Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

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An evaluation of the performance of a green panel in improving air quality,

the case study in a street canyon in Modena, Italy
Antonio Donateo a, *, Matteo Rinaldi b, Marco Paglione b, Maria Gabriella Villani c,
Felicita Russo d, Claudio Carbone d, e, Nicola Zanca e, Gianluca Pappaccogli a, Fabio M. Grasso a,
Maurizio Busetto b, Peter Sänger f, Luisella Ciancarella d, Stefano Decesari b
a
Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, ISAC-CNR, 73100, Lecce, Italy
b
Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, ISAC-CNR, 40129, Bologna, Italy
c
ENEA, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, 21017, Ispra, Italy
d
ENEA, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, 40129, Bologna, Italy
e
PROAMBIENTE S.c.r.l, CNR Research Area, 40129, Bologna, Italy
f
Green City Solutions GmbH, 15741, Bestensee, Germany

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Effectiveness of an innovative green

wall (CityTree) in improving air quality
was evaluated.
• Air pollutants filtration efficiency (up to
38%) was calculated for a CityTree.
• Air pollutants deposition velocity was
measured at the both sides of the
CityTree.
• Active mode (filtration) system is more
efficient than passive (deposition)
mode.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The increasing exposure to air pollutants associated with the world-wide process of urbanization is among the
Nature-based solutions most important risk factors for human health. In this context, the development of green infrastructures has
Particles deposition gained interest for providing new win-win solutions for improving air quality and urban climate. In the present
Nitrogen oxides
work, we have characterized an innovative, engineered green infrastructure, the CityTree (CT), in a real urban
Black carbon
Traffic air pollution
setting. Abatement rate of priority pollutants (PMx, NOx, black carbon) by a CT unit was determined, during
Filtration system three intensive field campaigns in the city of Modena (Italy). The measurements of the air filtered through the CT
(active mode) showed significant reductions in particulate matter concentration: 19–23% for PM10 aerosol mass,
15–20% for PM2.5, 11–13% for PM1, 38% for ultrafine particle number concentration and 17% for black carbon
concentration. The measurements in passive mode (with ventilation off) enabled the estimation of the deposition
velocities of aerosol particles and gases onto the device surface. The average deposition velocities for PM10 and
NOx observed for the CT mosses fall in the range reported in the scientific literature for other types of green
surfaces (e.g., grass lawns, hedges). A comparison of the pollutant removal efficiency between passive and active
CT mode was performed. The aerosol removal efficiency of the CT resulted from ~3 to almost 20 times higher in

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (A. Donateo).

[Link]
Received 18 June 2020; Received in revised form 23 December 2020; Accepted 4 January 2021
Available online 7 January 2021
1352-2310/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Donateo et al. Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

filtration than in deposition mode, according to the selected aerosol parameter. These results indicate that moss
bio-filters can be more effective in removing air pollutants than standard green infrastructures for in situ
applications.

1. Introduction have been developed in the last years (Avveduto, 2017). PM can be
removed by using mechanical air filters (high volume) or powered
Atmospheric aerosols affect air quality and, consequently, human electronic air cleaners (ionizers). However, filters tend to lose efficiency
and ecosystems health (Fowler et al., 2009), and also have an important very fast once the absorbing structure is saturated, and thus such devices
role in the Earth’s climate system (IPCC, 2013). Human activities have require frequent maintenance (Faulkner, 2001; Sublett et al., 2010). A
caused a huge increase in atmospheric emissions, mainly due to indus­ recent study (Folli et al., 2015) investigated urban air purification by
trial, commercial and agriculture development, as well as the expansion means of photocatalytic paving elements along sidewalk (for about 200
of urban areas and with them the transportation system. Consequently, m) in Copenhagen. However, this application is limited to mitigate ni­
gaseous and particles emissions have grown rapidly, causing a wors­ trogen oxide pollution only. The study reports a monthly NOx abatement
ening of the air quality both in cities and in surrounding areas (Chan and of 22% achieved at the summer solstice and noon abatements higher
Yao, 2008). Indeed, the continuous urbanization growing associated than 45%. Other innovative passive mitigation techniques propose the
with the current urban architecture trend toward high buildings and use of photoactivated TiO2 coated layers on building materials (Calia
reduced density of green areas, reduce liveability of urban and suburban et al., 2017) or in exterior paints (Águia et al., 2011a, b) in order to
areas, contributing to human discomfort, health threat problems oxidize catalytically NOx. The scale-up of the above technologies is
(especially from increasing pollution), and higher energy costs (Oke, challenging because of cost limitations and of the loss of efficiency
1989). For some European cities, such as Athens (Stathopoulou et al., during ageing of the materials. In particular, urban vegetation (such as
2007), the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is lower than parks and street vegetation) are considered as a primary preventive
unity (Gaertner, 2017). measure to mitigate high temperatures by shading buildings (sunlight is
Urban atmospheric pollution is the result of a mixture of different intercepted by trees before it warms the building/facades) and
chemical compounds and particulate matter (Mcdonald 2012). The increasing passive cooling due to evapotranspiration (Bowler et al.,
main pollutants in urban air are nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides 2011). Furthermore, green infrastructures provide multiple ecosystem
(SOx), particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5 and PM10), volatile organic com­ services such as improving of urban air quality through the absorption of
pounds (VOCs), heavy metals, carbon oxides (CO, CO2), light hydro­ pollutants (Freer-Smith et al., 2004), representing a more durable and
carbons (CH4, benzene) and other compounds like polycyclic aromatic cost-effective mean of air pollution mitigation with respect to engi­
hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Avveduto et al., 2017). Long-term exposure to neered materials. Indeed, at present, nature-based solutions are the most
NOx and VOCs cause severe damage, especially in children, the very advised to mitigate urban climate and improve urban air quality, which
young, elderly and those with respiratory problems (Gouveia and have been object of intense investigation by scientific community. In the
Fletcher, 2000). Adverse health effects related to PM exposure concern Greater London area (UK), urban tree canopies are estimated to remove
mainly respiratory and cardiovascular systems (Martinelli et al., 2013), between 852 and 2121 tonnes of PM10 annually (Tallis et al., 2011).
but there is also an evidence that PM affects atherosclerosis and leads to PM10 removal by urban trees in the United States has been estimated at
adverse birth outcome (Brook et al., 2010; Anderson et al., 2012). In 214,900 tonnes per year (Nowak et al., 2006). Various studies have
2005, PM2.5 and ozone were responsible for 773,000 deaths from res­ investigated the removal rate and resuspension of PM2.5 by trees (e.g.,
piratory diseases, 186,000 deaths from lung cancer and 2 million deaths Beckett et al., 2000; Freer-Smith et al., 2004; 2005; Pullman, 2009). In
from cardiovascular diseases (Lelieveld et al., 2013). In pollution hot the recent years, the air pollution abatement effects of most common
spots, such as the Po Valley and the Netherlands, particulate matter was types of urban vegetation have been extensively characterized (Abhijith
responsible for a loss in statistical life expectancy of up to 12–36 months et al., 2017). Although the high number of studies on nature-based so­
(CAFE, 2005). Pope and Dockery (2006) report a comprehensive review lutions for improving air quality, the pathway toward urban green
of epidemiological studies performed since 1997, which unequivocally reforestation remains challenging because of space limitation, archi­
proved the link between long-term PM exposure and mortality (Hoek tectural restrictions and increasing land prices in city centres (Susza­
et al., 2002; Gehring et al., 2006). Some legislative rules focused on nowicz and Wiecek, 2019). This has fostered research on innovative,
improving urban air quality: treaties and laws targeted emission engineered green infrastructures, such as green roofs and green walls
reduction, resulting in lowering of the consumption of fossil fuels (Manso and Castro-Gomes, 2015; Medls et al., 2017), that can be
(Avveduto et al., 2017). For example, the introduction of EURO standard designed to adapt to the local urban texture. In the present work, the
for vehicle emissions and the reduction in SO2 emissions contributed to results of a pilot project aimed at testing a new mitigation strategy of
the decrease in PM10 and PM2.5 during the last 20 years (Fuzzi et al., urban air pollution is reported. The project, named CityTree Scaler, was
2015). During 90s’ great efforts were directed to end-of-pipe technolo­ aimed at testing CityTree technologies in a real urban setting, in
gies as well as process improvements for reducing pollutants emissions, collaboration with the CT manufacturer, Green City Solutions
rather than to clean technologies, which has able to eliminate or reduce ([Link] Berlin). The strategy is to set up a
pollutants from the atmosphere. A significant reduction in emissions network of spatially distributed, economical and sustainable air pollu­
using end-of-pipe technologies, for example for vehicles emissions, has tion absorbers suitable for application to urban environments. CityTree
been obtained. The success in reducing pollutant emissions with can lower pollutant levels at breathable height and may reduce urban
end-of-pipe technologies, in effect, helped to prolong the lifetime of this emissions. Each CityTree unit is freestanding and contains combi
technologies. On the other hand, the rigorous regulation approach in planting of specific moss cultures and vascular plants, designed to cap­
reducing emissions by end-of-pipe devices led to an upper limit the ture particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen dioxide. Three field cam­
functioning of this kind of technologies. So, innovative companies have paigns were performed in order to obtain the complete characterization
been encouraged to make R&D efforts on clean approaches, instead of of the filtration efficiency and deposition characteristics of the CT in
end-of-pipe technologies for pollution abatement. In particular, new air different meteorological conditions in a real environment, the urban
purification devices and nature-based solutions have been developed street canyon of Viale Verdi in Modena (Italy). In a future companion
resulting in a better environmental performance. A wide range of de­ paper (Villani et al., ATMENV-D-20-02316, submitted on Atmospheric
vices for removing PM and gaseous pollutants from urban environment Environment), data and results of the experimental activities will be

2
A. Donateo et al. Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

integrated with novel high-resolution simulations (PMSS simulations) to adequate space for the installation of CityTree in safe conditions. Viale
estimate air pollutant abatement rates of CT in a 3D scale at various Verdi is characterized by high air pollution levels due to medium intense
distances in the same urban settings. car traffic: data from our camera measurements showed averagely more
than 2200 vehicle (veh) passages per day in 2017 and 2018 (Fig. 1b). In
1.1. CityTree description Viale Verdi, it was observed a traffic rate up to an average of about 130
veh/h (with an average 77 ± 44 veh/h), during summer season (C1,
CityTree is a nature-based infrastructure developed by Green City 2017) and 170 veh/h (with an average 100 ± 61 veh/h) for spring
Solutions GmbH. The prototype here employed is the CTT5R0, a 3 m × season (C3, 2018).
0.6 m x 4 m (length x width x height) panel (Fig. S1), with the two Furthermore, Modena is located within the Po Valley, which is
largest vertical sides covered with combi hydroponic cultures of mosses, typically characterized by high levels of air pollutants, especially in the
predominantly of Amblystegium varium “Plattenmoos” and Leuco­ cold season (Putaud et al., 2004; Ricciardelli et al., 2017; Paglione et al.,
bryum Glaucum “Polstermoos” types. The Polstermoos was located to­ 2020). The orientation of the street is perpendicular to the main wind
ward the outer surface of the panel because of its hardiness and ability to direction. In case of wind speed lower than 1.5 m/s, the ventilation is
withstand sunlight, whereas the Plattenmoos toward the inner side as it inhibited causing air stagnation and build-up of pollution (Mazzeo et al.,
thrives with reduced direct sunlight. The moss was planted in two 2007; Pugh et al., 2012). Measurement site presents a low mixing rate
consecutive trays each of 80 mm thickness, each tray with equal thick­ between the two compartments, in-canyon and above-canyon, with a
ness of Polstermoos and Plattenmoos, resulting in a total filter thickness high aspect building-height-to-street-width ratio of about 0.72. Ac­
of 160 mm ([Link] for details). cording to this aspect ratio and to the climatological wind conditions,
Irrigation in CTs is provided by a fully automated self-regulated system, the high concentrations of air pollutants are expected in the vortex,
according to temperature and relative humidity measurements, to according to the scientific literature on street canyon conditions (Jones
ensure the highest efficiency for moss cultures. et al., 2000; Kukkonen et al., 2001; DePaul and Shieh, 1984; Liu et al.,
Panels have been specifically designed to force airflow (in active 2005).
ventilation mode) through the layers of moss, ruling out airflow leaks
through the metal joints of the structure. Being permeable to air and 1.3. Meteorological and air quality description
with their mesh-like texture, mosses can capture atmospheric particu­
late matter by impaction and deposition when flowed with ambient air. During C1 period, meteorological conditions in the measurement site
Air flow is forces in CTs by internal venting system. Since filtration re­ revealed two prevalent wind directions: one with winds from the sector
quires an energy supply, CTs were operated most of the time in passive E-NE, and another with winds from the sector W-SW. In the period of
mode during the field campaigns in Modena. investigation, both directions are observed with comparable frequency.
The wind velocities are relatively low (on average 3.0 ± 0.2 m/s) and do
1.2. Site description not show any significant trend (Fig. S2a). Temperature (hourly aver­
ages) ranged between 18.4 and 22.6 ◦ C (mean ± standard deviation
The first measurement campaign (C1) was performed between 12th 21.2 ± 1.2 ◦ C), while relative humidity (RH) ranged between 45 and
May and June 27, 2017, for a total duration of 37 days on the selected 67% (53 ± 6%) (Fig. S2 c,d). A heavy precipitation event occurred on
urban site (44◦ 38′ 34.94′′ N and 10◦ 56′ 07.81′′ E) in the town of 19th May, while light precipitations occurred on 6th, 25th and 26th June
Modena (Italy), on the west side of the road Viale Verdi (Fig. 1a). The (Fig. S2e). Air quality data (PM10) were measured by the ARPA Emilia-
second measurement campaign (C2) was performed in the month of Romagna (Environmental Regional Agency) in urban background con­
November 2017, starting on 9th up to 25th. The last campaign (C3) was ditions, during the campaign. PM10 daily concentration ranged between
performed from 27th March to April 17, 2018, however measurements in 11 and 27 μg m− 3 (mean 18.1 ± 4.7), while PM2.5 ranged between 6 and
deposition mode took place from 06th April up to the end for a total 15 μg m− 3 (mean 9.4 ± 2.5). Fig. 2a shows concentration of PM10 and
duration of 12 days (C3.2), while the rest of the campaign was per­ PM2.5 very close to the average concentration of the investigation period
formed in filtration mode (C3.1). The city of Modena covers roughly on 19th May, even if the occurrence of precipitation (3.5 mm) should
184 km2 with a population of about 185,985 inhabitants. The location of have decrease the PM concentration. While a decrease in PM10 con­
the CityTree for the experiment at the side of a road (two carriageways) centration (12 μg m− 3) is shown on 6th June with a light cumulative rain
was selected, after a close screening of short-listed potential proper sites, of 2 mm. PM2.5 concentrations (9 μg m− 3) on the same day are within
based on projections of traffic flows, study of the structure of the canyon standard deviation about the average concentration. During C2 period,
(urban texture), availability of parking area, electricity supply and of temperature (hourly averages) ranged between − 0.7 and 14.2 ◦ C

Fig. 1. a) A map of the Modena city and the indication of the measurement site (in green) and the position of Parco Ferrari AQ station (in orange). b) Daily pattern for
vehicular traffic from our camera measurements. Error bars represent the standard error. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

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A. Donateo et al. Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

Fig. 2. Daily evolution of PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations at Modena (Parco Ferrari), in an urban background condition, for the period of measurement campaign.
Data source: ARPAE.

(median 8.7 ◦ C), while relative humidity (RH) ranged between 36% and instrumentation for air quality and meteorological observations. Parti­
96% (median 78%). Light precipitations occurred at the beginning and cle concentrations were measured using a condensation particle counter
at the end of the campaign, while a heavy snow/rain precipitation event (CPC, Grimm Aerosol Model 5.403, 1 Hz), for total particle number
occurred on 13th November. In the C2 period, PM10 daily concentration concentration (PNC), an optical particle counter (OPC, Grimm 1.109, 31
ranged between 10 and 104 μg m− 3 (median 41 μg m− 3). Fig. 2b shows channels) for particle number size distribution and particle mass size
an evident reduction in PM10 concentration on 13th November, caused distribution. Both CPC and OPC collected samples with 1 min resolution.
by heavy snow/rain precipitations, followed by constant accumulation A portion of 1.5 L/min of the main flow (from manifold) was injected
of PM10 up to the end of the campaign, due to stable atmospheric con­ into the CPC through a 40 cm long conductive silicon tube (inner
ditions typical of cold months in the Po Valley (Paglione et al., 2020). diameter 5 mm) and a diffusion dryer (silica gel cartridges) to reduce
Finally, during C3 period, temperature (hourly averages) ranged be­ water vapour concentration before the CPC. The cut-off diameter (50%
tween 3 and 23 ◦ C (median 13 ◦ C), while relative humidity (RH) ranged efficiency) was 9 nm, thereby the system was measuring PNC in the
between 15 and 95% (median 62%) (Fig. S2). Precipitations occurred at range 0.009 and 1 μm (the latter is the upper limit of the CPC). The OPC
different times during the campaign; in particular, an intense event used to measure the particle number size distribution (size range 0.25
occurred on 31st March, with a significant reduction of the aerosol and 32 μm, sizes given as optical equivalent diameter) took air sample
concentration lasting for the following 3–4 days (Fig. S2e). PM10 daily (1.2 L/min) through a 30 cm long silicon tube (inner diameter 5 mm)
concentration ranged between 6 and 47 μg m− 3 (median 31 μg m− 3) from the manifold, for the measurement period C1 and C3.2. The OPC
(Fig. 2c). provides estimates of the particulate mass in the PM10, PM2.5 and PM1
size ranges. In the second and third campaign a new OPC (Grimm, model
2. Instrumentation 11-C) was used. The measurement characteristics of the new OPC are
identical to the old one. The overall reproducibility declared by the
The mobile laboratory was equipped with a set of state-of-the-art manufacturer is ±3% for the total measuring range. In addition,

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A. Donateo et al. Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

ultrafine particle (UFP) number concentration has been calculated 2.2. Filtration sampling system
subtracting from the sum of number concentration of the OPC channels
from the CPC measurements. In this way we obtain a measure of particle The filtration efficiency of the CT was tested on site during C2 and C3
number concentration in the size range from 9 nm to 0.25 μm. Gaseous campaigns. The basic design of the filtration tests consisted in a series of
concentrations of NO, NO2, and NOX were measured with a temporal measurements performed alternatively at the street side of the CT,
resolution of 1 min. NO, NO2, and NOX were measured using a Teledyne- sampling ambient air, and at the back side of the CT, sampling air that
API (200E analyser). This detector was calibrated at the beginning of the was forced to pass through the CT and that was therefore filtered by the
measurement campaign and regular zero and span checks were per­ CT moss. Comparison of the concentrations at the two sides of the CT
formed every 2–3 days. Black Carbon (BC) was measured by a Multi- allowed for the estimation of the CT filtration efficiency (see section 4.2)
Angle Absorption Photometer (MAAP) by Thermo Fisher Scientific. for each measured aerosol parameter. This basic design was modified in
The instrument provides the atmospheric concentration of black carbon the different campaigns according to the technical requirements of the
(BC) with 1 min time resolution at an operative sampling flow of 16.7 L/ different instrumentation deployed.
min. In the last campaign a custom made black carbon (MBC) monitor The scheme of the sampling system employed during C2 is reported
was used. MBC is developed according to state-of-the-art technology for in Fig. S5. Briefly, OPC was installed on top of the CT and was connected
measuring aerosol absorption. Specifically, it operates with three to both sides of the CT by identical conductive silicon tubing. Two
wavelengths: blue (470 nm), green (520 nm) and red (625 nm), different setups were deployed during C3 period. From 27th March to 4th
respectively. This operating mode allows for a better characterization of April (C3.1): OPC and custom made black carbon (BC) detector installed
the spectral dependence of the aerosol absorption. It makes use of the on top of the CT (similarly to the second campaign). From 4th April to 6th
dual-beam technology, which reduces the sources of error related to the April (C3.2): multiple aerosol and gas instruments installed on mobile
filtering medium. The results of an inter-comparison between MBC and lab, parked in front on the CT and connected to the sampling inlets
commercial BC monitors (i.e. MAAP and PSAP) showed no biases or drift through a long tubing (as described in section 3 with a diameter of 50
and a comparable accuracy of MBC with the reference instruments. mm and an air flow of 50 L/min). Each measurement cycle consisted of
Further, mobile laboratory was equipped with a three-dimensional ul­ 10 min: during the first 5 min, the sampling occurred from the street side
trasonic anemometer (R3, Gill Instruments), at about 3m above the (CT flow inlet), therefore the instruments measured untreated air, while
ground on a telescopic mast, and a slow response thermo-hygrometer during the second 5 min, the sampling occurred at the opposite side (CT
Rotronic MP100A (Campbell Scientific) to measure relative humidity flow outlet), so the instruments measured air filtered through the CT.
(RH) and air temperature (T). A network video camera (AXIS 221) The sampling inlets were located at a distance of 15 cm from the CT moss
equipped with a motion detection software, was deployed to count ve­ surface and were located within two bigger plastic tubes (inner diameter
hicles passing in the main road. 25 cm, length 50 cm) to isolate the air flowing through the CT from
surrounding air (Fig. S5). The air flow rate forced by ventilation across
2.1. Deposition sampling system the CT was measured by means of a portable hot wire anemometer (LSI
spa, Milano, model ANM-O) and resulted on average 0.1 m/s (±0.07 m/
The scheme of the deposition sampling system employed during the s).
1st experimental field campaign is reported in Fig. S3. Measurements of
air pollutants were performed alternatively, through a computer- 2.3. System particle losses evaluation
controlled valve switching system, at two different horizontal dis­
tances at both sides of the CT (in the front and in the rear of the wall). Particle losses within the sampling tubes were estimated using the
The sampling system is constituted by four identical conductive silicon Particle Loss Calculator developed by Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
sampling tubes (5 mm diameter, length 150 cm) getting to a common (Germany; [Link] In
inlet (50 mm diameter; 50 L/min main flow) through electronic valves particular, for the measurement period C2, the particles losses resulted
to switch inlet (P1, P2, P3 and P4) automatically every 7 min, corre­ negligible (<1%) in the 0.25–1.0 μm size range and of the order of 10%
sponding to a complete cycle of 28 min. At the other side of the common for particles around 3 μm diameter (Fig. S6). Particles with larger di­
inlet, inside the mobile Lab, a manifold was located to connect the main ameters could be subject to higher losses, but their contribution was
flow to all instrumentations (four sampling lines) as described previ­ negligible in terms of particle number (less than 1 in 104 particles) and
ously. Sampling system employed during the C3 campaign is reported in mass (less than 9% of PM10 mass). This is because in this instrumental
Fig. S4. In this case, sampling of air pollutants were performed alter­ setup the instruments were on the top of the CT, with a very short tubing
natively, through a computer-controlled valve switching system, at two system for the sampling flow. On the other hand, for the setup in C1 and
different horizontal distances only at roadside of the CT in order to C3, where the instruments were inside the mobile lab, the sampling tube
determine concentration gradients and the corresponding deposition system was longer and more complex. In this two cases the particle
rates (deposition velocity) onto moss surfaces. Inlet P1, P2 were posi­ losses were surely higher, especially for larger particles. Gases sampling
tioned in proximity (5 cm) of moss and leaves surfaces and at a distance was not much influenced by particular losses in the sampling system. In
of 30 cm, respectively. In this campaign the blank measurement has any case, being the two sampling lines (back and rear of the CT) iden­
been performed at the same time, using a supporting framework shifted tical, the sampling losses can be reasonably considered the same at both
laterally at about 1.5 m from the CT (Fig. S4) and sampling inlet posi­ sides of the CT, making the calculation of the filtration efficiency and
tioned roadside. The sampling system is constituted by four identical deposition velocity unaffected by particle losses.
conductive silicon sampling tubes (5 mm diameter, length ~150 cm)
getting to a common inlet (50 mm diameter; 25 L/min main flow) 3. Methods
through electronic valves. Each measurement cycle consisted of 28 min
(7 min per inlet): during the first 14 min, the sampling occurred at inlets 3.1. Flux gradient method
connected to the CT, while during the second 14 min, the sampling
occurred at the blank inlets, not affected by the presence of CT. In this As described in section 3.1, measurements of air pollutants were
third campaign, ultrasonic anemometer (R3, Gill Instruments) was performed at two different horizontal distances at both sides of the CT
installed on the roof of CT (Fig. S4) at about 5 m above the ground. (in the front and in the rear of the panel) in order to determine con­
centration gradients and the corresponding deposition rates (deposition
velocity) onto moss surfaces. In this way, the difference in concentration
can be measured in front and in the rear of the panel between respective

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two inlets. For each measurement cycle, an average scalar concentration aerosol properties (e.g., number concentration, BC mass) at the street
at the street side and an average concentration at the back side were side (CSS) and at the back side (CBS) were obtained. To avoid the effect of
calculated. Following a conservative approach, the first minute of each “mixed samples” due to the time resolution of the OPC and to inevitable
inlet sampling period was excluded from the average, to get rid of time mismatches between the OPC sampling time and the valves open­
“mixed samples” due to the time employed by the inlet system to get ing/closing time, the first two and the last minute of each hemi-cycle
empty. In particular, the following parameters have been calculated: were excluded from the average. The CT Filtration Efficiency (FE) was
calculated, for each cycle and for each aerosol parameter, according to
Δf = Cp1 − Cp2 (1)
the following equation:
Δr = Cp4 − Cp3 (2) FE = (CSS − CBS )/CSS (9)

where Δf and Δr are, respectively, the concentration difference in the 4. Results and discussion
front and in the rear of the panel; Cpi and Cpj are, respectively, the
concentration of the variable at inlet point Pi and Pj . The gradients have 4.1. Deposition mode results
been calculated as reported in the following:
gradf = Δf /d (3) Statistical analysis of Vd values, calculated according to Eq. (8), was
performed for different datasets (summer 2017 and spring 2018
gradr = Δr/d (4) campaign), according to different setup. Also, in order to improve the
significance of statistical analysis, different datasets were integrated and
where gradf and gradr are, respectively, the gradient in the front and in analysed together. Deposition velocities were corrected for the blank
the rear of the panel and d is the distance (in m) between the inlets Pi and values (Table 1), measured with the set-up described in section 3.1. The
Pj . same blank values were employed to correct both deposition velocities
Data corresponding to wind velocity lower than 0.5 m/s were for C1 and C3 period. In Tables 2 and 3, the statistical analysis of the
eliminated. Fluxes for a particular variable can be calculated from a deposition velocity for PNC, NO, NO2, NOx, PM10, PM2.5, PM1 and UFP is
gradient-flux relationship (Dyer 1974), using turbulent diffusion co­ reported, respectively, for the street side and sidewalk panel of the CT.
efficients depending on atmospheric stability, surface deposition Total particles (PNC) show a similar mean value for the front and rear
roughness and friction velocity, according to (Eq. (5)). side of the CT panel with, respectively, a mean of 0.26 ± 0.01 cm/s and
[ ] 0.25 ± 0.01 cm/s (Table 2, Table 3). Deposition velocity for PNC is
( ) zj − d
F = u* k Ci − Cj ln − ψ h2 + ψ h1 (5) similar to that reported in other works for grass surface (Pryor et al.,
zi − d 2008; Petroff et al., 2008a; Donateo and Contini, 2014; Giardina et al.,
2019). Gases analysed in this work, NO and NO2, show, respectively, a
where k = 0.4 is the Von Karman constant, u* is the friction velocity, Vd of 0.95 and 0.16 cm/s (median values) in the front of the CT
(Ci − Cj ) is the difference in concentration calculated between inlet i and (Table 2), while in the rear of CT a values of 0.98 and 0.18 cm/s were
j, and zi (0.05 m), zj (0.30 m) are, respectively, the measurement dis­ calculated (Table 3). Also in this case, Vd values were very similar for the
tance from the CT panel of i and j inlets. Displacement height (d) respect both side of the CT. In order to avoid artefacts in the Vd calculation
to the surface of the CT panel was 0.01 m. In C3 the friction velocity u* procedure of NO and NO2, which are both very reactive gases, especially
1/2
has been calculated as u*2 = 0.9 Cμ σ2v , where Cμ = 0.09 and σ v is the NO, the deposition velocity of NOx (NO + NO2) has been considered. In
standard deviation of the horizontal component (perpendicular to the the roadside of the CT panel it was 0.42 ± 0.02 cm/s, while in the rear
CT panel) of the wind (Maro et al., 2014). side it measures 0.45 ± 0.02 cm/s. PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 deposition
The flux-gradient functions ψ h1 and ψ h2 depends on the atmospheric velocity show a very low decreasing behaviour ranging from 0.24 cm/s
stability, or rather they depends on the Monin-Obukhov length L (Watt for PM10 to 0.21 cm/s for PM1 (mean values) on the street-side (Table 2).
et al., 2004) according to Eq. (6) and Eq. (7). A little faster decreasing behaviour can be observed in the rear of the CT
⎧ (sidewalk side), ranging from 0.23 cm/s for PM10 to 0.18 cm/s for PM1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ ψ = (1 − 16(z1 /L))− 12 (mean values). Deposition velocities for PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 resulted
h1
, for ​ unstable ​ region ​ (L < 0); (6) greater in the street-side than sidewalk CT surface, especially for PM1.
⎪
⎪ − 1
⎪ ψ h2 = (1 − 16(z2 /L)) 2 Black carbon deposition velocity ranges between 0.58 cm/s and 0.68
⎩
cm/s in the front and rear side of the panel, respectively. UFP deposition
{ velocity has the same value for the both CT surfaces (0.28 ± 0.02 cm/s).
ψ h1 = 1 + 5(z1 /L) PNC deposition velocity diurnal pattern has been analysed overall the
, for ​ stable ​ region ​ (L > 0); (7)
ψ h2 = 1 + 5(z2 /L) measurement period (C1 and C3 campaigns together). Vd during the
night (until 5:00 a.m.) has a mean value between 0.10 cm/s and 0.15
From deposition fluxes, the deposition velocity (Vd) can be obtained,
cm/s. Then, it increases, from sunrise to the central part of the day
normalising for average concentration calculated at Pi and Pj , for
(increasing from 5:00 a.m.) with an average maximum value from 10:00
example in the front of the panel:
to 11:00 a.m. of about 0.60 cm/s. After this central diurnal peak, Vd
/
Vd = − F Caverage (8) values decreases gradually down to night values starting from 8:00 p.m.
As can be noted from the graph in Fig. 3, the difference between diurnal
Vd was negative with a positive flux, thus positive values of Vd
Vd behaviour for the sidewalk CT panel and street side is negligible. The
indicate a deposition of the scalar on the surface of CT. On the other
central peak in the pattern might be explained with the intense traffic
hand, a negative value of Vd indicates an emission of a scalar from the
activity in the street canyon, especially for the peak in the morning from
surface panel. In this work only positive values of Vd will be analysed in
9:00 a.m. in vehicular traffic (Fig. 1b). A very similar diurnal patterns
order to take in account the deposition phenomena at which we are
have been observed for the deposition velocity of NOx (Fig. 3b) and BC
interested to.
(Fig. 3c).
Many studies in literature indicates an increase in particle Vd with
the friction velocity (u*), even if the form of the relationship between Vd
3.2. Filtration method
and u* clearly varies with surface type, stability and particle diameter
(Pryor et al., 2008). The deposition velocity was segregated as a function
For each measurement cycle, an average value of the measured

6
A. Donateo et al. Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

Table 1
Deposition velocity mean values for blank measurements of the different measured parameters.
Vd (cm/s) PNC NO NO2 NOx BC PM10 PM2.5 PM1 UFP

mean 0.002 − 0.091 0.001 − 0.001 0.08 0.015 0.015 0.013 0.002

Table 2
Deposition velocity statistical analysis for the street side of the CT panel (in the front of the panel) aggregating all available datasets (C1-summer 2017 and C3-spring
2018).
Vd (cm/s) PNC NO NO2 NOx BC PM10 PM2.5 PM1 UFP

Mean 0.26 2.39 0.33 0.42 0.58 0.24 0.21 0.21 0.28
[Link] 0.35 5.97 0.48 0.60 0.81 0.44 0.33 0.33 0.44
[Link] 0.01 0.18 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
median 0.14 0.95 0.16 0.21 0.31 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.14
1◦ interq. 0.06 0.32 0.06 0.07 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06
3◦ interq. 0.31 2.26 0.40 0.54 0.71 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.32
max 4.05 78.27 4.54 6.46 10.47 4.95 4.15 4.14 7.63

Table 3
Deposition velocity statistical analysis for the sidewalk face of the CT panel (in the rear of the panel) aggregating all available datasets (C1-summer 2017 and C3-spring
2018).
Vd (cm/s) PNC NO NO2 NOx BC PM10 PM2.5 PM1 UFP

mean 0.25 2.40 0.37 0.45 0.68 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.28
[Link] 0.43 5.52 0.52 0.64 0.89 0.41 0.31 0.27 0.57
[Link] 0.02 0.21 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02
median 0.12 0.98 0.18 0.21 0.36 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.13
1◦ interq. 0.05 0.33 0.07 0.08 0.13 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.05
3◦ interq. 0.27 2.27 0.47 0.55 0.85 0.23 0.21 0.21 0.28
max 4.92 79.04 3.41 4.29 5.35 3.92 2.73 1.98 8.93

of the friction velocity to investigate any relationship between the two concentration measurements in the range 5–10 μm as the error propa­
parameters. Friction velocity intervals were selected in 0.05 cm/s size gation analysis showed that no significant FE values can be derived in
bins. The results are shown in Fig. 4, where the shadow area represents this size range due to the very low ambient concentrations, which
the standard error of the deposition velocity within the specific interval generate high measuring uncertainty (see the following section for
of u*. Fig. 3 reports both the average and the median values of Vd. There details).
is an increase in average deposition velocity at higher friction velocities. In terms of particle number concentration, the CT filtration effi­
In particular, mean Vd for PNC increases from 0.1 cm/s at u* < 0.05 m/s ciency increases with increasing particle diameter in the range between
to 0.5 cm/s at u* > 0.25 m/s, with a correlation coefficient of 0.78 and 0.25 and 3.00 μm particle diameter, passing from ~10% (0.25–0.28 μm
0.97, respectively, for the street side and sidewalk CT panel (Fig. 4a). size range) to ~60% (2.50–3.00 μm). On the contrary, an FE increase
Although part of this increase may be due to stability effects, these data was observed moving from particles of 0.25 μm to smaller diameters,
also imply a strong dependence on u* (Pryor et al., 2007). This rela­ which showed a FE of 38 ± 14% in the third campaign. This is in line
tionship is more emphasized for NOx and BC. The correlation co­ with particle filtration theory (Seinfeld and Pandis, 2016) which pre­
efficients grow up to 0.97 for BC in the front panel (Fig. 4e). The dicts a minimum in the filtration efficiency at diameters roughly cor­
correlation between Vd and u* shows that Vd is larger, on average, at responding to the accumulation mode, while smaller and larger particles
high wind velocity, and in particular for wind associated with air masses are removed better because of higher diffusivity (the former) and of
coming for a direction parallel to the street canyon (from NE - 25% of higher inertia (the latter). The results show great consistency between
cases). No a very specific correlation has been found between the friction the FE values obtained during the different campaigns. No OPC mea­
velocity and PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 (not shown here) with a correlation surements were presented for C3.2, as the detection of coarse particles in
coefficient < 0.01. Further, the correlation of the deposition velocity the mobile lab is sensitive to losses in the long sampling line necessary to
with RH has been studied for this dataset. Indeed, RH is a very influ­ connect the inlet to the van. In terms of the estimated aerosol mass, the
ential parameter whose variations can modify the particle diameter, CT filtration efficiency decreases passing from the PM10 size interval to
density (and therefore inertia) and stickiness, affecting their capacity of PM1. Average (±standard deviation) filtration efficiencies (Table 4)
interacting with the moss surface. In Fig. 4, on the right panels, has been were 19 ± 7%, 15 ± 5% and 11 ± 5% for PM10, PM2.5 and PM1,
reported the scatter plot of Vd as a function of the relative humidity for respectively during C1 campaign and 23 ± 13%, 20 ± 10% and 13 ± 7%,
PNC, NOx and BC. A counter correlation can be observed: Vd decreases for the same size intervals, during C3.1 period. The average filtration
with the increasing of the RH. Actually, correlation coefficient in the efficiency for PM1 particles obtained during C3.2 period was 10 ± 4%.
case of PNC is not very high 0.58 for rear panel, and the correlation is Finally, BC was removed from ambient air by the CT with a filtration
null for the front panel. However, a strong negative correlation can be efficiency around 17%, with very consistent results between phases 1
observed for NOx (0.84 and 0.90) and for BC (0.96 and 0.94). and 2 of the third campaign (Table 4). In order to demonstrate that the
reported filtration efficiencies are not an artefact of the sampling setup,
4.2. Filtration mode results a series of blank experiments were conducted. During the blank exper­
iments, the experimental setup was the same as described above, but the
Average (±standard deviation) filtration efficiencies for each CT ventilation was off. The blank experiments lasted for about 9 h,
measured aerosol parameter, during the second and third campaigns, spread over three different days, during the second campaign, and about
are reported in Table 4. No FE values were reported for particle number 20 h, during C3.1 period. Filtration efficiencies obtained during the

7
A. Donateo et al. Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

blank experiments are 0 ± 6%, − 1 ± 5% and − 1 ± 5% for PM10, PM2.5

and PM1, respectively, during the second campaign and 2 ± 6%, 3 ± 7%
and 3 ± 4%, for the same size intervals, during the third campaign.
Analogous null filtration efficiency values were obtained for all the size
classes of the OPC. For BC the resulting FE for the blank experiment is
− 9 ± 21%, but this result was obtained with a limited number of ob­
servations (n = 10). These results demonstrate that the above reported
filtration efficiencies are attributable to the effect of the CT.
The second campaign was selected to investigate more in detail the
filtration process as it lasted for longer time and covered a larger vari­
ability of meteorological and air quality conditions. Fig. 5a, Fig. S7a and
Fig. S8a show the time evolution of the atmospheric concentrations of
PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 measured at both sides of the CT and the relative
calculated filtration efficiencies, during C2 campaign (Fig. 5b, S7b and
S8b). PM10 filtration efficiency shows a significant variability in time,
with a clear maximum in the period 14th-16th November, a straight
reduction until the 20th and an almost constant value until the end of
the campaign. Overall, the PM10 filtration efficiency appears to be
counter correlated with respect to the PM10 atmospheric concentration,
with higher efficiency associated to low PM concentration. Nevertheless,
the filtration efficiency shows progressively lower variability passing to
PM2.5 (Fig. S7) and PM1 (Fig. S8). This trend suggests that the variability
of the filtration efficiency may be related more to the aerosol size dis­
tribution than to its atmospheric concentration.
This hypothesis was tested comparing the aerosol number size dis­
tribution in three selected periods, representative of different PM10
filtration efficiencies:

• Period 1 (from the beginning of the measurements to 12th November

at 23:59), with average PM10 filtration efficiency of 20 ± 4%.
• Period 2 (from 14th November 12:00 to 15th at 23:59), with PM10
filtration efficiency of 31 ± 9%.
• Period 3 (from 23rd at 00:00 to the end of the campaign), with PM10
filtration efficiency of 17 ± 4%.

Fig. 6a shows the normalized particle number size distribution

(number of particles in each size bin divided by the total particle
number) in the three selected periods. The highest filtration efficiency is
associated to the period in which PM10 is characterized by a higher
contribution of coarse particles (diameter > 1 μm), that are removed
more efficiently by the CT. The inverse correlation between the CT-PM10
filtration efficiency and the aerosol mass concentration is therefore only
apparent and it is due to the increased contribution of fine particles
(removed with lower efficiency by the CT) during periods of pollution
accumulation. Fig. 6b shows the time trend of the PM10 filtration effi­
ciency (hourly average) superimposed to RH. No clear correlation is
evident (r < 0.3), suggesting a minor role for RH in the observed PM10
filtration efficiency variability. Finally, no major effect of the moss
irrigation was observed on the CT filtration efficiency. This cannot rule
out a possible important reduction of the filtration efficiency in case of
severe dryness of the moss, condition that was not met during this
campaign. During C3.2, NOx measurements were also performed. Un­
fortunately, instrumental problems allowed only the recording of 5-min
time resolution data, which are not suitable to be processed in the same
way as the aerosol parameters presented above. For this reason, only a
broad comparison of NOx data at the front and at the rear of the CT can
be presented here. In detail, only data which could be associated to one
condition with respect to the CT (front or rear), avoiding all the mixed
conditions, were taken into account, which limited the number of ob­
Fig. 3. Average diurnal patterns of a) PNC, b) NOx and c) BC deposition ve­ servations to a few cases (n = 15) per side of the CT. No statistically
locity over all the measurement period (C1 and C2 campaigns). Shadow area
significant differences were observed between the average NOx, NO or
represents the standard error. Hours in the graphs are expressed in local
NO2 concentrations observed at the front and at the rear of the CT.
time (UTC+1).
Although not conclusive, these results hint at no interaction between
NOx and the CT, with virtually no removal of such family of gaseous
pollutants by the CT.

8
A. Donateo et al. Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

Fig. 4. Deposition velocity Vd as a function of u* is reported for a) PNC, b) NOx and c) BC. In the right panels the Vd as a function of the relative humidity is reported
for b) PNC, d) NOx and f) BC. Shadow area represents the standard error. Filled circle are average values, open circle are median values.

4.2.1. Assessment of the measurement uncertainty associated to the estimate the measurement uncertainty in each OPC channels.
calculated FE The overall reproducibility declared by the manufacturer of the CPC
A thorough assessment of the uncertainty associated to the calcu­ is ±2% for the total measuring range. Following an extremely conser­
lated filtration efficiency values was performed by standard error vative approach, we considered in our calculations a worst case scenario
propagation, considering the measurement uncertainty of each instru­ in which the performance of the CPC was so low as to have a repro­
ment. For the OPC, based on the calibration specifics provided by the ducibility of 10%, independently on the aerosol number concentration.
manufacturer, we estimated a dependency of the relative error in The custom made BC monitor (MBC) was thoroughly tested before the
counting on the particle concentration, according to the following deployment in the field campaign in Modena against state-of-the-art
equation, valid for a 3 min averaged measurement: commercial instrumentation for measuring BC. The results of 58 days
{ of measurements in parallel with a Multiangle Absorption Aerosol
3.70; C ≤ 0.3
relative ​ error ​ = (10) Photometer (MAAP) by Thermo Fisher Inc. showed no biases or drift and
1.94*C− 0.58 ; C > 0.3
a comparable accuracy of MBC with the reference instrument. There­
fore, our uncertainty calculations were based on the MAAP reproduc­
where concentrations (C) are expressed in particle per litre of air. The
ibility, which is supported by many studies. An average 20%
function is truncated at the minimum non-null concentration (corre­
reproducibility for BC measurements was chosen, following a conser­
sponding to a triplet of 1-min counting of 0, 0, 1 particle per litre) to
vative approach, based on the results of Petzold and Schönlinner (2004),
which a 3.70 relative error (370%) was associated. Eq. (10) was used to

9
A. Donateo et al. Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

Table 4 according to the considered parameter), Vd is the deposition velocity

Average (±one standard deviation) filtration efficiency calculated for each obtained by the measurements in deposition mode and A is the area of
measured aerosol parameter, during the second and third campaigns. the CT. The subscript “F” and “R” indicates front and rear of the CT, as
Instrument Size range (μm) C2 C3.1 C3.2 deposition is considered to happen at both sides.
CPC number conc. 0.010–0.25a – – 38 ± 14 Rfilt = A*C*FE*f (13)
0.010–10 – – 37 ± 14
OPC number conc. 0.25–0.28 9±5 12 ± 7
where Rfilt is the number of particles removed per unit time in filtration
0.28–0.30 10 ± 5 12 ± 8
0.30–0.35 10 ± 5 12 ± 8 mode, C is the aerosol concentration (in number or mass, according to
0.35–0.4 11 ± 5 12 ± 10 the considered parameter), FE is the filtration efficiency obtained by
0.4–0.45 12 ± 6 12 ± 11 measurements in filtration mode, f is the flow through the CT and A is
0.45–0.5 14 ± 6 13 ± 12 the area of the CT. Concentration values indicated in Table 5 are
0.5–0.58 15 ± 7 14 ± 12
0.58–0.65 18 ± 9 17 ± 13
representative of the average conditions observed during the campaigns.
0.65–0.70 21 ± 11 19 ± 16 It is worth highlighting that the values of Rdepo and Rfilt are valid only as
0.70–0.80 23 ± 11 22 ± 16 examples and refer to the chosen concentrations at the front and at the
0.80–1.00 27 ± 14 26 ± 17 rear of the CT. On the contrary, the ratio between Rfilt and Rdepo is in­
1.00–1.30 33 ± 15 31 ± 17
dependent on the chosen concentrations and gives an indication of the
–
1.30–1.60 39 ± 18 35 ± 21 –
1.60–2.00 46 ± 16 42 ± 19 – removal efficiency of the CT between deposition and filtration modes.
2.00–2.50 51 ± 18 46 ± 27 – Table 5 clearly shows that the aerosol removal efficiency of the CT is
2.50–3.00 64 ± 16 56 ± 29 – from ~3 to almost 20 times higher in filtration than in deposition mode,
3.00–3.50 81 ± 14 74 ± 30 – according to the selected measured pollutant.
3.50–4.00 85 ± 14 74 ± 34 –
4.00–5.00 88 ± 12 78 ± 31 –
5.00–6.50 – – – 5. Conclusion
6.5–7.50 – – –
7.50–8.50 – – – In the present work, we have characterized an innovative, engi­
8.50–10 – – –
neered green infrastructure, the CityTree, in a real urban setting. During
OPC mass conc. PM10 19 ± 7 23 ± 13 –
PM2.5 15 ± 5 20 ± 10 – three intensive field campaign in the city of Modena (Italy), the abate­
PM1 11 ± 5 13 ± 7 – ment rate of priority pollutants (PM10, PM2.5 and NOx) by a CT unit was
MBC – 16 ± 22 18 ± 27 determined. CT collects atmospheric pollutants through two distinct
BC conc.b mechanisms: via spontaneous deposition of particles and gases onto the
a
By subtracting the total particle number measured by the OPC from the total moss surfaces (passive mode) and via impaction and interception of
particle number measured by the CPC. aerosols when the air is forced to flow across the CT panel using a
b
Wavelength 520 nm. ventilation system (filtration mode or active mode). The measurements
of the air filtered through the CT (active mode) showed significant re­
which estimated in 12% the overall uncertainty of MAAP measurements ductions in particulate matter concentration: 19–23% for PM10 aerosol
in ideal conditions. mass, 15–20% for PM2.5, 11–13% for PM1, 38% for UFP number con­
For each measured parameter, the measurement uncertainties were centration and 17% for black carbon concentration. No appreciable
propagated to the mean FE (as campaign average). Specifically, the reduction was observed for NOx concentration in filtration mode. The
uncertainty on the mean FE value was calculated according to the measurements in passive mode (with ventilation switched off) enabled
following equation: the estimation of the deposition velocities of aerosol particles and gases
/ onto the device surface. Particles number concentration in the range
σFE = σFE √N (11) between 9 nm and 1 μm shows a similar mean value for the front and
rear side of the CT panel with a mean of 0.26 ± 0.01 cm/s. NO and NO2
where σFE is the measurement uncertainty on the FEs, N the number of gases show very similar values in the deposition velocity in the front and
observations (measurement cycles), and σFE is the uncertainty on the rear side of the CT. They are, respectively, 0.95 and 0.16 cm/s (median
average FE. The specific average FEs calculated for all the aerosol pa­ values). PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 deposition velocity show a very low
rameters are confirmed to be robust by the error propagation analysis, as decreasing behaviour ranging from 0.24 cm/s for PM10 to 0.21 cm/s for
values of σFE are negligible with respect to the observed FEs. Regarding PM1 on the street-side. A little faster decreasing behaviour can be
particle number concentration measurements by the OPC, this is true observed in the rear of the CT (sidewalk side), ranging from 0.23 cm/s
only for the FE calculated on single OPC channels up to 5 μm, while the for PM10 to 0.18 cm/s for PM1. Black carbon deposition velocity ranges
uncertainty is not negligible for diameters above 5 μm. As a conse­ between 0.65 and 0.68 in the front and rear side of the panel, respec­
quence, results for the size bins from 6.5 to 10 μm are not presented in tively. UFP deposition velocity has the same value for the both CT sur­
this work. faces (0.28 ± 0.02 cm/s). The average deposition velocities for PM10 and
NOx observed for the CT mosses fall in the range reported in the scien­
4.3. Removal efficiency comparison between passive and active mode tific literature for other types of green surfaces (e.g., grass lawns, hed­
ges). A comparison of the pollutant removal efficiency between passive
To compare the CT performance between the active (filtration) and and active CT mode was performed by estimating the amount of aerosol
passive (deposition) mode, we calculated the amount of aerosol removed by the CT per unit area and per unit time in the two modes.
removed by the CT per unit of time in the two modes, assuming the same Aerosol removal efficiency of the CT resulted from ~3 to almost 20 times
aerosol concentration levels. higher in filtration than in deposition mode, according to the selected
The following equations describe the calculations performed for both aerosol parameter. These results indicate that CTs operating in filtration
modes: mode can be more effective in removing PM with respect to standard
green infrastructures. On the other hand, filtration requires an energy
Rdepo = A(CF VdF + CR VdR ) (12) input which largely depends on the resistance to air flow at the two
surfaces of the CT. The CT model employed in our study was the first
where Rdepo is the number of particles removed per unit time in depo­ version experimenting the filtration mode, and the pressure drop
sition mode, C is the aerosol concentration (in number or mass,

10
A. Donateo et al. Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

Fig. 5. a) Time series of the PM1.0 mass concentration (1 min time resolution) at the two sides of the CT and b) the relative filtration efficiency. Light blue bands
indicate irrigation period of the CT. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Fig. 6. a) Normalized particle number size distribution during the three selected periods (see text for description). b) Time series of relative humidity (RH) and PM10
filtration efficiency (hourly average) for the measurement period C2.

11
A. Donateo et al. Atmospheric Environment 247 (2021) 118189

Table 5 Project administration. Luisella Ciancarella: Project administration,

Removal efficiency comparison between passive and active mode operation of Formal analysis. Stefano Decesari: Project administration, Funding
the CityTree. acquisition, Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing -
Size Conc. Conc. Rdepo Rfilt Rfilt/ original draft, preparation, Writing - review & editing.
Range Front Rear Rdepo
(μm)

ParticleNumber 0.01–0.25 5710 3662 8.8 × 1.7 × 19.3 Declaration of competing interest
Conc. # # 1012 # 1014 #
cm− 3 cm− 3 day− 1 day− 1 The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
0.01–10 5769 3770 8.9 × 1.7 × 18.6 lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
# # 1012 # 1014 #
cm− 3 cm− 3 day− 1 day− 1
Peter Sänger is the chief operating officer of Green City Solutions GmbH
Mass conc. PM10 8.1 μg 6.9 μg 12 mg 144 11.8 (GCS). The role of GCS in this study was, however, limited to deploying
m− 3 m− 3 day− 1 mg and maintaining the CityTree, providing logistic support during the field
day− 1 activities and detailing the technical characteristics of CityTrees in the
PM2.5 8.0 μg 6.8 μg 12 mg 124 10.7
present manuscript. The research staff of CNR, Proambiente and ENEA
m− 3 m− 3 day− 1 mg
day− 1 have conducted the air pollution monitoring activities and carried out
PM1 7.8 μg 6.7 μg 11 mg 79 mg 7.3 the data elaboration in full autonomy, and they received financial sup­
m− 3 m− 3 day− 1 day− 1 port uniquely from EIT under the frame of the Climate-KiC project
BC conc. 1170 1150 6 mg 16 mg 2.7 “CityTree Scaler”.
ng ng day− 1 day− 1
m− 3 m− 3
Acknowledgements

reached approx. 200 Pa. In newer CT models, as the 3rd generation called This work was supported by the Climate-KiC project “CityTree
CT2020 (published 03/2020), pressure drop at the surface was reduced Scaler”, theme Urban Transition, funded by EIT (European Institute of
to just 5–14 Pa with an electrical power saving of a factor up to 95% with Innovation and Technology).
90–15 W. Optimizing the energetics of the venting system is a key factor
in the ongoing development of the CT technology. The results presented
Appendix A. Supplementary data
in this study are relevant for characterizing the air pollutant abatement
of a CT unit in its immediate surroundings. To assess the impact on the
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at [Link]
concentrations of PM and NOx at street scale instead, atmospheric
org/10.1016/[Link].2021.118189.
dispersion as a function of urban canyon geometry and meteorological
conditions must be investigated carefully. In general, the efficiency of
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