: The lower portion of the stomach consists of a small.chamber. It is called omasum. 4. Abomasum: It is a true stomach. It is present behind omasum. Mechanism of action 4. Food first enters the rumen. Microorganisms are present in it, These microorganisms partially digest the food with the help of fluid secretions, body heat, and churning of the rumen. The microorganisms changes the food into pulpy (soft) mass. 2 3. Seamed with CamScamner184 Master Success series Zoology Cc regurgitates (back flow) this mass 'd. Then it is reswallowed. 9 liquid. Now this digested s into the omasum, Then it mass moves into the reticulum. It ghly chewe: It becomes mort Jum and it moves 2. The pulpy as cud from mouth. Food is thorou: 3. Now the foog enters the rumen. food material flows out of the reticu moves into the abomasums. as 4. Abomasums is a glandular region. it secretes digestive enzymes for digestion. GOmasum Esophagus—%\, Rumen: Abomasum (true stomach) Fig: Rumirant mammals Fig: Cecum of Herbivores CECA Ceca are present in non — before gastric digestion in digestion in non — ruminan' ruminant herbivores. Microorganisms attack the food ruminants. Microbial ection on cellulose occurs after t herbivores like rabbits, horse and rats. They maintain a large population of microorganisms in their large cecum. Cecum is a blind pouch. It extends from the colon. The microorganism produces cellulase and nant herbivores like mice and rabbits eat digests the cellulose. A few non-rumi some of their own feces. It reprocesses the remaining materials in their feces like vitamins. Therefore, it increase their efficiency LIVERS AND GALLBLADDERS Gallbladder is closely associated with the stored in gall bladder. Bile is a fluid contai lacks enzymes, - | {a) Bile salts: Bile salts play an important role in the digestion of fats. They emulsify (break into small fragments) dietary fats. It breaks fats into small globules. Now fat-digesting enzyme lipase acts on the surface globules. (b) Bile pigments: Phagocytosis of red blood cells produces bile pigments. This phagocytosis occurs in the spleen, liver and red bone marrow. Phagocytosis breaks the hemoglobin molecule. It releases iron. The remaining molecule is converted imo pigments. These pigments enter the circulation, Thes? pigments are extracted from the circulation in liver. These pigments are excreted in the bile as bilirubin (red bile) and biliverdin (green bile). liver. The liver manufactures bile. It is ining bile salts and bile pigments. tt Seamed with CamScamner: 185 6> Nutrition & Digestion Fat are an important part of the diet of vertebrate. Therefore, gallbladder is relatively large in vertebrates. It is reduced or absent in bloodsuckers like lamprey. It is also reduced in the animals that feed on plant like some teleosts many birds and rats. . PANCREATA (Pancrezs) Pancreas is present in all vertebrates. However, it is embedded in the wall of intestine in lampreys and lung fishes. Therefore, it is not visible in them. Pancreas has both exocrine and endocrine glands. Pancreatic fluid contains many enzymes, It is transferred into the small intestine through pancreatic duct. INTESTINES The small and ‘arge intestines have different structures. Intestine is closely related to the type of food, body size and activity of the animals 1, Cyclostomes, chondrichthian fishes and primitive bony fishes have short and straight intestines. It extends from the stomach to the anus. 2. The intestine increases in length and coil in advanced bony fishes. 3. The intestine is moderately long in most amphibians and reptiles. 4, The intestines are longer in birds and mammals. It has more surface area. Birds have two ceca. But mammals have single ceca. These ceca are present at the beginning of large intestine. The large intestine is much longer in mammals than in birds. It empties into the cloaca in most vertebrates. 2 THE MAMMALIAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM o Humans, pigs, bears, raccoons (monkey), and a few other mammals are omnivores. The digestive system, of an omnivore can process many kinds of foods. The process of digestion is divided in to following steps: 4. Ingestion: The eating of food is called ingestion. 2. Peristalsis: The involuntary sequential muscular contractions that move ingested nutrients along the digestive tract are called peristalsis. 3. Segmentation: The mixing of the contents in the digestive tract is called segmentation. * 4. Secretion: The release of hormones, enzymes, and specific ions and chemicals is called secretion. These enzymes and chemicals take part in digestion. 7 5. Digestion: The conversion of large nutrient particles or molecules into small particles or molecules is called digestion. 6. Absorption: The passage of usable nutrient molecules from the small intestine into the bloodstream and lymphatic system is called passage. 7. Defecation: The elimination of undigested and unabsorbed material as waste from the body is called defecation. Seamed with CamScamner186 . Master Success series Zoology C Parotid Gland Fig: Major parts of the human digestive system 4énstROINTESTINAL MOTILITY AND ITS CONTROL Most of the mammals have same structure of gastrointestinal tract. following parts: 4, Serosa: It is the outermost layer. It is thin layer of connective tissue. The serosa forms a moist epithelial sheet called the peritoneum. This peritoneum lines the entire abdominal cavity and covers all internal organs. 2. Muscular layers: Longitudinal smooth muscle layer and circular smooth- muscle layer. : It has Seamed with CamScamner187 6> Nutrition & Digestion 3. Submucosa: Submucosa is present under the muscle layer. The Submucosa contains connect u tive tissue, blood, and lymphatic vessels. The mucosa faces the central opening, called lumen. Muscle {ayer —_—- FF Serosa Longitudinal Circular Mucosa Smovih muscle smooth muscle Submucosa Lumen Fig: Mammalian gastrointestinal tract Factors causing mobility The muscle layers of the gastrointestinal tract contracts. It mixes the food material with various secretions. It also moves the food from the oral cavity to the rectum. Food is moved by peristalsis and segmentation. 41. Peristalsis: The rings of circular smocth muscle constrict behind food and relax in front of it during peristalsis. It advances the food through gastrointestinal tract when. . Segmei:tation: The smail and large intestines also have rings of smooth muscles. They repeatedly contract and relax. They create an oscillating, back and forth movement in the same place. It is called segmentation. This movement mixes the food with digestive secretions. efficiency of absorption. . Sphincters: Sphincters are rings of smooth or skeletal muscle at the beginning or ends of specific regions of the gut tract. Sphincters influence the flow of material through the gastrointestinal tract. They prevent the backflow. Cardiac sphincter is present between the esophagus and stomach. The pyloric sphincter is present between the stomach and small intestine. Gontrol of mobility . The volume and composition of food in the lumen of the gut control the activity of gastrointestinal tract. For example, the ingested food distends the gut. The digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins stimulates the various chemical receptors in the gut wall. Signals from these mechanical and chemical stimuli travel through nerve plexuses in the gut wall. It controls li increases the ill Seamed with CamScamner188 Master Success series Zoology C the muscular contraction. This contre segmentation. It also controls the secretions. ; ceptors and effectors with 2. The long distance nerve pathways connect the rec tors the central nervous system. These pathways maintain homeostasis in the estinal tract also produce hormones. These ion, and absorption. ‘ontraction causes the peristalsis and the gastroint gut. 3. The endocrine of tr the secretion, digesti 3!) hormones regulate area ot ff | (b) Segmentation Fig: (a) Different stage of peristalsis, ORAL CAVITY Oral cavity has following components: 4. Lips: A pair of lips protects the oral cavity (mouth). The lips are highly vascularized, skeletal muscle tissue. They have abundant ne-ve endings. Lips retain food during chewing. They also play a role in phonation (the modification of sound). 2. Tongue and teeth: The oral cavity contains the tongue and teeth. The teeth of mammals are covered with enamel. Their jaws and teeth exert a strong force. Therefore, mammals can mechanically process different types of foods. . Saliva: Saliva is continuously poured into the oral cavity. Saliva is a watery fluid. It is secreted by three pairs of salivary glands. Saliva moistens food. It has mucins (glycoprotein). Mucins changes the ingested food into a moist mass called a bolus. Saliva also contains bicarbonate (HCO). It acts as buffer in the mouth. Saliva also contains thiocyanate ions (SCN) and enzyme lysozyme. Lysozyme kills microorganisms. It also has an ienzyne amt eee Amylase is necessary for the initiation of carbohydrate digestion ese PHARYNX AND ESOPHAGUS “ Pharynx is common passageway for both digestiv i The epiglottis temporarily closes the glottis to the Palate an . Seamed with CamScamner189 6> Nutrition & Dicestion does not enter into tra ; Chea. Initiation of th i ter it becor ul of the swallowing reflex is voluntary. But aomech ffamn‘oas yoluntary, Peristalsis propels the bolus or liquid into the Phagus. Pharynx and esophagus do not play role in digestion. yowave —>—1y oot | tauvany | ote ae mmcrson ——_£%) youn mouTH Fig: Teeth (a) Anatomy of teeth STOMACH The mammalian stomach is a muscular distensible sac. It performs three functions: 1,. It receives focd in the form of bolus form esophagus. It stores this food. 2. Stomach secretes substances (enzymes, mucus and hydrochloric acid (HCI). These substances start digestion of proteins. ‘3. It controls the rate of movement of food into the small intestine through pyloric sphincter. Gastric glands and gastric juice The stomach is composed of inner mucous membrane. This membrane contains. thousands of glalids. The gastric glands have three types of cells are. (a) Parietal cells: These cells secretes HCI (b) Chief cells: They secrete pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is changed in to pepsin ‘enzyme. Parietal cells and chief cells are present in the pits of gastric gland. (c) Mucous cells: Mucous cells are present at the surface of gastric glands. They secrete mucous. Mucous form a coat on the inner surface of stomach. This coat protects the wall of stomach from the action of HCl and pepsin. The upper surface of gastrointestinal tract ie. esophagus and mouth have a Much thin mucous cell layer than stomach. Therefore, vomiting cause a burning sensation in the esophagus or mouth. Endocrine cells are present in one part of the stomach mucosa. They release hormone gastrin. It travels to the target cells in the gastric glands and further stimulates them. ail Seamed with CamScamner190 Master Success series Zoology C esophagus mucous membrane. duodenum ayers of muscle cate Esophagus. Cardiac orifice 3 sphincter ‘Small Intestine eo epsinogen Le podein {ective enzyme) cs = Fig: Stomach: (a) Internal structure of stomach, (b) Gastric glands Seamed with CamScamner191 6> Nutrition & Digestion Mechanism of digestion in stomach The bolus of food enters the Stomach. It distends (spread) the walls of the stomach. This distention stimulates the gastric pits to secrete HCI and pepsinogen. The H ions convert the Pepsinogen into active enzyme pepsin. The smooth mucosal muscles Contract. Therefore, pepsin, mucus, end HCI mix with food, Pepsin breaks down proteins, The stomach contents are sufficiently mixed after three hours. It forms a liquid mass called chyme. The pyloric sphincter regulates the felease of the chyme into the small intestine. The peristaltic waves cease when the stomach is empty. But new wave starts in the upper region of the stomach after 10 hours of fasting. These waves can cause hunger Pangs. A ~ SMALL INTESTINE: MAIN SITE OF DIGESTION Structure of small intestine The small intestine digests and absorbs most of the digested food. The human small intestine is about 4cm in diameter and 7 to 8 m in length. It is intermediate in length between the small intestines of carnivores and herbivore. It shows that humans are omnivores. The inner surface of intestine contains minute projections called villi, Villi are finger like microscopic projections. Villi greatly increase the inner surface area of small intestine. The villi have simple columnar The first part of the small intestine is called the duodenum. Its primary function is digestion. The duodenal mucosa contains many intestinal glands. These glands secrete enzymes. The pancreas secretes other enzymes. Digestion of carbohydrates and proteins is completed in the duodenum. Most lipids are also digested. Jejunum and ileum The end products of digestion are amino acids, simple sugars, fatty acids, glycerol nucleotides and water. The jejunum and ileum absorb these end Products. Much of absorption takes place by active transport and the sodium- ATPase pump. 1. The capillaries of villi absorb sugars and amino acids. 2. The free fatty acids enter into the epithelial cells of the villi, They recombine with glycerol to form triglycerides. The triglycerides are coated with proteins and they form small droplets called chylomicrons. Chylomicrons enter the lacteals of the vill, The chylomicrons move into the lymphatics from the lacteals. Finally they move into the bloodstream and are transportec throughout the body. Seamed with CamScamner192 Master Success series Zoology C ater and dissolved mineral iofs. The ohtal f water per dav. 3. The small intestine absorbs Wi intestine absorbs about 9 liters 0 Lorghuda! rath Fig: Small intestine: (a) Intemal structure of small intestine (b) Section of a villi LARGE INTESTINE The large intestine has no villi or microvilli. Thus it has small surface area. Large intestine has three parts: cecum, colon and rectum. The small intestine joins the large intestine near a blind-ended sac called cecum. The human cecum has an extension called appendix. Cecum and appendix are storage sites. They are evolutionary remains of the ancestors of humans. They are functional in herbivores. The appendix contains an abundance of lymphoid tissue. It may function as part of the immune system. Functions of large intestine 1. Reabsorption of water and minerals: It is the major functions of the large intestine. Peristaltic waves move food residue through the large intestine. Thus minerals diffuse or actively transported from the residue into the blood. Water follows it. Water is returned to the lymphatic system and blood. Diarrhea is caused due to insufficient reabsorption of water. Over absorption of water causes constipation. , Seamed with CamScamner. 6> Nutrition & Digestion ymbioti : ‘ 2. Symbiotic bacteria: Many bacteria and fungi live symbiotivally in the large 7 n the food residue and break down its organic Lead into waste products. They secrete amino acids and vitamin K eS compounds are absorbed by gut 3. Formation and stora : dol ge of feces: Feces are a mixture of bacteria, fungi, + Dlant fiber, sloughed-off intestinal cells, and other waste products. Stored in rectum and eliminated through anus. VROLE OF THE PANG REAS IN DIGESTION The pancreas lies Just ventr: al to the stomach. It has both endocrine and exocrine in the pancreas secrete digestive enzymes into the duct merges with the hepatic duct from the liver. that enters the duodenum. Pancreatic enzymes ‘bohydrates and proteins. They initiate the digestion They form a common bi complete the digestion of cz of lipids. a and chymotrypsin digest jroteins into small peptides and amino acids. : Pancreatic lipases split triglycerides into smaller glycerol and free fatty acids. Pancreatic amyiase converts polysaccharides into disaccharides and monosaccharide. : The pancreas also secretes bicarbonate (HCO; ) ions. It neutralizes the acidic food residue coming from the stomach. Bicarbonate raises the pH from 2.to 7 for optimal digestion. Pancreatic enzymes can not function without this neutralization. \YROLE OF THE LIVER AND GALL BLADDER DIGESTION The liver is the largest organ in the mammalian body. It lies just under the diaphragm. Liver have million of specialized cells called hepatocytes. These cells take nutrients absorbed from the intestines. They release them into the blood. Hepatocytes also synthesize the blood proteins prothrombin and albumin. Liver has following major metabolic functions: 1. Itremoves amino acids from organic compounds. ‘ 2.-lt forms urea from proteins. It converts excess amino acids into urea. It decreases body levels of ammonia. | . 3. It synthesizes most of the plasma proteins. It forms the fetal erythrocytes. It destroys the worn-out (useless) erythrocytes. It synthesizes ‘the blood-clotting agent prothrombin and fibrinogen from amino acids. It synthesizes nonessential amino acids. } . Itconverts galactose and fructose to glucose, . It causes oxidetion of fatty acids 7. It forms lipoproteins, cholesterol, and phospholipids. These are essential cal! one Seamed with CamScamner194 Master Success series Zoology C membrane components. 8. It converts carbohydrates and proteins into fat | | 9, it modifies waste products, toxic drugs, and poisons (detoxification). 40.It synthesizes vitamin A from carotene. It along with kidney activates the vitamin D. _. 44.It maintains a stable body temperature. Its many metabolic cctivities produce heat. Thus it raises the temperature of the blood passing through it. 42.It synthesizes bile salts. These salts are used in the small intestine for the emulsification and absorption of simple fats, cholesterol, phospholipids, and lipoproteins. ~ 413. It is a main storage center. The liver stores glucose in the form of glycogen, li glucose with the help of insulin and enzymes, converts glycogen back into The liver also stores fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and F). It also stores minerals like iron. The liver can also store fats and amino acids. It converts them into usable glucose. Oesophagus Left lobe of fiver Comman hepatic 7 i duct intestine Duodenum pylorus Pancreas Gall bladder The gallbladder is a small organ near the liver. The gallbladder stores the greenish fluid bile. Bile is produced by liver. Bile is very alkaline. It contains pigments, cholesterol, lecithin, mucin, bilirubin and bile salts. Bile salts emulsify fats. Thus they help in the digestion and absorption of fats. Bile salts also combine with the end products of fat digestion and form micelles. Micelles are bile salt coated lipid aggregates. They are much smaller. Therefore, they can - cross the microvilli of the intestinal epithelium. Seamed with CamScamner195 6> Nutrition & Digestion ' Major digestive glands, secretions and enzymes in mammals _ Source ]} ee Enzyme |) Digestive functions Mouth et the digestion of Carbohydrates; Inactivated by stomach HCl Stomach Gastric muco: Mucous gland Lubricates a lipids; activates lipase Digasts starch into maltose Digests proteins into peptides and amino acids | Digests lipids into fatty acids and glycerol (requires bile salts) Digests nucleic acids into Mononucleotides Digests proteins into peptides and amino acids Digests inactive trypsinogen active trypsin Digests lactose into glucose and galactose Digests maltose into glucose Digests polypeptides into amino Small intestine — — * = C Juice Intestinal Intestinal | Enterokinase glands juice [Wosose gang [Woes [——] into Lactose Maltose Peptidase Sucrase oes Sucrose into glucose and fructose Lubricates = > Seamed with CamScamner