Chapter I

Introduction

Background of the study

Originally from South America, water hyacinth, Eichhornia Crasspies, is one of the
world's most prevalent invasive aquatic plants. Because of its striking flowers, it was deliberately
introduced into botanic gardens in many other countries, from which it inevitably spread as a
weed. Some dates of introduction indicated by (Gopal, 1987) include: Australia, Egypt and Japan
all about 1890; Indonesia, 1894; India, 1896; China, 1902 (1901 according to Xie Yan et al.,
2001); Singapore, 1903; Sri Lanka, 1904; South Africa, 1910; the Philippines, 1912; Myanmar,
1913. It was probably introduced to Madagascar around, or shortly after, 1900 as an ornamental
and was first recorded in 1920 (Binggeli, 2003).

Water hyacinth, a floating vascular plant, is known to cause major ecological and socio-
economic changes (Center, 1994). It commonly form dense, interlocking mats due to its rapid
reproductive rate and complex root structure (Mitchell, 1985). The worst thing about it, is it can
produce sexually and asexually proved by the laboratory experiment of (Ueki & Oki, 1979) that
ten to 100% of existing seeds are found to germinate within six months, with dry conditions
promoting germination. The strongest determinants of water hyacinth to grow and reproduce are
nutrients and temperature (Wilson et al. 2007). One great fact is that water hyacinth has limited
spreading ability in cooler latitudes (Rodriguez-Gallego et al.); however, recent climate change
models suggest that the distribution of aquatic species is likely to expand in temperate regions
(Hellmann et al., 2008; Rahel & Oden, 2008).

Water hyacinth has invaded freshwater systems in over 50 countries on five continents, it
is especially pervasive throughout Southeast Asia, the southern United States, central and
western Africa and central America (Bartodzieji & Weymouth, 1995; Brendonck et al., 2003; Lu
et al.,2007; Martinez Jimenez &Gomez Balandra, 2007). It is prevalent in tropical and sub-
tropical water bodies where nutrient levels are often high due to agricultural runoff,
deforestation, and insufficient water waste treatment. There is no clear record of how, why, and
when water hyacinth was introduce to water bodies outside of the native range, but many
populations are well established and persistent despite control efforts.

As a result of its rapid growth and large biomass, E. crassipes has a range of detrimental
effects, which include:

 Physical interference with water transport, communication and access. (Gopal, 1987)
refers to serious interference with navigation in southern USA, South Africa, southeast
Asia, Australia, Congo and Sudan. Annual costs of control or removal have, in the past,
amounted to millions of dollars on the Panama Canal, on the Nile in Sudan, on the Congo
and have been as much as $35 million in southern USA. Costs of controlling water
hyacinth in Malaysia have been estimated at M$ 10 million per year (Mahomed et al.,
1992), while (Harley et al., 1996) quoting this figure, state that present actual costs are
believed to be much higher. In recent years, the operation of Port Bell, Uganda, on Lake
Victoria has been seriously threatened and costs have involved $1 million for a
mechanical harvester, as well as the loss of trade at times when the port was completely
blocked (Hill, 1999). Infestations are also increasing in Ethiopia, creating a range of
problems including restricted access (Aweke, 1994). (Harley et al., 1996) refer to
'devastating effects' on socio-economic structure and on the environment in the lower
flood plain of the Sepik river in Papua New Guinea resulting from problems of access to
subsistence gardens, hunting and fishing areas, and markets. The same authors refer to
the recent increase in water hyacinth infestations in West Africa which are resulting in
serious disruption of the socio-economic structure, food supply and health of several
million people. In Nigeria, (Alimi and Akinyemiju, 1991) showed that costs of fuel and
repairs to boats on infested waterways was approximately three times that on uninfested
waterways. The problem has also been increasing recently in Mali (Dembele et al., 2000).
Economic losses also result from interference with recreational uses of water bodies (for
example, Gopal, 1987; Aweke, 1994; Cilliers et al., 1996).
 Interference with fishing. This effect is most acute for small-scale fishing communities.
Apart from the problems of access to fishing grounds and interference with the spreading
or retrieval of nets or with landing their catch, there can be serious effects on fish stocks
 and fish breeding. Although a sparse cover of water hyacinth may not reduce fish and
may even be used to advantage in some fishing techniques (Gopal, 1987), a dense
infestation can lead to de-oxygenation and kill-off fish or reduce fish stocks. (Gopal,
1987) refers to heavy losses of fish production in the Congo, Nile and other rivers and in
Pakistan and to losses amounting to 45 million kg in West Bengal, India in the 1950s and
reductions of 70% in fish production in the USA as a result of a cover of only 25%,
presumably due to reduction of phosphorus levels and phytoplankton. The shallow water
of lake edges can be especially important spawning areas for fish and a dense cover of
water hyacinth can interfere severely with fish breeding. (Hill, 1999) refers to this
phenomenon on Lake Victoria where the estimated 10,000 ha of the weed includes an
almost continuous fringe along the shoreline extending to at least 10 m. (Labrada, 1996)
quotes fuel costs increased by a factor of 2-3 and fish catches down 50-75% on parts of
Lake Victoria. Fishermen affected by another relatively new infestation, in the Shire river
in Malawi, report reduced catches which are not confirmed by the locally available
statistics but there is no doubt fishermen are being troubled by a reduced range of fish
species, loss of nets and impeded access (Terry, 1996).
 Reduced irrigation flow can indirectly cause crop loss but there can also be direct
interference and competition from water hyacinth where it occurs in flooded rice. Such
losses have been estimated at many million dollars in West Bengal, India and as
significant in many other countries including Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia,
Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Japan and Portugal (Gopal, 1987).

What is of very serious concern is that water hyacinth is known to provide micro-habitats
to dangerous disease vectors like mosquito larvae. Today there are several deadly diseases spread
by mosquitoes (Aedes Aegypti), and some are well-known like Dengue Fever, Malaria, Filaria
and the latest Chikungunya.

Phytochemicals is the chemicals that are present naturally in plants. Now a days these
phytochemicals become more popular due to their countless medicinal uses. Phytochemicals play
a vital role against number of diseases such as asthma, arthritis, cancer and etc., unlike
pharmaceutical chemicals these phytochemical do not have side effects. Larvicide is an
insecticide that is specifically targeted against the larval life stage of an insect, specifically
mosquitos and a biological control agent. Through the study of this phytochemical analysis and
larvicidal activity we can fight against the high rate of mosquito larvae that water hyacinth is one
of the caused.

Statement of the Problem

The water hyacinth that was originated from the South America was introduced into a
botanic garden because of its striking flowers that caught the eye of the many other countries,
from which it inevitably spread as a weed. And shortly after, it was introduced as an ornamental
plant and spread in a lot of countries around the world.

However, the water hyacinths (Eichhornia Crasspies) more likely affect the ecological
balance and the socio-economic growth. Through this spreading, it invaded a lot of livestock
production, physical interference with water transport, reduced irrigation flow, and a higher risk
of mosquito larvae in every country.

The inefficiency of the other countries to represent a financial burden about the problem
caused to spend a lot of money every year. Annual costs of control or removal have, in the past,
amounted to millions of dollars, while quoting this figure, state that present actual costs are
believed to be much higher.

…Based Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, [1] on the application of

We have found that the water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crasspies) through an article about
the phytochemical analysis of the water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crasspies) showed that the
phenolics content of water hyacinth with methanol 60% equal to gallic acid 2.72 mg /kg is the
highest phenolics content, and the lowest phenolics by distilled water equal to gallic acid 1.07
mg /kg and the flavonoids with methanol 80% equal to 3.29 mg quercetin/kg is the highest
flavonoids content, and the lowest by the distilled water of quercetin 1.65 mg /kg and the highest
condensed tannins content by methanol 80% of 0.7 mg/kg catechin. Since methanol has shown
that it can be effective as a larvicide. We are going to use the methanol from the water hyacinth
(Eichhornia Crasspies) to create a larvicide.

Hypotheses

By using the phytochemical analysis method on the water hyacinth, we have a higher
chance of decreasing the rate of its spreading and by using the compounds within it; we may be
able to stop the increasing rate of mosquitoes in our environment.

Significance of the Study

This study will be a significant endeavor in promoting a good environment for both the
young and old. Why? Mosquitoes can cause sickness and death through the diseases they can
carry. By researching how to use the phytochemical found in the water hyacinth (Eichornia
Crassipes) we may be able to find a solution on how to decrease the rate of mosquitoes. Hence,
we are helping the environment become a better and safer place.
Scope and Limitations of the Study

The Scope of this study covers everything about the water hyacinth (Eichornia Crassipes)
that will be able to fight against the larvicidal activity of a mosquito (Aedes Aegypti). The study
of the phytochemical analysis of water hyacinth against mosquito larvae will be restricted to
Zamboanga City. Samples of water hyacinths (Eichornia Crassipes) will be acquired from a
fellow researcher’s farm and experiments on this study will be conducted within research
laboratories.