THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

“Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.”

— Theodosius Dobzhansky 1900-1975

The theory of evolution by natural selection,

first formulated on Charles Darwin’s book
“On the Origin of Species”, is a process in
which as organism adapts its physical and
behavioral traits over time to better fit its
environment and survival.

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 Fossil Record
What is it?

The fossil record is a snapshot of the past that, when assembled, illustrates a panorama of
evolutionary change of past lives of land, ocean, and air organisms stretching almost all
the way to the Archean eon (4.6 billion years ago) (Berkeley, n.d). Additionally, the fossil
record is never complete as there will always be creatures that die and decompose to
bones, adding on to the record. These footprints from previous eras and eons are
preserved in sedimentary rock; rock that is formed near or at the surface of the Earth.
Over time, This rock builds layers called strata. These differentiating layers stack up on
one another, with the older fossils residing on lower levels and more recent fossils
residing on higher levels. Geologists compare the differences and similarities in the layers
of strata at the same locations and are able to label the time period and the type of animals
existing in that period. This is done through analyzing the flora and fauna in the strata
and other related layers above and below the strata. A continuous record of faunas or
floras that are progressively more in common with present-day life forms are noticed as
the top of the sequence is approached (Britannica TE, 2016). Rarely it is that
Paleontologists find fossils because most decomposed remains do not fossilize and those
that do are underground, undersea, destroyed, or not yet accessible by human discovery.

How does this prove evolution? Example

The fossil record is essentially a record of many past organisms’ bone structures, size,
habitats, etc. The arrangement of these fossils clearly show that there has been different
groupings of organisms ruling Earth at different time periods. Usually, there are
similarities between all of these organisms in rock layers of close proximity to each other.
This proves that older organisms must have adapted by changing some physical features
to new habitats and environments as the earth’s geography quickly progressed. This

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resulted in the bone structure, shapes and physiology of newer organisms to be more
complex and look different to their close ancestors. For example, In rocks over 1 billions
years old, only prokaryotic fossils were found. On the other hand, eukaryotic fossils were
found at 550 million years old.

A good example of an evolutionary fossil record is the transitional animal between 4

legged land animals and ocean mammals; Maiacetus Inuus (47.5 million years ago).
Although it has hip and leg bones, they are fragile for walking on land. Also, its skeleton
was found among sea creature fossils, which shows they may have inhabited the ocean.
Moreover, their short legs as well as their long and flat toe bones suggest that Maiacetus
was a good swimmer with webbed hands and feet. The Maiacetus skull has teeth that are
identical to the Basilosaurid’s teeth (an intermediate species to whales) and its middle ear
bones match that of a model whale’s. Maiacetus appears to be a transition species from
land animals to sea creatures.

Maiacetus

Basilosaurid

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 Biogeography
What is it?

Biogeography, mainly a branch of biology, is the study of the global distribution of flora
and fauna. Not only does it explore the patterns of habitation across the 5 kingdoms of
classification, it also observes unique variations in those species’ profiles. Biogeography
splits up the earth into biogeographic regions in which the composition of different flora and
fauna are exhibited (Britannica TE, 2018) . For instance, plate tectonics; the major discovery
related to biogeography, means that diverse families of organisms that had already
evolved before Pangaea’s split (about 200 million years ago) are most probable to have a
wide distribution around the world. On the other hand, other families that evolved after
the split are most likely to be distributed only in particularly small regions. As an
example, a unique line was established between southern and northern continent animals
who originated from the two split supercontinents (Laurasia in the north, Gondwana in
the south) (K Academy, 2018). Today, biogeographers have recognized that when the
continents collided, their species interconnected, and once the continents were separated,
those new species tagged along with them. Historically, Africa was first to disconnect,
then New Zealand, and then finally Australia and South America (Gondwana). As a
result, some species in Australia are more closely related to South American species
rather than New Zealand species because AUS and SA were connected for much longer, being able
to share more characteristics amongst species (Early evolution and development, n.d)

How does this prove evolution? Example

The geographic distribution of organisms on Earth follows patterns that are best
explained by evolution. As continents split or species are moved by natural disasters
and/or forced movement to new areas such as islands or mainland, these species start to
differentiate from the other portion of the same species. They do this by establishing
descent with modification, both natural and sexual selection and become more fit for

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survival and reproduction in the new environment. Visual features and behavioral
features usually change in the animal itself, complimenting its habitat. Over a few
thousand generations, or less the moved group is considered a new species from its
distant cousin. In conclusion, species evolve as they go through biogeographical changes
as a part of evolution.

For example, occurring biogeography on islands yield the biggest changes and strongest
evidence on proving evolution. Consider Charles Darwin’s finches in which he studied
on the Galapagos islands. First, a small population of black finches from South America
were likely to have approached the islands. The First evolving bird from the black finches
was the grub eater, then came the rest of the birds through generations of descent with
modification and exploration. The speciations of birds survived best in individual regions
of Galapagos islands because of their adaptations to certain types of food found in those
regions. This process was named adaptive radiation;  a single species evolves into many new
species to fill available niches(CK12 Foundation, n.d). Darwin’s studies are directly related to
the evolution idea that organisms adapt physical traits in order to better fit their
environment and survival.



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 Homologous and Analogous features
What are they?

Homology is the study of the similarity in physical structure of flora and fauna, and the
process of different species of organisms developing based upon a common ancestor. If a
particular species has a unique physical characteristic, it may come from an ancestor. An
organism sharing a feature (bone structure, body shape) through a common ancestor is
known to be a homologous feature. For example, although the limbs of mammals -
humans, dogs, birds, and whales may look different visually (adaptive modifications) the
bone structures and patterns are practically identical. It can be predicted that whales,
birds, humans, and dogs share a common early ancestor. It's unlikely that such similar
structures among these mammals would have evolved independently in each species (K Academy,
2018). In contrast, Analogous features are similar physical features that are not originated
from common ancestry. Alternatively, they are evolved independently in different
organisms because the organisms lived in similar environments or experienced similar selective
pressures (K Academy, 2018) and resulted in descent with modification. Sometimes,
organisms inherit certain features that are useless to their survival and serve no beneficial
function. They are called vestigial structures and are also known as evolutionary
‘leftovers’.

How does this prove evolution? Example

Homologous features are features that two or more species have and proofs evolution. If
two species have similar bone structures, or skeletal systems, body shapes, with the
exception of function ((adaptive modifications), then they are certainly from an early
common ancestor. Additionally, It is only through adaptation and descent with

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modification that these species have evolved to grow differently and function based on
their own survival needs, and sexual selections.

Some homologous structures can be seen only in embryos. For example, the beginning
stages of embryonic development for a fish, salamander, turtle, bird, pig, dog, cat and
human ,respectively, have gill slits and a tail. As these developmental processes advance,
different species start to appear more and more like their mature selves. The fish keeps
the gills, the bird grows wings and large eyes, and the tail of the human turns into the
tailbone while the gill slit turns into the mouth and jaw. The almost identical embryos of a
wide range of animals prove that there has to be a common ancestor and that these
animals have descended from the early ancestor with modification.

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 Molecular Biology (DNA comparison)
What is it? Example

This line of evidence suggests that the similarities between completely different
organisms’ DNA molecules prove shared ancestry. DNA molecules are complex
molecules with the recipe for every living thing. Shared features amongst different
kingdoms are dependent on similarities in DNA, genetic coding, processes of gene expression
and building blocks such as amino acids (K Academy). Biologists tend to compare nucleotide
gene sequences (called homologous genes or orthologous genes) to discover if a species is
evolutionarily related to another (K Academy, 2018) .Basically, if a gene is shared between two
species then they have descended with a common ancestor. For example, chickens,
chimpanzees and humans have the same gene coding insulin because their common
ancestor had it too. (K Academy, 2018). Furthermore, the less similar DNA in homologous
genes is between species the farther they are related to one another. For instance, the
insulin proteins between humans and chimpanzees are 98% identical while humans and
chickens are (64% identical). For large-scale evolutions, Darwin’s theory suggests the
species may need dominant mutations in order to break the genetic limitations for
biological change.

How does this prove evolution?

Molecular biology provides the solid evidence for the theory of evolution by discovering
the quality of DNA and how different organisms work with enzymes and other proteins.
As a fact, all species on Earth share the same universal genetic code, These shared

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features suggest that all living things are descended from a common ancestor, and that
this ancestor carried genetic coding, amino acids, and the processes of translation and
transcription. Most organisms today have these features as a result of inheriting from a
common ancestor to survive. Moreover, without inheriting these basic molecules from
descent, the functionality of cells of an organism would not work. Furthermore, genetic
similarities between species also reinforce the theory of evolution. The fact that human and
chimp DNA are 98% identical communicates that these 2 organisms have come from the same
ancestor (DNA evidence for evolution, n.d).

By comparing DNA of organisms to one another, scientists use these similarities to prove
evolution. For example, the closest DNA match to Whales is the Hippopotamus. Firstly,
the hippopotamus has a multi- chambered stomach, which is normal for a vegetarian, but
the whale also has a chambered stomach as a carnivore. This is rare. Secondly, Ancient
whales have special ankles that are only found in hippos or hippo related families.
Furthermore, both mammals are missing a coat of fur and also are the only mammals to
have internal testicles! These differences must have been a result of the whale and hippo
sharing the DNA of a common ancestor, and overtime splitting and descending with
analogous features in order to fit the environment and/or selective pressures.

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 Bibliography

Academy, K. (2018). Evidence for evolution. Retrieved November 21, 2018, from https://www.khanacademy.org/
science/biology/her/evolution-and-natural-selection/a/lines-of-evidence-for-evolution

Berkeley. (n.d.). Lines of evidence: The science of evolution. Retrieved November 21, 2018, from https://
evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/lines_02

Britannica, T. E. (2016, September 08). Fossil record. Retrieved November 21, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/
science/fossil-record

Britannica, T. E. (2018, February 20). Biogeography. Retrieved November 21, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/
science/biogeography

Early evolution and development. (n.d.). Retrieved November 21, 2018, from https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/
article/history_16

Britannica, T. E. (2016, September 08). Homology. Retrieved November 21, 2018, from https://www.britannica.com/
science/homology-evolution

Than, K. (2018, February 26). What is Darwin's Theory of Evolution? Retrieved November 22, 2018, from https://
www.livescience.com/474-controversy-evolution-works.html

616, M. (n.d.). What evidence supports the theory of evolution by natural selection? Retrieved November 22, 2018,
from https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/evidence-theory-of-evolution-natural-selection-565438

BioLogos. (n.d.). What does the fossil record show? Retrieved November 22, 2018, from https://biologos.org/common-
questions/scientific-evidence/fossil-record

Perry, J. (2014, October). What is the Evidence for Evolution? Retrieved November 22, 2018, from http://
statedclearly.com/videos/what-is-the-evidence-for-evolution/section/transcript/

DNA Evidence for Evolution. (n.d.). Retrieved November 22, 2018, from https://www.allaboutcreation.org/dna-
evidence-for-evolution-faq.htm

CK-12 Foundation. (n.d.). Evidence for evolution. Retrieved November 22, 2018, from https://www.ck12.org/section/
Evidence-for-Evolution-::of::-The-Theory-of-Evolution/

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