MEASUREMENT

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED QUANTITIES

Fundamental Quantities
● Fundamental quantities are basic physical quantities from which other quantities are
formed.
● Eg: Length, mass, time, and electric current.

Derived Quantities
● Derived Quantities are obtained by multiplying or dividing 2 or more base quantities.
● Eg: Speed (which is derived from distance and time), acceleration (derived from velocity
and time), and force (derived from mass and acceleration).

UNITS

● Units are used to measure these quantities.

Fundamental Quantity Units

● Meters (m) for length, kilograms (kg) for mass, seconds (s) for time, and amperes (A) for
electric current.
● Speed is measured in meters per second (m/s), acceleration in meters per second squared
(m/s²), and force in newtons (N), which is equivalent to kg⋅m/s².
UNIT CONVERSION

Main Conversion Factors

1 kilometer = 1000 meters

1 meter = 100 centimeters
1 centimeter = 10 millimeters
1 meter = 1000 millimeters
3
m = 106 cm3 (1,000,000)
m2 = 106 mm2 (1,000,000)
m3 = 109 mm3 (1,000,000,000)

How to Convert m to cm
● Let's say we have a length of 2.5 meters (m) and we want to convert it to centimeters
(cm).
● The conversion factor for this is 1 meter = 100 centimeters.

● To convert 2.5 meters to centimeters, we multiply the given value by the conversion
factor:

2.5 m × 100 cm
1 m
= 2.5 x 100cm
= 250cm

● So, 2.5 meters is equal to 250 centimeters.

How to Convert m2 to cm2

● Let's consider an area of 3 square meters (m²) and we want to convert it to square
centimeters (cm²).
● The conversion factor for area is calculated by squaring the conversion factor for length.
● In this case, 1 meter = 100 centimeters, so 1 meter² = (100 cm)² = 10,000 square
centimeters.
● To convert 3 square meters to square centimeters, we multiply the given value by the
conversion factor:

3 m² × 10,000 cm²
1 m²
= 3 x 10,000 cm2
= 30,000 cm2
 ● Therefore, 3 square meters is equal to 30,000 square centimeters. (3 x 104 cm2)

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Thermometer
● Measures Temperature

Triple Beam Balance

● Measure Mass

Vernier Caliper
● Measures diameter, depth, and length

Micrometer Screw Gauge

● Diameter and thickness of small objects

HOW TO USE A VERNIER CALIPER

1. Place the object between the jaws of the vernier caliper, making sure it rests against the
fixed jaw.
2. Slowly close the movable jaw until it gently touches the object. Avoid applying excessive
force.
3. Read the main scale value just to the left of the sliding vernier scale zero line. This value
represents whole units or millimeters.
4. Next, check the vernier scale and locate the line that aligns with a line on the main scale.
Read the corresponding value from the vernier scale.
5. Add the main scale value and the vernier scale value together to obtain the measurement.

ERRORS
TYPES OF ERRORS

Systematic Errors
● Systematic errors are consistent and occur due to flaws in the experimental setup or
measurement technique.
● They can lead to measurements that are consistently higher or lower than the true value.
Random Errors
● Random errors are unpredictable and occur due to fluctuations in experimental conditions
or human limitations.
● They cause measurements to scatter around the true value.

Parallax Errors
● Parallax errors happen when the observer's line of sight is not perpendicular to the scale
or the object being measured.

ZERO ERRORS (VERNIER CALIPER)

Positive zero error

● If the zero marking on the vernier scale is to the left of the zero marking on the main
scale, then the zero error is positive.
● If the zero error is positive, add it to the observed reading.

Negative zero error

● If the zero marking on the vernier scale is to the right of the zero marking on the main
scale, then the zero error is negative.
● If the zero error is negative, subtract it from the observed reading.

ZERO ERRORS (MICROMETER)

Positive zero error

● If the zero marking on

THE VERNIER CALIPER (LABELED DIAGRAM)

THE MICROMETER (LABELED DIAGRAM)

HOW TO CALCULATE THE LEAST COUNT (V.C)

● To calculate the least count, here’s what you do:

L.C = smallest division on main scale (mm)

# of divisions on vernier scale
AREA, VOLUME, AND DENSITY

Formulas for Area:

Square:

Area = side length * side length

A = s^2

Rectangle:

Area = length * width

A=l*w

Cone:

Area = π * radius * (radius + slant height)

A = π * r * (r + l)

Sphere:

Area = 4 * π * radius^2
A = 4 * π * r^2

Prism:

Area = perimeter of base * height + 2 * base area

A=P*h+2*B

Trapezium:

Area = (sum of parallel sides / 2) * height

A = (a + b) / 2 * h

Formulas for Volume:

Cube:

Volume = side length^3

V = s^3
Rectangular Prism:

Volume = length * width * height

V=l*w*h

Cone:

Volume = (1/3) * π * radius^2 * height

V = (1/3) * π * r^2 * h

Sphere:

Volume = (4/3) * π * radius^3

V = (4/3) * π * r^3

Prism:

Volume = base area * height

V=B*h

Formulas for Density:

Density is the ratio of mass to volume.

Density:
Density = mass / volume
D=m/V

MASS AND WEIGHT

Mass
● Mass is the amount of matter that an object has.
● The units of mass are ‘kg’ and ‘g’.
● Mass = Density x Volume
● Mass can never be 0.
● Mass is not dependent on gravity.
Weight
● Weight is a measure of the gravitational force that is exerted on an object.
● The unit of weight is ‘N’.
● Weight = Mass x Acceleration due to gravity (9.81/10 m/s2)
● Weight can be 0.
● Weight is dependent on gravity.

OSCILLATIONS

SIMPLE PENDULUM

Why is the simple pendulum in fact ‘simple’?

● The bob has a small diameter
● The string is light compared to the bob
● The string is tied to a fixed point
● The string must not be elastic

Examples
● Swing
● Chain with pendant swinging around the finger
● Godfather clock

Complex Pendulum example

● Wrecking ball

SIMPLE PENDULUM IN MOTION

What happens when the pendulum is released?

● When the pendulum is displaced, it goes to position A, then back to the equilibrium
(Position B) and then to position C.
● This back and forth movement is called an oscillation.

Period/Periodic Time
● This is the time taken for the oscillation to happen.

Relationship between length and the period of a simple pendulum

● The length of the pendulum is directly proportional to the period squared.
● The graph of the relationship between the two is called a parabola.
 ● T2 = (square root of L)2
● T2 = L

FORMULAS

The period (T) of a simple pendulum:

T = 2π * √(L / g)

Where:
● T is the period of the pendulum.
● π (pi) is a mathematical constant approximately equal to 3.14159.
● L is the length of the pendulum.
● g is the acceleration due to gravity.

The period squared (T^2):

T^2 = (4π^2 * L) / g

VECTORS
What are vectors?
● Vectors are represented by an arrow, whereby the length of the arrow represents the
magnitude/size and the arrow indicates the direction of the vector.

Scalar Quantities
● These are completely described by only its magnitude (size).
● Eg: Mass, Time, Speed, Distance, Length, and Density.

Vector Quantities
● Completely described by both its magnitude and direction.
● Eg: Velocity Acceleration, Force, Displacement, Momentum, and Average Velocity.
TYPES OF VECTORS

Parallel Vectors
● If 2 or more vectors are acting in the same direction on the same object but have different
magnitudes.

Anti-parallel Vectors
● If 2 or more vectors are acting in opposite directions on the same object.

Perpendicular Vectors
● If 2 vectors are acting at right angles to each other from the same point.

Parallelogram Vectors
● If 2 vectors acting at a point are represented in size and direction by the sides of a
parallelogram drawn from that point, the resultant is represented in size and direction by
the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from that point.

FORMULAS

Parallel Vectors
● Add the vectors to find the resultant:

FR = A + B

Anti-parallel Vectors
● Subtract the vectors to find the resultant:

FR = A + (-B) / A - B

● The resultant always goes in the direction of the highest force. Kind of like tug-of-war.

Perpendicular Vectors
● Use pythagoras’ theorem.

FR = √F12 + F22

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPEED AND VELOCITY

● Speed does not have a direction, which velocity does.

Example:
● Speed: 2 km/h
● Velocity : 2 km/h E

FORCES
What is a force?
● A push or pull on a body which changes its state of rest or motion.

TYPES OF FORCES

Mechanical
● The force that results from two bodies or surfaces coming in contact with each other.
● Eg: Push, pull, friction.

Elastic
● The restoring force in materials that can stretch to a different length from its original.
● Eg; Springs

Gravitational
● The attractive force that exists between the masses of two bodies.

Electrostatic
● Attractive or repulsive forces between two bodies carrying an electric charge.

Magnetic
● Attractive or repulsive forces that exist between two bodies that are magnetized.

Nuclear
● The strong attractive force that exists between neutrons and protons.

CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT FORCES

Contact Forces
● A force that exists between bodies that are touching each other.
● Eg: Mechanical, Elastic
Non-Contact Forces
● A force that exists between objects that are not in direct contact with each other.
● Eg: Magnetic, Gravitational, Electrostatic, Nuclear

EFFECTS OF A FORCE

● Changes the shape or dimension

● Changes the direction of the body
● Sets the body in motion

KINEMATICS

What is Kinematics?
● The branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of objects without considering the
forces that cause the motion.

DEFINITIONS

Acceleration (a)
● The rate of change of velocity.

Distance (d)
● The length of the path traveled by a moving object.

Displacement (s)
● The distance from the starting point to the position of a moving object in a stated
direction.

Speed (v)
● The rate at which distance is covered regardless of direction.

Average speed (v)

● The total distance traveled per unit of the total time taken.

Velocity (V)
● The rate of change of displacement.
FORMULAS

Acceleration

● a = V - V0
t

Distance

● d = speed x time

Displacement

● s = ( V - V0)t
2

● s = V0 t + a x t2
2

Speed

● v = distance
time

Average Speed

● avg_v = total distance traveled

total time taken

Velocity

● V=s
t

● V = V0 + at

● V = √V02 + 2as
LEVER PRINCIPLE / PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

● The total clockwise moment is equal to the total anti-clockwise moment.

MOMENT OF A FORCE / TORQUE

FORMULAS

Moment of a Force

● Tau = F x d
= Nm

● Sum of a.c.w moments = sum of c.w moments

MOMENTS AND LEVERS

● A lever is any device which turns about a fulcrum or pivot.

● A lever is an example of a simple machine. (Tools used to make work easier)
● Spanners, wheelbarrows, forearms, bottle openers, and the crowbar are examples of
levers.
● In a lever the effort is applied to overcome a resisting force called load.