Grammar reference Unit I | Adverbs of frequency 1.1 Meaning ‘These adverbs are used to talk about how often we do ‘things. We can put them in order from most often to least often like this: always almost always ‘generslly/normally/regulary/usually/ ‘requerily/ofien sometimes/occasionally rarely/seldom/almost never/hardly ever never/not.. ever most often least often 1.2 Position Instatements, these adverbs usually come « after be wen itis the only verb in the sentence. 1'm always a bit depressed in winter * before the main verb when there is only one verb. Wee sometimes watch a video on Friday evenings. * after the first auxiliary verb when there is more than one verb, Ihave often been told that. In questions, these adverbs usually come after the subject. Don'tyou usually work with Jenny? In negative sentences, nat comes before always, generally, normally, often, regularly and usualy. We don't often see him nowadays ‘With imperatives, avvays and never come at the beginning of the sentence. Always look on the bright side of life. Never refuse an opportuni ‘Adverbials consisting of several words, such as every day, ‘on Friday evenings or every few years usually come at the end of the sentence, but cen also come at the beginning, ‘Ym always a bit depressed in winter | phone my brother every few doys. On Friday evenings we sometimes watch a fim. 140 Grammar reference Exercise 1 ‘Add the adverb in brackets to the correct place in each sentence. 1 Does she come by car? (generally) 2 Take care when using this machinery (always) 3 They’tea little nervous at the beginning, (sometimes) 4 Idon't go to the gym on Fridays. (usualy) 5 They've been told that. (often) 2 Present time 2.1 Present simple Use 7 Examples | For routine or regular We go forarun every repeated actions and evening. habits (often with adverts spe doesn't do any work ‘or adverbial phrases of frequency like always, usually, never, every Saturday morning, twice a week), allies When we are talking about | She comes from permanent situations, and South America. aparticulartime reference they ive in London. isnotimportant. ‘With stative verbs. These Usually relate to states, ‘thoughts, emotions and senses, eg, be, have, ‘at weekends. Inever get home before eight o'clock. Does she understand? They don't have a can | I'msony, but/ disagree | depend. know, think SUPE | nderstand, disagree like, That perfume smells want hear, fove, see, foo strong. smel, taste. ee With scientific facts, to say | Water freezes at 0°C. something is always or generally true ‘Watch out! When using stative verbs to describe things ‘we sense (sights, sounds, smells, etc) we often use the model verb can. ean see you. Jean'thear the music. Can you fee! the heat?2.2 Present continuous \We can use the present continuous with dynamic verbs (verbs that describe actions or things that happen) in the following ways Use Exemples | for actions happening He's watching TV in at this moment || his bedroom, for changing/developing | /'m getting better situations __| at French. for temporary situations {'m staying at this hotel for we may find annoying or key 7 \We can also use the present continuous with some stative verbs such as be, have, take, think, depend, appear, but this usually changes the meaning, * She's overconfident. (stative -it'sa permanent state) ‘She's being overconfident, (dynamic i's temporary feeling) * Thave my own apartment. (stative-| possess it) I'm having a great time here. (dynamic—"'mn experiencing it} + [think ita good book (stative- it’s my opinion) I'm thinking about changing my job. (dynamic I'm considering it) «= She depends on her parents for money. (stative —it's a Jong-term state) I'm depending on you to help me. (dynamic— it's a temporary situation) Occasionally, as with the verb ‘feel’, there may be litle or no difference in meaning, eel great! Tm feeling greet! 2.3 be used to/get used to Be used to + ing describes habits and states that we have ‘hecome accustomed to, She's used to sleeping in a tent because she often goes camping. She isn’t used to sleeping ina tent as she's never been camping, Isshe used to sleeping in tent? Get used to + ing describes habits and states that we are ‘becoming accustomed to He's getting used to living in London but he stil misses the countryside Ishe getting used to living in London? Forthe negative, can’tis usually added. He can’t get used to living in London. GRAMMAR REFERENCE Exercise 2 Complete the sentences with the correct present form of the verb in brackets. 1 usually ...uuu t9 the gym on Sundays, (go) 2 Thechildren very quickly (grow up) 3 IAHINK SE ve ean bit unfair—he didn't mean to upset her (be) 4 She any better at maths even though she has. private tutor (not get] 5 Sally ....nu,t0 be enjoying the course (appear) painkillers, 6 Even when | have a bad headache | (rot take) Used to walking to school ~ he's always 8 Itseemed very cold at frst but now we ‘the weather. (get) Used to 3 Habit in the past 3.1 used to + bare infinitive Used 10+ bare infinitive refers to past habits and states that do nat occur now or no longer exist. * People used to buy CDs, but now they pay to download music * What did people use to co before electricity vas invented? * I didn’t use to be good at English but |am now. | Watch out! The past partciple (used in the negative | and question form) is use 3.2 would Would is used to talk about past habits and repeated actions but NOT about past states, thoughts, emotions, etc. ® When | was litle, !would/used to play with my brother's toys. (habit) NOT We wotletive in smailvillage (state) 3.3 Past simple {f t's clear from the context that a habit or state is being referred to, the past simple can be used instead of used to or would. * When was @ child, | walked to school every day. Exercise 3 Decide if one or both verbs are possible. 11 When | was six years old, my best friend was/would be Bill Steet. 2 Bily and | used to st/sat next to each other in class 33 Our families didn't/mouldn’t have much money at that time. 4 Every evening Billy and | pisyed/would play in the park. 5 We dian ‘tuse to/wouldn’t go home until twas datk. Grammar reference 141- GRAMMAR REFERENCE When used with the infinitive, the meaning tends ‘to be related to something in the present or future. orto purpose. + remember/forget + to infinitive refers to an action after the moment of remembering of forgetting Did you remember to lack the door? | forgot to give Sally the book * stop + ing means stop something you were doing, eg.ahabit. I've stopped drinking coffee’ it kept me awake at night. * stop + fo infinitive means stop what you are doing in ‘order to do something else. We stopped to have a coffee on the way home. + regret + ing means be sorry about an action that happened in the past. [regret not telling him about itearier ‘regret + 0 infinitive means be sorry about a present action. {regret to tell you that your car has been stolen, (= formal) -t1y+-ing means do an experiment. (=doing the action may not be successful) Try studying in the moming ~it might suit you better, * try + to infinitive means make an effort. (=the action may be difficult or impossible to do) Try to studyat regular times. Exercise 3 Choose the correct verb pattern in italics. 41 You have to learn putting up with/to aut up with certain things in a big family 2 My parents can’t afford buying/to buy mea lot of new clothes. 3 | tried doing/to do @ weekend job ina shop but | didn'tenjoyit. 4 The manager wanted me starting/to start at 6.30am. but that was too ear 5 Most of the time we enjoy helaing/to helo with the housework 6 If we forget doing/to do our jobs at home, we get Into trouble. 7 There's always someone who will agree helping/to helo ime if have a problem, 8 I've never resented being/to be partof a big family 144° Grammar reference Unit 3 | Using modifiers for comparison 1.1 Types of comparison There are three types of comparison. 1 toa higher degree (comparative form + than) ‘Mountain climbing is more dangerous than windsurfing. The Andes mountains are higher than the Alps. 2 tothe same degree (as... 2s) Hiring e car would cost just as much as getting a taxi. I don’t enjoy swimming as much as | used to. 3 toa lower degree (with less + than and the feast) 1am less keen on taking risks than | used to be. ‘Antarctica is the least densely populated continent, 1.2 Using modifiers for comparison Modifiers Comparative/ - es a (very) much | more/less expensive | than far | cheaper alot more/less time | rather more/iess Gificult | slightly | abiviitle 70 Sl 4 just ascheaplexpensve | aS... almost/nearly as much time not quite 8/50 unusual | notnearly as/so difficult (oy) far the most/least expensive | the cheapest the most time Exercise 1 Choose the correct option in italics. 1 Patisisn't any/isn’t quite cheaper than Milan ~in fact it’s more expensive 2 it's lot/ty far the most beautiful city ve ever visited, 3 Renting an apartment can be rather/not quite cheaper than ahotel 4 Iwas feeling slightiy/just better so | decided 10.0 forawelk 5 This caris not quite/a litle more expensive than the other one.GRAMMAR REFERENCE 2 Present perfect and past simple Use Present perfect | To talk about states, or ingle or I've always wanted to be an actor. simple | repeated actions, overs period of time ve never entered a suring competition. | up to and including the present (often Have you ever been to Australia? | with ever, never, often, always for, since, She's read that book at least ten times. | this week/month/year). That's the first time I've ever eaten octopus. | It’s the worst concert I've ever been to, To talk about completed single actions, _ Ive already seem that film, let's go to another one. | with some relevance to the present Our friends have just arrived, | (often with just already, yet). Have you had breakfast yet? | | — haven't finished vrting yet. | Present perfect | To talkebouta recent completed A: Why are you out of breath? continuous activity when the effects of that activity Bi/'ve been running. | | arestil relevant, a _| Totalkabout an action thet'sbeen I've been replying to emails all moming going on for along time, or that’sbeen Has he been training ever since last yeer? | fepeated many times. The action may —_ He hasn't been singing at all for the past few years. | or may not be finished, _| "To suggest that an activity is temporary. ve been living here for five years but '’m going to move | soon. | To suggest that an action is not I've been reading his biography, but | haven't finished it | - __ leet es | Past simple MTotelkaboutafinishedeventthat | saw Paul ast night | (See also Grammar | happened at a specific time in the past, | went to Brezil ive years ago. Reference Unit 4 ci _{ didn't phone him yesterday. | formoreusesof | To talk about a habit in the past Did your parents reac toyou when younereachig? | the past simple) a state in the past. The house belonged tomy father formary yee Exercise 2 Match the phrases in bold in sentences 1-9 to the tenses and uses Al. 1 You cen see she's been swimming —her hai’sstil wet 2 I knew almost everyone at the party, 3 Carols been working here for the last few weeks while Chloe's away having a baby. 4 Ive only worn that shir: three times since | bought. 5 I've been having diving lessons for months but Im not getting any better, 6 All my frends at school played football, not rugby. 7 I've just seen Carrie, she sent you her best wishes, 8 Harry's birthday party didn’t end until three in the morning, 9 They've been building that house for ages and it's stil only half-finished, ‘A Present perfect continuous: to emphasise that an action has been going on for along time B Past simple: for a state in the past C Present perfect continuous:to suggest that an activityis not complete D Present perfect:for an action repeated up to the present time E Past simple: for a finished event that hagpened ata spectictime in the past F Present perfect continuous:to suggest that an activityis temporary G Present perfect: fora completed single action, with some relevance to the present H Past simple: for a habit in the past 1 Present perfect continuous: for a recent completed activity when the effects are stil relevant Grammar reference 145GRAMMAR REFERENCE 3 as and like 3.1 like 1 like can be @ preposition, meaning 'similarto’ or ‘inthe same way 25. Do you 100k like your sister? Like John, | hate cooking. 2 ike can mean ‘such as/‘or example’ Let's buy her something nice, like @ bunch of flowers 3 Weuse the question What ike? when we are asking for a description of a person, place or thing ‘What's the restaurant like?"Oh, realy good.’ 4 fee! ike + object/-ing is used to talk about something that we want or want to do. | feel ike (eating) some crisps. 55 seem/sound/look lke + object is used to intraduce an idea we may not be completely sure about. Itseems like a good idea. 6 like isnot used before an adjective on its own. They seem tke hapay. 32as 1 ascan bea preposition, coming before the name of a role or job, of can be used to describe the purpose of something. She works as a sales manager. We use the loft asa play room for the kis | think of her as my best fiend, 2 ascan bea conjunction, followed by subject + verb, to describe manner. You should do 3s your parents say, Iida as we agreed earlier. | Watch out! in colloquial English like is also used -a8 a conjunction in this way, but this is regarded as incorrect by some people end is not used in formal writing. Like | said, he’s really nice guy. (colloquial) want you to do like | tel you. (colloquial) 3.3 asiffas though Asif/As though ate conjunctions followed by subject + verb, * They ate followed by the present or present perfect ‘when referring to something likely He looks as if he's crying, {looks as iFi’s stopped raining. ++ To show that something is imaginaiy or unlikely, they can be followed by the past tense. He behaves as if he knew more than us. He looked as if he hadi seen 2 ghost. "Watch out! in colloquial English like is also used instead of asf/as though, You look like you're worried. (colloquial) It looks like we're going to win. (colloquial) 146 Grammar reference Exercise 3 Match 1-8 to A-H to make sentences. 1 |havelong dar hair, 2 He's always losing things, 3 | suggested going shopping, 4 She says she doesn't fee! like 5 Buying anew printer looks 6 'veahvays thought of you 7 it's probably best to-do 8 Conoracts {A doing anything tonight. B asyour father suggests. lee his phone and his keys. Dasithe wasin charge of usall. E like my sister. F as someone | could depend on G like the best solution to the problem. H but she didn't fee ike it Unit 4 | Articles 1.1 The definite article: the Use Examples ‘when the person or thing | The sun came out and relerred tos unique soon we were diy. | The president is giving a speech tonight. | He won a medal at the | OlympicGames. when the est of the The head of my ofd school sentence makesitclear | nas called Mi-lones. whatwearereferringto | the waman whostopped | me was wearing a badge. when the surourding Yourshoes are in the context makes itclearwhat | cupboard, wearereteringto | Youreinner'sin the fridge._| totalk about previously | Amananda women } | mentioned things or walked past. The man was people | wearing sunglasses with superlatives | He's the bravest person in oo theteam tolalkabouta generic | The bicycle was invented | dasscf things oRenon | about 200 years aga topics related to science or | The panda isin dangerof technology) | becoming extinct. |GRAMMAR REFERENCE The definite article continued 1.3 Zero article (no article) Use - | Examples Use | Examples \with some social and The unemployed need for uncountable, plural | We had aviful weather national groups, when | more sugpor. ‘and abstract nouns used in | on holiday. | making generalisations | some of the English ‘their general sense Happiness isn't the only (followed by a plural verb) | are descended from Danish thing inf. | invaders ___|_|forcontinents, countries, | They're going to vst Africa, | with areas such as north, | Most ofthe copulation ve | | mountains and lakes Have you been to Nepal? centre ete inthenorth. ‘st cirhed det with oceans, seas,rivers He's sailed across Everest. | and deserts the Atlantic. ‘cheer iant ec? ee ras Hor vilages, towns Wellington isthe capital | Setnmet | [and cities __lofwew Zealand. | | She sar she‘ orwen 2cO55 | for streets and roads There are some nice houses KG [asker | | ‘on Schoo! Road. | with plural mountain eae | ee“ eee | | enges and island groups | the Himalayas? | terete i ee esee ss The British Isles include = SE the Isle of Wight and the Soe ee | | [ise ofman | Wc ‘ut /'ve gota headache and I think ’m getting with countries whose | He's fiom the Czech ny name includes acommon | Republic, buthe's ving in | There are no articles in the following expressions: noun such as republic, isles, | the United States. islands, states [ if Exemples with singularcountable | like sandwich and nouns (mentioned forthe a glass of watey first time or when t doesnt | nat you neds arest, matterwhichone) | amanhascorretoseeyou. [totaik about (singular) | She’sa lawyer | jobs and interests: ma big football fan: with these numbers: 100, | There were overa hundred 1,000, 1,000,000 people at the wedaling. He made a million pounds | mone year | Whatan amazing view! inexclamations about singular countable nouns tofat/from school/university/college athome 90 home into ciass to/in/into/from church t0/in/intovout of pison/hospital/bed tofai/from work for/at/to breakfast/unch/dinner by car/bus/oicycle/plane train/tube/boat on fot byaccident/chance Exercise 1 ‘Complete the sentences with the definite article (the), indefinite article (a/an) or zero article (-) 1 future often brings surprises 2 HE'S noun. Wery keen cyclist, 3 You'd better get Out of... bed=it's lat 4 The climate is best in... South-east of the country. 5 The doctor said she was suffering from depression 6 Walt a minute lust get my bag outof.... 7 \thinkyou ought to have holiday. 8 There'll bea special bus available for. 9 _ nurse who | saw first said that nothi was wrong, 10 \'mhoping to study _. business at university. Grammarreference 147GRAMMAR REFERENCE 2 Narrative forms 2.1 Past simple Use Examples totakkabouta finished | saw Paul last night. Jevent thet happened ata |j went to Brazil five specifictimeinthepast | years ago (See Grammar Reference junit) | | totalk about a habit in the | Did yourparents read to past ‘you when you were (See Grammar Reference | 8 child? Units tand3) = | totalkabouta state in the | The house belonged to my pest father for many years, (See Grammar Reference Unit 3) to describea sequence | [took out mykey, opened of finished events in the door and walked in, chronological order el in eported speech ‘She said she didn't want tojoin us 2.2 Past continuous Use Examples |tedescribe an action in | Iwas sitting in the garden, | progress in the past, often | reading book | to set the scene for a | | particular event totalkebout temporary | Rodolfo was living situationsin the past _| South America atthe time. to talk about an event that | was going out ofthe ‘was in progressin the past | house when | heard and was interrupted anote. totalk about multiple | While! was painting, he actions in progress atthe | was watching TV same time in the past totalkabout anticicated | We were going to Rome events that did not happen | fora holidgy, but then / broke my leg. 2.3 Past perfect Use Examples torefer toa time earlier | When the police arrived, the than another point in| criminal had disappeared. | the past, when this is needed to make the lorderofeventsclear | in reported speech They said they hadi never met before. 148° Grammar reference ‘Watch out! Be careful not to overuse the past perfect. Once we have established the time sequence, we can revert to the past simple. When | got home | realised that | had lost my phone I'd | definitely had it when I left work, because | used! it to check when the next tin was due, and I called my wife totellher when 'd be home. The past perfect is not necessary with before/after, which make the sequence of events clear on their own, although tis not incorrect, Peter arrived after (had) finished writing the letter Exercise 2 Change each sentence to the form 1 He saw Annie at the concert. (question) 2 She enjoyed the long drive to work (negative) 3 Brian was working at the hospital in 2015. (negative) 4 Hewas expecting the children to help. (question) 5 The whole family had gone on the expedition. (question) 6 Thevolunteers had had the chance to meet the public. (negative) 7 The car belonged tohis older brother. (question + negative) 8 They had expected to meet you at the airport. (question +negatve) ‘9 The books were being sold at reduced prices. (question negative) 10 Allthe students had been on a trip to Paris. (question + negative) Exercise 3 Decide if one or both verbs are possible. 1 Ihad leamit/leamt to ski before | went to Switzerland. 2. When he had soent/spent some years working in Southeast Asia he decided to return to England. 3 Istarted to work as a journalist after | had married/ married Stefan. 4 The animals had all disappeared/all cisanpeared by the time we got to the water hole. 5 I had fist met/first met Frances when | was working in a bank in London, but then we lost touch. in in brackets.GRAMMAR REFERENCE Unit 5 | Expressions of quantity 1.1 Countable nouns These have both a singuler enc 2 plure! ‘orm, and canbe Used with a/an. For example: able, rouse child 1.2 Uncountabie nouns: ‘These have no plural and cannot be u: a/an, For example: accommodation, advice, behaviour, furniture, health, information, knowledge, luggage, news, progress, esearch, ce (ard il otner ara ns) salt scenery, spaghetti traf trenspor.trave trouble, water (and al othe: liquids) weather work. | Watch out! Use a slice and 2 piece with | uncountable nouns for food. | ritjusthave 2 small slice of cake. | Woutd you ke another piece of toast? 4.3 Some nouns can be countable or uncountable These include # nouns we can think of as a substance or as a single thing, eg. chicken, cake, chocolate, egg, hair, ron, paper, stone You've got chocolate on your Fshirt There are only two chocolates leftin the box. Green vegetables are rich in iron, We'llhave to buy a new iron. J need to go and buy some paper for the printer Have you read today’s paper? ‘nouns which are used to refer to particularvarieties,€.3, wine, cheese. Would you like some wine? This sa very good wine. ‘+ words forsome drinks e.g, cofee, beer The countable ‘noun means glass of a cupot,@ bottle of etc Coffee's produced in Africa and South America, ‘Shall we have a coffee and a piece of cake? * time, space, om. There’s no time to tak —we have to rush! {didn’t have a very good time at the party. Expressions of quantity used with countable/uncountable nouns There’s no space left. You'll have to get another bag. Filin the spaces with the comect preposition. There's room for seven people in this car This house has seven rooms, Exercise 1 ‘Choose the correct option in italics, 1 I don’t eat many/much fresh fruit. 2 There aren't a lot of/hardly any green vegetables forsale 3 I drink very few/very litte water. 4 We eat hardly any/very fev meat at home. 5 lonly eata ltle/a fev eggs each week 6 I'dlike to have some/a few rice with my curry. 7 \ tink fot of/many orange juice. 8 There sn'tno/any chocolate let 2 Subject/Verb agreement When 2 noun is preceded by a quantifier, the following verb is not affected —it stil agrees with the noun thats, the subject of the sentence, Alot of people are coming to the party, arcly any ofthe students in my clas lke maths With sentences beginning There is/are the verb depends ‘on the following noun. There isa lot of cheese leftin the fridge. There are quite a few people coming to the party Exercise 2 Complete the sentences with is or are. 1 The first few weeks... the most dificult, 2 Hardly any of the rosesin the garden blooming, 3 Onyabr ot the orange juice | bought for the children le 4 Thee hardly any chocolates left in the box. 5 Very few of the players in that team 6 Thee... hot much useful inform those books. much | many | alotol/ | some |afew/ver | harsly | altle/a bit J ary | no ] _— ||| bots of few any _ offverylittle | with countable nouns a Lede with uncountablenouns | . | in positive sentences _— . . . . 7. Grammarreferonce 149GRAMMAR REFERENCE 3 Passive forms 3.1 Form To form the passive, use the appropriate tense of be + past participle. piesentsimple | Most phone cells are made on 2 __| mobile phones. _ an! present Galls are being made every day. continuous pastsimple The frst email was sent in 1971. ast continuous | [thought was being asked to help. Present perfect | Millions of text messages have been sent. past perfect. | Once personalcomputershad been | invented, they spread quickly. future will She'll be given herown room. futureperfect | The arrangements will have been made by the end of the week going io The event is going to be organised bythe manager models The machine must have been left | switched on, Messages may not be delivered immediately | ing Ourdog doesn't like being left on | | “his own, | presentinfintive _ They hope to be chosen to take part perfect infinitive | / was happy to have been selected forthe team Watch out! | 1 Iftwo verbs in sentence both have the same subject znd passive auxiliary, the second auxiliary can be omitted The fit is washed and peeled. 2 Verbs that do not take an object (e.g. ache, arrive, sit down} do not have passive forms. tis not possible to faye 3 Forverbs with two objects, one of them a person, the passive sentence usually begins with the person, Someone gave Mary a present. Mary was given a present. (NOT A-present-was-giver-to- Mary) 4 The verbs make, hear, see, help are followed by the infinitive without to in active sentences, but the infinitive with toin passive sentences. They made him go home, -+ He was made to go home. 5 Let does not have a passive form. We use be allowed to in the passive They don'tlet us tak in class: + We are not allowed to talkin class, 150 Grammar reference 3.2.Use The passive is used * totakaboutactions eventsand processes when the action, ‘event.or pocess is seen as more important than the agert ‘hiss often the case in formal orscientfc wnting, The equipment was checked carefully Rats have been trained to open boxes. * tolink with a preceding sentence, and/or put new information, or a ong phrase, laterin the sentence. Ifthe agent is mentioned, we use the preposition by. In May the markets of Morccco are full of roses. Many of these are grown by the inhabitants of a remote valley high in the mountains. 3.3 Passive reporting verbs We often use reporting verbs such as believe claim, report say, think in impersonel passive structures when we don't know or don’t wish to specify the subject. + ita be + verbs + that {ts thought that the criminal sa local man. (~ present) Jt was claimed that the minister had been involved, 2st) «subject + be + reporting verb + infinitive The criminal is thought to be a local man. (present) The minister was claimed to have been involved, Exercise 3 Complete the passage with the correct auxiliary verbs. The fist pinaPPIe (1). snsninne DROUGHEtO EUTOpE bby Christopher Columbus in 1500 and presented to the King of Spain, Later, special heated glasshouses @ Bult by wealthy landowners so that ‘vopical pineapple piants could (3)... .. made toproduce fruit. Now fresh pineapples which (4) been flown in from other countries can (5). bought relatively cheaply. Exercise 4 Rewrite the sentences using passive reporting verbs. 1 People reported that there were gunshots tee. ee : 2 People claim that the money was stolen. a i . 3 People think that the suspect has left the country, The suspect 4 People say that the police made a lot of mistakes, The police 5 People believe that the criminal had a false passpor ttRAMMAR REFERENCE Unit 6 | Future forms 41.1 shail, will + infinitive without to Use Examples for predicting This medicine will make you something based | fee! sleepy onthespeater’s | You‘ilfeel better when you've belief or their had a good night's rest ee The tiain will eave from an expe plationm 10, Morfuture actions | think’'ll take the day off decided atthe time | 4) wear my black dress. ofspesking for promises, Ifyou tell anyone; kill you! threats offers and | pramise ll pay the money back neuuess (Mi meet you atthe station it ‘you want. Shall meet you atthe station? willyou do the washing-up ss J forme? Watchouth 1 We can also use going to in many of these cases, especially in spoken English, without much change in meaning. This medicine's going to make you fee! a bt sleepy. | think 'm going to take the day off | promise 'm going to pay the money back 2 We can also use other modals instead of will to refer to the future, e.g. might could, should, vrould. These generally suggest some uncertainty about what is being predicted, They may be a part of conditional structures, {suppose he might win the race, buttseems untkely The vreather could be better tomorrow, We should be eble to afford it if we save up. They would probably agree if you asked them. 1.2going to Use | Examples = ‘to suggest that things are Look out-you're | certain to happen because | going to fall? thereis present evidence | rye got no sense of | direction —1 know lm L 7 going to get lost. to tak about Tm going to tel him personal intentions the truth, They're both going ta anply forthe job. She's decided she's going torlose ten kilos They're going to havea party sometime soon, Where are you going to-have the wedding - | reception? 1.3 Present continuous Ue Bamps totalk about things that | We're all meeting at sic have already been decided | o'clock. orplanned,oftentora | im» having my haircut definite time in the future tomorrow. They're getting the six o'clock train. | We're moving toa new | apartment next week Watch out! it's also possible to use going toin cases. | like this. With going to the intention is stressed more, ‘but the difference in meaning between the two forms may be very small. 14 Present simple Use | Examples 1 totakaboutfined | The plane leaves at 45am, arrangements forthe | rhe new term starts future, for example, a5 | in September ‘expressed in timetables, _ | regulations and | beasgeantnes | | intimeclausesand __|I1sée her when/as soon as | conditional causes with | she's free, afuture meaning, €.9. | Give this to Susie if you | after, as soon as, before, see her (unless, unt, when | om can't apply forthe | job until he gets the right | uatifcations Grammar referencea RAMMAR REFERENCE 152 Watch out! I's also possible to use will when talking ‘about fixed arrangements, since these are predictions ‘based on expert knowledge, Jut we cannot use wil in | time clauses or in conditional clauses. Exercise 1 Complete the sentences with the correct future form of the verb in brackets. 1 The school year in Britain aways induly. lena) 2 She assures me that she., there on time. (get) 3 She... todrama college, whatever her parents 2). (app) 4 Theyre rehearsing so hard ~ 'm sure the performance agreat success. (be) 5 YOU kNOW, | EHIME seanone Steve 10 the party after ali. (invite) 6 sl nonunnns YOU Sere? (el) 7 I think you » that it’s actually quite simple if you follow my instructions. (find) B TREY coc cnun music festival in our town in July. (hols) ‘9 He'll open the door as soon as he us. (see) Exercise 2 Match the uses of future forms 1-8 to the ‘examples A-H. 1 wil a promise) 2 will(an expert opinion) 3 will (a decision made at the moment of speaking) 4 going to (an opinion based on present evidence) 5 going to (a personal intention) 6 present continuous (a planned event) 7 present simple (a timetabled event) 8 present simple (a time clause witha future meaning) A The road willbe closed, B The conference isin the first week of Apri € She's gone very pele —she's going to faint. D They're getting married somatime next year. E I'lcell Greham now, shall? F When you arrive atthe alrpon, phone me. G Iwon'ttell anyone. H I'm going to apply to university next year Grammar reference 2 Future perfect and continuous 2.1 Future perfect (will/shall/may/might/could + have + past participle) to describe something that | been at this school for will be completed beforea 3 year definite timein the future gy the time you get home, we'll have tidied everything up. | Willyou have finished youressay by this evening? 2.2 Future continuous (will/shall/may/might! could + be + -ing) Use =k {0 say that an action will | bein progress at a definite timein the future (with Examples by this time next year After we've sold the house, anexpression of time or | we'll be renting a flat for frequen) avhile. We'd better not goat eight o'clock - they'll be having a aC = totalkaboutihingsyou | Shelllbe appearing ina expect to happen, often | performance of Rameo and because some sortof _| Juliet next week, arrengerenthesbeen | be using my parents’ made (with an expression | car while they're avy of time or frequency} Wicdbenaaiegio London soon, Will you be going to Spain _| this summer? Exercise 3 Read the passage and complete the gaps using the future continuous or the future perfect with will. A bright future for our town In five years’ time our town will be completely different. More people (1)... (travel) by bicycle as the council 2) construct) more bike lanes. They (3) (pedestrianise) the city centre and people (4) cu (Stl) round the trafficree streets, The COUNEH (5) «anne. (f@NOVated) the old buildings such 2s the Town Hall and (6) -.nn0un. (Build) new facilities such asa gym and a concert The river authorities (7) ..nns: (clean up) the river bank and people (8)........... (canoe) on the water, Of course, all these changes will cast money, but we're sure it will be worth it. Tilbe living anormal lifeGRAMMAR REFERENCE Unit 7 1.2 certainty (deduction) _ - - | Modal Use Examples | Modal verbs Trust | tosaythatwe | Yournustbe 1A possibility aresureabout | pleased with your ee a something inthe | exem results | Modal __| Use _ Examples __| presentor past (= present) cenorcould | theoretical Can there belifeon | He must have | possibilty Mars? | touched up the Theweathercoukd | | photograph. bbe better tomorrow eee (past) ___ © it'spossibley can’tor innegative That can't be the may, might, | kelihoodin the | He may be in a | couldn't | sentences, to right answer. could + bare | present orfuture | meeting | sey weare sure (= present) infinitive | She might/could be | somethingisn't/ | 7hey can't have got [ here skeady | wasn'ttrve fost~they hada couldimay/ the possibility | Hs face is farifr. rp seat) | might + | that past events | Wemay have met Tom couldn’ have hrave-+east_ | rappered somewhere before, | been hesiet | participle He's not in the office (opt (perfect Hemight have —— —~ infinitive) finished workearly, | Watch out! We do not use mustn‘t in negate sheets sentences expressing ceriainy. Instead we use can't, | been at the party, ‘She mustn't be pleased with her results | | but didn't see her ‘She can't be pleased with her resus. 13 ability Modal Use |_Exemples — | ‘cantcould ‘to express general ability and typical | Temperatures can rise to over 30°C in the summer | behaviour of people or things Employers can be unwilling to employ people over fifty. a - |i tn oh bi sh | cenibeableto | for present and future ability | can understand French but can't speakit very well. ll your parents be able to helo you? | | __| ike beng able to cook my own meals can for the future, where there is a sense of | /can come tomorrow ifyoulike. opportunity ___| You can practise your French vrhen you go to Pacis. couldicouldn't and_|totalk about general ability in could swim before I could walk | was able to thie pase Iwas able to talk when | was eighteen months old. ___| atthat ime reoutdn't drive. was/wasn'table to | to talk ebout ability ina specific | Fortunately, he was able to swim tothe shore ee situation in the past st could/couldn't+ | totalk about unfuifiled ability in ‘could have gone to university, but decided not to. perfect infinitive the past | /couldn 't have been a ballet dancer. | was too tall. ‘Other expressions for ability Doyou know how to type? He succeeded in becoming a professional footballer at elghteen. We managed to find ourway hone (suggests difficulty) Grammarreference 153GRAMMAR REFERENC'! Exercise 1 Choose the best reply for each question 1 Could Hannah have been at the party? 2 That must be Paula standing over there. 3 Will Frances be able to help tomorrow? 4 Couldn't Rosie have taken charge? 5 Could Lily rides bike at that time? 6 Car/tEmily make the coffee? A It might be possible, itshe’s around then, B No she couldn’, she dict learn until much later She might have been - I'm not sure. 1D No, she couldn't have done anything to help ~ she wail atthe time E She probably could, but not just now. F Itcan't be~she's too tall 2 Relative clauses 2.1 Relative pronouns “The most common relative pronouns are: who (= subject) and whom (= object) to refer to people. which to fer to things. that to refer to either people or things. whose the possessive of who and which. when used after nouns referring to time. where used atter nouns referring to place. why used to refer to reasons. "Watch out! ‘The relative pronoun replaces the subject or the object | People wlio (they) live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. The vase, which I bought (years ago, is very value What's not relative pronoun, The car that whet | bought was red. 2.2 Defining relative clauses In defining relative clauses 1 the relative cisuse detines or identifies the person, thing, time, place or reason. Chriss the son of a woman who works in television. That's the man whose son is an actor. Winter was the time when people tended to get Insufficient fresh food. know the place where the play is set. I can'timagine the reason why he would want to leave you. Grammar reference 2 that can be used instead of who or which The gir that (who) lives next door rides @ motorbike. The sports centre that (which) is opening soon wil offer great new facilities. 3 The relative pronoun can be lett outit itis the objectof the verb inthe relative clause. The person (who/that) | spoke to yesterday said it was fee Sue bought the watch (which/that) she'd seen, 4 Nocommas are used before and ater the relate cause, 2.3 Non-defining relative clauses Non-defining relative clauses give extra information which ‘an be omitted. Commas are used before and after the relative clause. It's also possible for brackets to be used instead of commas The pronoun that cannot be used instead of who or which, Entrance to the museum, where you can see Roman pottery, isfree The witness (who refused to be named) said the police had acted unwisely. 2.4 Prepositions in relative clauses Prepositions can come before the relative pronoun or at the end of the relative clause. depending on whether the sentence is formal or informal The person to whom | spoke told me the hotel was fully booked. (formal) John, who | bought my car from, has gone abroad. (informal) Exercise 2 Complete the sentences with the words in the box. You can use the words more than once. when where whom whose why 1 Theletter sin the fe nun keep my bills, 2 Itwasn'tclear the children had stayed at home. 3 The laviyer fom... snuun.We had received the advice was well known, 4 Please give Luke this message at any Point conn tS convenient. 5 Theold men directed us toa small hotel, we spent the night. 6 Canyou name the person from, .youreceived this information? 7 Thecar, acrash ‘owner was not insured, was involved inGRAMMAR REFERENCE 3 so, such, too, enough, very 3.1 so.and such Use: so and such are used to introduce a clause of result, orfor emphasis. 50+ adjective/ | My bag was so heavy that/ couldn't ] adverb carry t. | determiner | He has travelled so widely that he's (noun) forgotten what home is like. | (ethatclause) | They had somuct money that they | | couldn't spend ital | | twas so hat! (= emphatic) | [such + The taxi took such a long time to come | (ediective) | that / decided to walk instead. noun We had such a good time! | | Ghat clause) | (= emphatic) | 3.2 too ‘Use: too has a negative meaning - the speaker is not happy about the situation. too+ twas too hot to sleep. adjective/ You're speaking too quickly—I can't ee understand you, !'m eiraid. jeterminer ‘ [teroun| trio | Mot #00 much money cant ford |infnitve) 3.3 enough Use: enough has a postive meaning the soeaker regards the situation as possible adjective” He's rich enough to buy up the whole adverb+ town, | enough (+10 You're not doing that work carefully infinitive) enough ‘enough+ | There's enough time fora coffee. infinitvess or |g ugnmoney Coo noun _ aA 3.4 very User very is used for emohasis in either a positive or negative statement. Its sometimes used when we wish to avoid using a negative word. very+ Its very difficult but think can doit. adjectivey_ He's working very hard!—he's bound to | adverb/ pass. determiner Grown). Wéry few people agree vith her Exercise 3 Complete the sentences with so, such, too, enough orvery. 1 Rewasn't a oun Good panty 2 Ithad just space to hold everything, 3 twas _ cheap | just had to buy it ATW oon snnnn COUGY t0 S80 the Stars. 5 Itwas, ‘a good book that I read it twice 6 RWS WATT saan tO have inner outside. 4 it is, there is 1 We use there is/there are to bagina sentence about something existing ornot existing There sa litle house atthe foot of the hil Tivere are some trees growing along the side of the road. 2 Tnere’s no reason to worn about it We use tis/vvas, etc. to begin a sentence giving information 2bout time, weather and distance {tis bright, sunny dey. twas half past six in the moring. cs just over ten kilometres fo the nearest town, 3 We seit sas the subject of a sentence to refer forwards toalater clause with that, an infinitive or an-ing form. ‘tisa pity that no one cen helo. J's good to see you again. t's no use erying over spilt mile Exercise 4 Put the words into the correct order to make sentences. Begin with the word shown. 1 it’s complaining useless think 1 . a 2 there no-one says She there's She... 3 aperfectit's ts 4 the 5 that There wes attractive town wasn't about much the Hiei sascsceos seca sea 6 didn't could anything do They think they was there THEY a i's problem wonder solution to the Grammarreference 155GRAMMAR REFERENCE Unit 8 | Reporting verbs “Structure Verbs [examples vero + infinitive agree, decide, offer, promise, We agreed to go to the meeting. | refuse, threaten | verb + object + infinitive verb (+ that) + clause advise, beg, encourage, invite, _ persuade, remind, tell warn ‘accept, admit, claim, explain, ‘She advised me to go to the police. ‘She says (that) we should pay for his a | recommend, say, suggest | ticket verb + object (+ that) + clause | promise, remind, tell, warn ‘He told us (that) he would be : on time. verb + ing ‘admit, deny, recommend, suggest _| He admitted taking the money. _veto + preposition +-ing apologise for, insist on ‘She apologised for being late. verb + object + preposition + -ing ‘accuse (of), blame (for), congratulate She discouraged me from going in | (6n}, discourage (from) for the competition verb + wh- word + infinitive describe, exolain, know, wonder ‘She explained what to do. [verb + object+wh- word infinitive _ | ask, remind, tell They told us who tose. ‘Watch out! Some verbs can be used with more than one structure. ‘She recommended visiting the castle. ‘She recommended that we should visit the cas Exercise 1 Rewrite each sentence beginning with the words given. 1 ‘Iwon't goto school, he said. He refused 2 "Who's in charge?’ he asked us. He asked US WHO ssunsenn 3 "How about going toa new restaurant?” he said. He suggested that we... 4 You must let me pay forthe tickets, she said. She insisted on : a 5 ‘Itwasrt your fault that you got lost,’ she sad. She didn’t blame me for.... 6 Who can |ask?’ she wondered She wondered WHO acne “ 7 ‘It would be best for you to reserve a place, she said She recommended thet I. 8 ‘it won't be easy’ she told me. She warned 9 ‘Don’t forget that i's Carlotta's birthday soon,’ he said He ceminded me that 156 Grammar reference 2 Reported statements 2.1 Form Reported statements are formed from a reporting verb (+ that) + a clause containing the statement. ‘He works in television,’ she said. She said (that) he worked in television. ‘1to0k the money, ‘she admitted ‘She admitted (that) she had taken the money.2.2 Changes to verb forms and pronouns GRAMMAR REFERENCE If the situation or event being reported happened in the past, the verb forms and pronouns generally change 2s follows: Direct speech ——s | Reported speech - “present simple/ | ‘like your shoes, Kate,’ said Jack past simple/ | Jack said (that) he liked Kate's shoes. continuous ‘Tm enjoying the parry, ’said Tom. continuous | Tom said (that) he was enjoying the warty. past simple/ | 1 saw that caradventsed on TV,’ past perfect | Kate seid (that) she had seen that car continuous seid Susie simple/ | advertised on TV. | ‘Twas hoping to win the prize,’ continuous | Tom told me (that) he had been hoping to Tom told me win the prize. | | present perfect | t've boughta het'‘tHelen toldme. past perfect | Helen told me (that) she had bought a hat simples ‘ve been working in Geneva,” simples Chris said (that) he'd been working continuous sal Chis, continuous | jn Geneva | will ‘TN take you there ifyou want,’ would Luke said (that) he would take me there if | Luke said __| wanted! - 7 | (obligation) | ‘You must buy a ticket,’ he sai. had to Je said (that) we h ya ‘Tan speak Spanish,'said Mel could ‘Me! said (that) he could speak Spanish 2.3 When the verb doesn’t change The verb form doesn’t need to change (althoush it cendo} when ‘the situation being reported is unchanged. ‘Banaras are a good source of energy,'said the doctor The doctor told us that bananas are @ good source of energy. ‘The castle fs 800 years ol'said the guide. The guide told us that the caste is 800 years old. ‘ thesentence being reported contains the modals would, could, might, ought to and should or must for logical deduction ‘ought to buy anew car'she seid She said she ought to buya new car ‘1think he must be coming,’ she said. ‘She said she thought he must be coming. * the sentence being reported contains the past perfect. ‘He hac already been given e prize’ she said She seid he had already been given a prize. 2.4 Time expressions may also change in reported speech as follows: the next day, the day after, «the folowing day “yesterday before, the previous day Vesteck ae Hi this moming __| that maming cody ___| har L | next Fiday __| the following Friday ago___| before 3 Reported questions and imperatives 3.1 Reported questions 1 Reported yes/no questions ‘When there is no question word in the direct speech ‘question, we use if/whether. Word order isthe same as inthe statement. The verb tense and other changes are ‘the same as for other types of reported speech, ‘Could | borrow your bike?’ she asked. She asked iffwhether she could borrovr my bike. 2 Reported wh- questions ‘The wh- word is followed by statement word order (Gubject followed by verb), All tense and other changes ‘are the seme as for other types of reported speech, ‘Why did you leave that job?” she asked him. ‘She asked him why he had left that job, “winere is the svvimming pool?’ he asked her He asked her where the swimming poo! was. 3.2 Reported imperatives verb + object + infinitive with to ‘Please open your suitcase, ’said the customs official The customs official asked me to open my suitcase ‘Don't walk on the grass!’ said the offical The official told them not to walk on the grass. Grammar reference 187GRAMMAR REFERENCE Exercise 2 Unit 9 Match the underlined examples with the verb forms siGonat 4-8. Some verb forms have more than oneexample. | Conditional forms Interviewer: Laurer, how (a) gc'you hear aboutthejeb? __—_I+1 Zero conditional Lauren: Wel |(b) spate the advert while wesonthe [Form Use | Examples ] imemetondieiinkssomethral(@itaeaeodst| Firs pean: — toreeioa|ftetihinds | Interviewer: Being an entertainment coordinator (e) ines crenltuth lauksblepbce te involve looking after very small children. (}Haveyouhad = | oh Gige | mw \miedternie = much experience of doing this? ‘with present \fanyone drives Lauren: Wel, |(g) ookafter my niece and neshew every —_ simple, resent acsruthaita ‘month and | (h) ‘making them on a cycling holiday continuous or licence they are tomorrow. present perfect | consettiog ci Interviewer: Well you (i) ight be unlucky, afta, | iyouget tothe because I've heard that it ()‘sgoing to rain ... Anyway, | finish fine frst, you've thanks for coming. We (W)‘llwrite soon, but don't worry if | | won the game you (|) don't hear anything for a few days. = 1 present simple 5 going to "Watch out! 2 present continuous 6 will | It's also possible to use ‘will’ in the main clause without 3 present perfect 7 would changing the meaning. 4 past simple 8 might Ifthe bios find a suitable place, they'll make their nest. anyone drives a car without a licence, they'll be Exercise 3 committing acrime s Rewrite the sentences using direct speech. eae to the finish line first, you'll have won 1 She asked me how | felt about winning the prize. t “she asted me Exercise 1 2 Itold her ‘di epedted' to see | herat the station Match 1-6 to A-F to make sentences. ‘Shak merning. _— 1 Liquids freeze RL 2 Chocolates melt 3 He said that he wasn't planning to apply for the job that 3 Fishdi Ps ish die Hesaid, . 4 People have fewer diseases 4 She asked me if I'd got enough to dink. alenstona bi , stom ake (ie. 6 Plumsare sour arving to work thet movin im Aifthey are not ripe ; heerqulted B ifthey are cooled to a low temperature, 6 They eid that they'd been vatng therefor an hour. Siiethey eachicanig feos D if they are not entorced. E if theyare keptine warm place F if they are taken out of water ‘They said,“ 158 Grammar referenceGRAMMAR REFERENCE 1.2 First conditional Use: to describe what is possible or likely in the present or future | fev lose the match clause with a modal verb | be disappointed. (wil/should/mast/might/ | jFwe lose the match, need tofoughtto/ean), | he might be upset. going to orimperatve | #we ose the match, 'm going to be disappointed. | ifyou feet thisty, bos se [have adrink if present cortinuous+ | ifRose is applying for main cause witha modal | thejob, | won't have verb (villshould/must/ | achance! might/need to/oughtto/ | youre feeling ical | can}, going to or imperative | 3 doctor ‘f+ present perlect+ main | ifthey've got ourmessage, clause with a modal verb | they'll be in the restaurant (wil/should/must/might/ | already. need to/oughtto/can), | if you've finished going to orimperatve | the exercise, check answers, | Watch out! | When can be used instead of ito suggest that the | activity is expected to happen. When my plane lands, Ill phone you. Exercise 2 Decide if one or both options are possible. 1 If children are encourages, they will learn/would learn quicky. 2 I'll let you know when I've arrived/! arrive, 3 You need to book now Ifyou re fying/you wil fly nest week, 4 Ifyou went to go, let herknow/you should let herknow straightaway. 5 When you 'e feeling/you could fee! better, welll go for awakk. 6 /'lsend him the photo if you think he woula/might lice it 1.3 Second conditional | Form Use____| Examples | if past simple/ | to talkabout | /f/ was/were twenty continuous + | something that | yearsyounger, I'd | rmainclause | igcontratyto | emigrate | | with would? | thepresent | #rwas/were prime could/should/ | facts | minister, 'd make ail irigre be healthcare ree. | ineinttve: tosuggest | if/hadencugh | something is | money, Imight go | hypothetical, | ona cruise round the ‘orunikely | world. tohappenin | itshewas/were | the resent oF | working for the future | airline, she could | get freeairtravel._| to give advice | were you, Fd stay at home Hlwas/were | apolying for that job, Td chock out the | a company first. | Watch outl Was/Were can both beusedinthe mein | clause. Were is more formal and often used in writing, while was is more common in spoken English. However, was is not possible in the fixed phrase if/ were you. Exercise 3 Correct the mistakes in the underlined clauses. 1 fLwould have the right qualifications 6 apply for that ob. 2 Lill go to university it | could find a course | ike. 3 Life would be easier if we're living in the country. 4 tftwasvou I'd make a formal complaint. 5 We might be more successful if we wouldn't have to employ so many staff. 1.4 Third conditional Form “Use | Examples ‘if + past perfect + | to describe ifshe hadn't ‘main clause with | something inthe | missed the bus, would/could/ pastthatcould | she could have might+have+ ,| have happened | got there on time. past participle | butdidn’'t.or | eyed known that shouldn't | she'd spend the havehappened | moneyon sweets, | but did wouldn't have | | given it to her. Grommarreference 159160 GRAMMAR REFERENCE Exercise 4 ‘Choose the correct answer to each question. 1 IfRuby had known the child needed help, she'd have done something, ‘a) Did Ruby know the child needed help? Yes/No b) Did Ruby do anything? Yes/No 2 Ifthe police had heard the alarm, the thief wouldn't have got away, a) Did the police hear the alarm? Yes/No b) Did the thief get away? Yes/No 3 She could have become a great painter fher parents had allowed her to study art. 2a) Did her parents allow her to study art? Yes/No b) Did she become a great painter? Yes/No 4 | might never have become a writer if| hadn't done that creative writing course. a) Did | do the creative writing course? Yes/No b) Did | become a writer? Yes/No Unit 10 | Conditionals 1.1 Conditional linking words + Common conditional inking words used in a similar way to if are: 35/50 long as, even if on condition that, providing, provided (that), unless, whether. Mur says Ican have @ dog as/so long as agree to look afterit won't go unless you come with me, (=if you don't come with me) We're going on the walk even if it rains help you provided (that) you don't tel. They'll be pleased to see us whether they're expecting us or not. * incase is used to describe things we do as precautions against what might happen. 1ltake my phone in case! need to get in touch with you. + otherwise is used to describe what would happen if we didn't do something, or did things cifferently. it can link two clauses, or begin a new sentence. li pay you now, otherwise (= If} don’t) Nl forget ‘must leeve by 3.30. Otherwise Il get stuck n traffic Watch out When the conditional clause begins the sentence, there is usually a comma between the conditional clause and the main clause. When the main clause begins the sentence, there is no comma before ‘the conditional clause. | Hethey offer me the job 1] accept it | Mi accep the job ifthey afer me i (Cthenwise is an exception to this rule- see examples above) Grammar reference Exercise 1 Rewrite each pair of sentences as one sentence using the linking word in brackets and making any other necessary changes. Check your punctuation. 1 Glove to buy that sofa, But are you sure we can afford it? {as long as) \dlove.., 2 We mayend up living in different countries However, always be friends with you. (even if) (always. a 3 Theye alowed to go cenoeina, but they have tower life-jackets. (on condition that) They're allowed 4 itshouldn’tbe too dificult. Just flow the iretuctions carefully, (providing) Itshouldn't.... 5 | might go tothe party or might not. haven't decided yet. (whether) haven't 6 Belinda may not have been irvted tote pay that ‘case | won't go. (unless) Unless. 7 You might get thirsty, Youshoud take somewater with you. (nicase) You should . . 8 You'dbeter tel Saran seightawey. you don't sre'lbe upset. (otherwise) You'd better... 2 Participles (Gg and 1 -ed) 2.1 Participle clauses We can use participle clauses to make wrting more economical 1 Present participles (ing) have an active meaning, They can replace relative causes which have an active verb People using online dating sites give mixed opinions about them. (= who use) There was huge lemp hanging from the ceiling. (which hung) 2 Past participles (-ed) have a passive meening, They can replace relative clauses which have a passive verb, The film, made by. fifteen-year-old on her smartphone, was seen ail over the world = which was made)GRAMMAR REFERENC 2.2 Other uses of participles Participle Present particiole | | Before going out, (locked the door. | ' | She's teally good at swimming. | | | Eating too much is bad for you. vities occurring immediately | Picking up her bag, she started to ther walk away. Present or past participle The film was very interesting. | z= | i _ Exercise 2 Unit I ‘Complete the sentences using the present or past participle of the verbs in brackets. 1 Jane Eyre is a romantic story by Charlotte Bronte. (write) 2 The hotel the harbour hes @ swimming pool con the raof. (overlook) 3 Wesspent our honeymoon on an island. coral ref, (surround) 4 Agroup of women, all brightly coloured clothes, could be seen in the distance, (wear) 5 The house had a large garden tives. (steetch) _ the book, she turned over and went to p. (close) a bya down tothe 6 Exercise 3 ‘Complete the sentences with the words in the box. Then match each sentence to one of the uses of participles in the table above, annoying doing entering joining opening walking 4 cussnns€ Aub €an be a good way to make new friends, 2 Fre finshed... nnu My Homework. 3B sunsuns the BOOK, she began to reed 4 She finds the loud music Quite... nun 5 Alocked gate prevented us from the garden. 6 While. dovmn the road, | bumped into Mis Kent. | Mixed conditionals Not ll conditional sentences follow the patterns described in Unit9 (zero, tst, 2nd and 3rd conditionals). For example, it's possible to have: «an ifclause referring to the past with a main clause referring to the present or future. 'f1 had invested in that company ten years ago (past) | would be rich now (present) If we hadn't been given all that homework (past), we could go swimming, future) «+ an if clause referring tothe present or ‘main clause referring to the past. {fyou don’t like svreet things (present), you shouldn't hhave ordered that dessert (past) If you're going to take the exam tomorrow (future), you ‘ought to have started revising by novr (past) Exercise 1 ‘What time (past, present of future) is referred to in each clause in the sentences below? 1 If you're:not playing in the match this Saturday, you shouldn't have told us you were. HF sconenana® nga 2 if they'd given me the right instructions, | wouldn't be. having all these problems. cnet areca 3 If thayte so short of money, why gid they buy that big house? Ie ote 4 \f hadn't already made other plans for tonight, 'd.goto the party ite + 5 She would alteady be there if she hadn't missed ‘the bus. rewitha + 6 | won't tall you the ending if you haven't seen the film. sift Grammarreference 161a GRAMMAR REFERENCE 162 2 Hypothetical meaning 2.1 wish We use this structure when we want our situation (or ‘the situation of the person who is doing the wishing) tobe different ‘* We use the past simple to express a wish that has not come true inthe present. | wish Eleanor fiked re Don’t you wish you had a big car? | wish she was/were going out with me, Henry wishes he had 2 job. ‘+ We use would/could to talk about wishes we have for other people or things. | wish mysister would stop smoking. | 7ish he wouldn't chew gum ail the time. | wish the sun would shine. + We use could to talk about wishes we have for curse. | wish they could come with us. | wish | could be in the basketball tear. { wish | could stop smoking. + We use the past perfect to refer to things we are sorry about in the past. {wish | had been invited to the pary. ‘She wishes she hadn'¢ told hirn about Carlo. 2.2ifonly ‘foniyis used with the same vert forms as wish, and is used when your feelings are stronger. It is often written with an exclamation mark (). Its often used with would wouldn't to criticise someone else's behaviour. if only I could find the ansvver! tonly they would stop talking! Ifonly | had never met him! 2.3it'stime ‘ts time is used with the past simole to talk about the resentor future. We mean that the action should have been done before. For emphasis, we can also say it’s about time and It’s high time. 1's (about) time you started revising for the exem. It’s (high) time we set off. The train leaves in halfan hour. 2.4 other expressions with hypothetical meaning suppose/what if? ‘Form | Use | Examples al [sesent todescite Suppose someanesees | simple | something that | herwth us. may possibly What if someone hears |__ epee yoveoming Grammar reference Form |Use _—_| Examples past. |totalkabout | What if youcould go simple | something in| anywhere in the world? the presentor | Where would yau go? future thatis just | suppose you won imagination or | the prize. How would thatisunikely | yoy feel? tohappen 4 ‘past | totalkabout | Suppose wehadn't perfect | something that | told her Wouldsshe have | could have found out? happenedin the | what if you had past butdidn't | married Carlos? Would you have been ____| happy together? asiffas though/like These can be used to introduce imaginary situations, or situations that do not exist but are possible He behaves as if he knew more than us He looked as if he had seen 2 ghost /feelas i'm getting a cold. (possible) I eel.as if was/were in a dream. (imaginary) twas as though we'd never met before | Watch out! 4s though’'is much less common than’asif. ‘Like’ is only used in informal writing or speech, He looks like he’s seen a ghost! See also Grammar Reference Unit 3 Section 3.3 Id rather... ‘We use this to describe preferences for the presentor future. {'d rather they went on their own, not with Daniel ’d rather they didn’t go with Daniel, Would you rather they went on theirown? Exercise 2 Complete the sentences with the verbs inthe box. ‘There are three extra verbs you don't need to use. could had hadn’t have heard didn’t lent might need were would 1 He behaves asi he .......0. i charge of the whole class, 2 Doyou wish she un. Just ive up the idea? 3 Wstimewe......... from Diana | wonder what she's doing? 4 Would you rether!| take the car? 5 Suppose! you the money—could you repay it? 6 Whet ifthe ladder........... been there how would you have got down? 7 lwish b.. .g0 skiing in the mountains with you, 8 Hfonly they.. 1. told us thatin the first place!GRAMMAR REFERENCE - Unit 12 . | Obligation, prohibition and necessity Form ‘Use - Example: a rmust/musin't | for prese ue cbligations | Payment must be made in cash {nct)allowedto | orprahicitions imposed oy the | | must get some new shoes. speaker often on hrr/herself | You must read that book, it's excellent! (= recommendation) ‘Must Heally go now? (=appeal) | | You mustn't park here. (= prohibition) | You mustn't eat so much. (=strong advice) | - YOu arnt allowed to wear ti | have to Tor present and future obligations |! have (got) to take my holiday ry. | have got to that are mioased by someone | They havan’t gat to/don’t have (0 wear uniform, do they? (morecommon | other then the speaker Have we got to/Do we have to pay to go in? Lt ae | for past and reported obligations | They fold us we'd gor to leave our bags in the cloakroom. |otalkings |Iknewshadtmakeacecsion | | forobligation ard necessity | You need to book tickets in advance. | iit _| Do weneed to type our work? | needn't for lack of obligation in the | You don't need to/needn’t meet me at the station. | don'tneedto —_| present or future | Wedon't have to wait, We can go straight in don'thaveio | - | “needn't + have + | to say that somebody did You needn't have gone to all that trouble. | past participle | something, but that it was “unnecessary | dion’t need to | tosay that something wasn't | He didn't need to bring any extra money. | + infinitive necessary, without saying whether | She didn't need to cook dinner for us. | lthepersondiditornot, | - Exercise 1 * with enjoy, behave, etc. when there is no object. Choose the correct option in italics. 1 We musti't/don't have to have a visa, do we? 2 Shoes have not/must not be wom in the temple. 3 You must/had to goto the museum tomorrow it's fascinating. 4 Visitors are not allowed to/don’t need to feed the animals ~it's forbidden, 5 He didn’t need to take/needh't have taken a acket as he already knew it was going to be hot 6 Dothe children have/got to pay 100? 7 had to/needht leave early because the traffic was very heew, 8 You don’t need to nite/needn’t have invited Becky, but tim glad you dia! 2 Reflexive pronouns Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself him/herself, ‘ourselves, yourselves, themselves) are used *# when the subject and object of a transitive verb are the same. He stopped himself from saying something. hurt myself wien | fell over. Enjoy yourself! Behave yourselves! * to mean ‘without the help of others! cleaned the car myself We booked the holiday ourselves. * with by to mean ‘alone/on your own’, Are you going to town by yourself? * to add emphasis to the subject or object The president himselt spoke to me. The actors were good but the fim itself was boring, Watch out! Bob anc Mary are in their nineties but they look after themselves. (= they do it as a couple) Bob and Mary look after one another. (= Bob looks after ‘Mary and Mary looks after 80) Exercise 2 < ‘Complete the sentences with reflexive pronouns. 1 Ibleme for not checking more carefully, 2 Wewere invited to meet the president 2 Miranda says she'ssure we'll en/0/ ....a0n IM Sp3IN. 4 Youall need tofillin this form... then giveitto your parents, 5 They're not going on holiday by -arethey? Grammarretorence 163,GRAMMAR REFERENCE 3 have/get something done This sa form of the passive Form Use Examples | have+object+ | to say that | He had his hale Pastpartiiple | someone else did | cut specially for {the most something for the interview. common form) | you because yOu | His feet are so t+ objects | Wanted them to, big that he has otiornie ofasaresutof | te haveshoes (also possible. ATAPEMENE special made, — | when people He's having are speaking the invitations informally) printed, | Where can | get | these papers photocopied? He decided toget the photograph + anion: have + infinitive tosay that He had to |tobject+past — someoneelse | have a kidney . participle didsomething | removed, have + object |toyouloften | she said she'd past participle | whenthiswas | had her car something stolen. = unpleasant) | getsomebody | when wewant | / got my friend todo [topersuade or | to drive me to make somebody | force somebody | the shops, do something | todosomething | rhe police made forus the man hand | over his carkeys. | Exercise 3 ‘Complete the sentences using words from the table above, Th cccusans MY brother to helo me with my homework 2 They ssn the house painted, 3 We'd better ans the children stay indoors as it’sraining 4 Iimafraidyou'l....... to have that tooth filed 5 She's her haircut very short ~it looks great! 6 I think my teacher to check this for me. 164 Grammar reference