Drainage INTRODUCTION India is blessed with hundreds of large and small rivers which drain the length and breadth of the country. Rivers constitute the most useful natural resource. They have attracted the attention of Planners, economists, geographers, geologists, hydrologists and a host of other specialists from different fields. They are a great source of water for inrigation, industry and domestic purpose and offer innumerable sites for producing hydro-electricity, Almost all the fertile areas of the country have beep formed by the depositional work of rivers. Many Freking gised channels for inland water anspor has become an important occupation along ers courses, ade by S.P. Dasgupta, in the Fivers ofthe country ig metres of which mm One third (33.89%) is contributed by the By followed by the Ganga (25.2%). the God Indus (4.39%), the Mahanadi (3.6%) 34%), andthe Narmada (2.9%, is contributed by other rivers. (p calculated for basin areas in Indian te Krishna Femaining 29 4 Percentages Titory only), Drainage Systems of India There are several bases for classifying drainage systems of India. The main types of drainage systems are briefly described below : 1. Size of the Catchment area India are divided into three ca their size. Major river basins 20,000 sq km and above, Medium river basins have catchment are between 2,000 and 20,000 sq km and Lact basins with catchment area less than 2,000 sq km are known as minor river basins. River systems of 2. Origin, Depending upon the origin of rivers {wo broad drainage systems of India are generally Fecognised, (a) The : Himalayan ri including the indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and theit tributaries and (py The Peninsular rivers which include alton, Tivers such Krishn: '8 With their tributa S the Mah + the Cauvery, the N; 3.0ri divide s, a large number of i, the Godavari, the armada and the Tapi. Kation to the sea, The Indian drainage is ae ‘d into two, Major drainage systems on the basi santation to the sea, The 2) the Bay Bengal drainage OeFIG. 4.1. The supposed course of the Indo-Brahm River (According to Pascoe} 17 per cent of the drainage area of the country is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal. It consists of a large number of rivers like the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Penneru, the Penneiyar, the Vaigai, etc. The Arabian Sea drainage spreads over 23 per cent of the country’s surface flow area which commands river basins like the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Sabarmati, the Mahi and the large number of swift flowing western coast rivers descending from the Sahyadris. It may be mentioned here that the area covered by the above mentioned drainage systems differs markedly from the amount of water carried by them, Over 90 per cent of the water carried by the Indian rivers is housed into the Bay of Bengals (he testis drained into the Arabian Sea or forms inland drainage. This lop sided distribution is due (® the location of the watershed separating the drainage Systems falling into the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, This 2-736 km long watershed °° from Kanniyakumari through the Western Ghats, the Ajanta, the Maikala, the Vindhayas and (Ne Aravalis ranges to the Shiwalik hills near Haridwar (Fig. 43), THE HIMALAYAN RIVER SYSTEMS, ‘Three Major river systems viz. the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra comprise the Himalayan river systems. Many of the Himalayan rivers existed even before the Himalayan ranges were uplifted. These rivers originate in the Tibetan side beyond the mountain ranges of the Himalayas. The gorges of the Indus, the Satluj, the Alaknanda, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Brahmaputra clearly indicate that these rivers are older than the mountains themselves. It is believed that they continued to flow all through the building phase of the Himalayas; their banks rising steeply while the beds went lower and lower, thus Sutting deep gorges through the rising Himalayan ranges. Thus, many of the Himalayan rivers are typical 1 drainage. The evolution and examples of anteceden ibed as under : flow of the Himalayan rivers is descr Evolution of the Himalayan Rivers 1. The Indo-Brahm or Shiwalik River Theory of the Some of the unwarranted features Himalayan rivers such as the tongitudinal courses of the Indus, the Satuj and the © ere ep jimalaya; sorges cut by the rivers across eel) flowing tributaries in their UPEET reaches ae agreat puzzle and require proper explanation.INDIA—A COMPREHENSIVE GEOGR, 98 4 Captures of Tibetan Fi X; ~ Xs Successive CaPl Punjab Rivers KILOMETRES 190 91 90200 990400 | EVOLUTION OF HIMA GONDWANALAND : LAYAN RIVERS, vor by Attock, Indus and Dinang ures of Indobrahm by FIG. 4.2. Evolution of the Himalayan Rivers has been partly done by assuming a mighty river which flowed from Assam to Punjab and even beyond upto Sind. This hypothetical ancient river was called the Indo-Brahm by E.H. Pascoe who thought that the present day Indus and Brahmaputra were the severed parts of the original river. However, it was named as the Shiwalik River by E.G. Pilgrim who considered that the course of the primitive river is occupied by the present day Shiwalik hills. Pascoe and Pilgrim presented an elaborate and comprehensive hypothesis, independently in 1919, on the assumption that the Shiwalik deposition occurred along this great river. The river came into being due to earth movements which took place in Tertiary period and is believed to be successor of the Himalayan sea. In the Eocene Epoch a gulf extended from Sind to Afghanistan and from there extended eastward and south-eastward through Kohat and Punjab to the neighbourhood of Nainital. This gulf g "¢ toa great river. With its, headwater consisting of portions of the Brahmaputra, this master stream flowed along the foot of the Himalayas first westward and then north-westward far as north-western Punjab where it turned southward more or less along the course of the modern Indus, ‘and emptied itself into the Arabian Sea. Later, this mighty stream got 0’ the following systems and sub- (a) the Indus, dismembered i stems? (b) the five tributaries of the Indus in Punjab, (c) the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries, and (d) the stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan tributaries: The dismemberment was the result of the following two events : (@ Upheavals in the western Himalayas including the Potwar Plateau in the Pleistocene age and (ii) Headward erosion by the tributaries of the Indobrahma river. As a result of the above mentioned dismember- he of the Indobrahma river, the Indus and its oe the Ganga and its tributaries and the jee one its tributaries came into being. It is ee Yamuna w. a tributary of the ae late Pleistocene and early Holocene Suratgart nat With the Sarswati somewhere near joining the nace’ to flow as Ghaggar, finally et Some other scholars believe that it river, Later og a Of Kachehh as an independent disturbance at cttnged its course due to tectonic by the Gane alone the Aravali axis and was annexed N88 to become its tributary. Pascoe also en: Mowing northwest, iwed a great ‘Tibetan River’ ‘ards along the Tsangpo—ppatnace asarovar Lakes—Satlaj—Gartang —Indys it This river might have emptied itself into the sake, or might have debouched on tothe plains Os ofa number of transverse gaps such as Photy won ps river also was disrupted by headwand Fon by Ayeyarwadi—Chindwin, the Meghna— rmaputra, the Satluj and the Indus, According to ‘era, the rivers of Karakoram and Ladakh might re fowed soutlreastward or eastward, Its capture pe east might have been executed by Dihang, a rary ofthe Brahmaputra. However, this theory has been challenged on the following grounds : (It is not necessary to imagine a stream of the ae of Indobrahma flowing all along the length of the Himalayas to explain the occurrence of the Shiwalik deposits. These could be brought down by the rivers fowing down the slopes of the Himalayas. MS. Krishnan and N.K.N. Iyngar (1940) found it dificult to accept the existence of such a mighty river on geological as well as physiographical grounds. (ii) The evidences furnished by the depositional history in the Ganga delta and in Assam does not fit well wth the concept of Indobrahma stream. (iii) The width, thickness and lithology of the Tipam sand stones of Assam which were deposited in an estuary situated so close to the source of the Indobrahma also speak against this theory. ya ove (iv) The upper course and the source of the Satluj river also do not fit in this theory. It is fed by Underground water from the Manasarovar lake and it flows in a deep canyon cut in the soft fluviated beds of Nari Khorsum. The upper course of the Satluj is distinctly arid and the river appears to be @ misfit. This could be explained if it were an old outlet of the ‘Tibetan River’. Pascoe argues that the Satluj captured a part of the ‘Tiberan River’ and then lost Again to the rejuvenated Tsangpo after the Dihang had cut back into the furrow. This argument has been ‘ejected by many scholars. E. Ahmad (1965 and 1971) has given his own interpretation of evolution of the Himalayan drainage Ue believed that the Tethys remained as a basin of Sedimentation from the Cambrian to the Eocene Period but the major portion of the Himalayan region ‘as occupied by the Gondwana landmass. During the rs Himalayan upheaval in Oligocene period, par of the Tethyian geosyneli shield covering the Tegion was uplifted, inc and probably the Gondwana Major part of the Himalaysn pb lost probably, this marks the ues tinal drainage. The Tethys was “Tibetan prema with a median mas of high shine centre and two bordering Hazes namely the Kun Lun in the north and the ae in the south, The drainage started from the rer edge of the median mass and flowed south towards the foredeep. As the formation of east-west anges created cast-west valleys, the rivers partly flowed along these valleys. This is indicated by the “upper course of several rivers such as the Indus, the Sutluj, the Brahmaputra, the Shyok, the Arun, ete. Since the whole of the Tethys was not fully raised to become land surface, there existed patches of sea along the margins and the drainage lines were not fully defined. ‘The second Himalayan upheaval during the mid Miocene period increased the altitude of the medium ‘mass and the bordering ranges. The remnant sea was also raised to form landmass. The rise in land resulted in greater and more invigorated drainage. Along with these changes, the region to the south of the first Himalayan range was raised as Lesser Himalayan range. Earlier streams on the southern margin of the Tibetan plateau cut down deep valleys to maintain their courses. Along the southern slopes of the lesser Himalayas, a number of consequent streams also ‘emerged which drained into the southern foredeep. The third Himalayan upheaval during the Pleistocene period resulted in the folding of the Shiwalik foredcep into hill ranges. Also the height of cearlier ranges and the Tibetan plateau was raised. The rise in the Tibetan plateau blocked the streams that had gone northward into the Tibetan sea. These streams were diverted east ot west which probably led to the formation of the trans-Himalayan master stream. This master stream was broken into two (the proto-Indus and the proto-Brahmaputra) by the formation of the Kailas Range. The uplift of the ‘Shiwalik range gave rise to the last set of consequents originating on the crest of the range emptying into older streams. 2, Multiple River Theory ‘An alternative explanation regarding the evolution of the Himalayan drainage has been offered100 ists of this by the Multiple River Theory. The protagonists of this theory find it difficult to accept the existence of : iver like the Indo-Brahm or Shiwalik 0 al and physiographical grounds. This theory postulates that the Eocene sea extended upto Sind, Rajasthan and from Punjab to Jammu and thereafter Lansdowne and Nainital. This vas connected to Tethys. Existence of such a sea is evidenced by the presence of shallow water bodies indicative of coast near Landsdowne. This limit also coincides with the eastern continuation of one of the ridges of the Aravali Range which presumably acted as barrier. At the same time, another ridge extended from the Rajmahal Hills to the Meghalaya or Shillong plateau (Rajmahal—Garo gap) which is now occupied by the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin, The sea was broken by the first upheaval of the Himalayas to form an isolated basin in which sediments were deposited. In the next upheaval, a pronounced foredeep all along the southern border of the Himalayas was formed. This foredeep contained numerous lagoons in which flowed streams from the Peninsula and the newly uplifted Himalayas. These streams brought sediments which later came to be known as Shiwalik deposits. The outlet of this foredeep was through the Rajmahal-Garo gap in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea in the west. Later ‘on the lagoons got dried up and numerous transverse streams flowing from the Himalayan region formed what is now known as the Himalayan drainage. THE INDUS RIVER SYSTEM. The Indus (Sanskrit—Sindhu, Greek—Sinthos; Latin—Sindus), along with its tributaries forms one of the largest drainage systems of the world. Ibis from this river that India got her name. The Indus valley hhas been the cradle of one of the oldest civilizations in the world—‘the Indus Valley Civilization’ The mighty Indus rises near Manasarovar Lake from the glaciers of the Kailas Range in Westerg Tibet (31°15' N and 81°40° E) at an elevation or 5,182 metres. Starting from its source, it lows for » distance of 257 km in the north west direction in the trans-Himalaya region under name of Singge Kiabap until itis joined by the Dhar. A short distance lowe, down, it enters India at an elevation of 4.206 m ang continues to flow in the same north-west directing between the Ladakh and the Zaskar Ranges, Tye INDIA—A COMPREHENSIVE SEOGR AP, ; iver in this course is ver gradi er km). Here it encireles the tte ah naa is joined by the Zaskar river. About 59 km before Skardu, it is joined by the Shyok a 3) elevation of about 2,700 m. The Gilgit, Gorane Dras, Shiger,Hunza are the other Himalayan tributaries of the Indus. After passing through a 4g km long antecedent and very deep gorge (5,14) metres at Bunji north of Nanga Parbat), it takes g sharp southerly bend and reaches Attock at an atituy of about 610 m. Here it ends its mountainous journey and is joined by the Kabul river from Afghanistan Thereafter it flows through the Potwar plain ang crosses the Salt Range. Some of the important tributaries below Attock include the Kurram, Toch and the Zhob-Gomal. Just above Mithankot, about 805 km from the sea, at an elevation of 79 m the Indus receives from Panjnad (Panchnad), the accumulated waters of the five eastern tributaries— the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj. The river finally empties itself into the Arabian Sea, south of Karachi after forming a big delta. The total length of the Indus river from its source to its ‘mouth is about 2,880 km out of which only 709 km length falls in India. ‘The average annual flow of water in the Indus river is 110,450 million cubic metres at Kalabagh, M of The left bank tributaries are big rivers in themselves and deserve a brief mention here. These Tvers join together one by one before they ultimately meet the main river, soutt® Shelum rises in a spring at Verinag in the coianac a Part of the Kashmir Valley. It flows can oe Tom its source to Wular Lake and further Kasha. Valley ae The river flows through the Baramul it Panjal Range below the Sind i the pen Of tributaries notably the Lidar, the ma ‘ohru, which rise in Kashmir, join ‘affarabad, the river takes a and the Kishaganga Ss Aaa bank, Thereafter, it forms the Plateay ad {0° 170 km and emerges at W¥iNg spurs of the ey Mifbur. After skirting the Plains near the eigy sSMlt Range it debouches vy the ae aot Jhelum about 402 km from its + The river jg tO¥*: it joins the Chenab at "avigable for about 160 km outaAINAGe : 101 FABLE 4.1. The Indus Drai maa - inage System “ength in km Sie sewed ] Nola of average laze m) annual flow (in ‘Near Manasarovar Lak: 309 in taunt = (31° 1S'N, 81°40'E at a 82) fim nay [area Gaia se : GrISN8 1:18 40221284 | 110450 a Kala i ck Pakistan Verinag m4 BAz7S wo dF [27850 Mag in ara Lacha Pass ae 1,180 26,155 upto Indo-Pak | 29,000 at Marala in ee 14,442 (5,957 in India)| 8,000 ‘Near Rohtang Pass at 4,062) 460 " amen milan 20,303 15,800 at Mandi Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes | | 45 2 asin a 450 (1,050 in India) | 25,900 16,600 at Rupnagar ofa total length of 724 km. The average annual flow of water in the river at Mangla is 27,890 million cubic etre. The catchment area upto the Indo-Pakistan border is 34,775 sq km. ‘The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha as in the Lahul-Spiti part of the Zaskar Range. Two small streams on opposite sides of the pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga, form its headwaters at an altitude of 4,900 m. The united stream, called the Chandrabhaga flows in the north-west direction through the Pangi valley, parallel to the Pir Panjal range, and enters Jammu and Kashmir as the Chenab ‘iver at an elevation of 1,838 m. Near Kistwar, it cuts ‘deep gorge, at places 1,000 m deep. Here, it flows for 290 km between steep cliffs of high mountains and tums southwards and flows in this direction for & short distance, Further, it turns to the west and enters the plain area near Akhnur in Jammu and Kashmir after traversing a distance of about 330 km. From here it swings to the south-west through the plains of Pakistani Punjab for a distance of 644 km to reach Panchnad where it joins the Satluj after receiving the Waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers. The total length of the river is 1,180 km, Its catchment area upto the Indo-Pakistan border is 26,155 sq km. Its annual How 4 Marala is 29,000 million cubic metres- ‘The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near the ‘htang Pass in Himachal Pradesh. Flowing = ® northwest direction from its source, it drains the area between the Pir Panjal and the Dhaola Dhar ranges. After crossing Chamba, it takes a south-westerly turn and cuts a deep gorge in the Dhaola Dhar range. It enters Punjab Plains near Madhopur and later enters Pakistan 26 km below Amritsar. It debouches into the Chenab a little above Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab after flowing for a distance of 725 km from its source. Its total catchment area is 14,442 sq km of which only 5,957 sq km lies in India. The annual flow of water in this river at Madhopur is 8,000 million cubic metres. ‘The Beas originates near the Rohtang Pass, at @ height of 4,062 m above sea level, on the southern ‘end of the Pir Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi. Fairly steep in its upper portion (24 metres per km) it crosses the Dhaola Dhar range through a deep gorge 900 m deep from Lori to Talwara. On meeting the Shiwalik hills the river sweeps sharply northward, then bending round the base of the hills it takes & Southerly direction and debouches on the plain. Thoreafter, it takes a south-westerly direction and meets the Satluj river at Harike in Punjab It is & ompatatively small river which is only 460 km long tur hes entirely within the Indian teretory. Tis total catchment area is 20,303 sq kim. The river sans about 15,800 million cubic eae deen : j the Manasarovar-Rakas “The Sat rises from eight of Lakes near Darma Pass in102 4,570 m within 80 km of the source of the Indus. Like the Indus, it takes a north-westerly course upto the Shipki La on the Tibet-Himachal Pradesh boundary. Here the river flows at an altitude of about 3,000 m above sea level. It cuts deep gorges where it pierces the Great Himalaya and the other Himalayan ranges In Nari Khorsan province of Tibet, it has created an extraordinary canyon, comparable to the Grand Conyon of Colorado; the channel here is 900 m deep. Its tributaries in Himachal Pradesh are short in length except the Spiti, which drains a large trans-Himalayan area and joins it at Namgia near the Shipki La. Before entering the Punjab plain, it cuts a gorge in Naina Devi Dhar, where the famous Bhakra dam has been constructed. After entering the plain at Rupnagar (Ropar), it turns westwards and is joined by the Beas at Harike. From near Ferozepur to Fazilka it forms the boundary between India and Pakistan for nearly 120 km. During its onward journey it receives the collective drainage of the Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum rivers and about 70 km further downstream, it joins the Indus a few kilometres above Mithankot. Out of its total length of 1,450 km, it flows for 1,050 km in Indian territory. It drains an area of 25,900 sq kms and its average annual flow at Rupnagar (Ropar) is 16,660 million cubic metres. ‘The water assets of the Indus river system are shared by India and Pakistan according to the Indus Water Treaty signed between the two countries on 19th September, 1960. According to this treaty, India can utilize only 20 per cent of its total discharge of water. THE GANGA RIVER SYSTEM ‘The Ganga river system consists of the master river Ganga and a large number of its tributaries, This system drains a very large area comprising the middle part of the Himalayas in the north, the northern part of the Indian Plateau in the south and the Ganga Plain in-between. joins it at reached, The Pindar and the -vi and East Trisul (6,803 river rising. INDIA~A COMPREHENSIVE GEOGRAP, Here it is joine important tributary. It esh, the verona the (er traversing Jamuna as it is known here) joins it at and after meeting Meghna 100 km downstream the Ganga joins the Bay of Bengal. Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Ganga, ‘along with the Brahmputra, forms the s : the Bhagirathi / Hugli an xdma / Meghna covering an area’ Of $8,752) kn The delta front of the Ganga is a highly lented area of about 400 km length extending from the mouth of the Hugli to the mouth of the Meghna. The delta is made of a web of distributaries and islands and is covered by dense forests called the Sunderbans. A majot part of the delta is a low-lying rd’ by a large number of 'S well as from the right. n the Himalayan ranges Sources in the Peninsular Majority of the but some Me of ther Plateau, = originate ji have their The y, i ‘amuna ji important t is the | the tributay HY Of the GartB°St and the most anga. It o1ARABIAN ‘SEA “ sos ed vet which is very close to that of the Ganga elf. Afercting across the Nag bb. he ‘Mussoorie and iwalik ranges it emerges out of the hilly are® y small streams such as the lany sm = Main water cide betwoon east fowng and west owing mer, === Onerwater ders. LOWETRES a upper reaches is the the ‘mand the water carried by the Tons is hills. At this site, t twice the water carried by the Yamuna After104 of about 300 km in the plain completing a journey km long Hindon near area, it is joined by the 256 Ghaziabad_in_Uttar Pradesh. ibutaries Yamuna receives some important tributari sular Plateau. These are thi The! confluence with the Ganga at ‘The Chambal rises 15 km south-west of Mhow in the highlands of Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhya Range in Madhya Pradesh and takes a north- westerly course through the Malwa Plateau. It then enters a gorge at Chaurasigarh, 312 km from its source. The gorge is 96 km long and stretches upto Kota city. Below Kota, it tums to north-east and after reaching Pinabat, it turns to the east and runs nearly Parallel to the Yamuna before joining it in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh. The river flows much below its banks due to severe erosion because of poor rainfall and numerous deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal Valley, giving rise to badland topography. The total length of the river is 1,050 km. The Banas is an important tributary of the Chambal. Ik originates in the southern part of the Aravali Range, and takes a north-eastern course to join the Chambal near Sawai Madhopur. The Sind originates in Vidisha Plateau of Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of 543 m. It flows for a distance of 415 km before it joins the Yamuna. It drains an area of 25,085 sq km, ‘The Betwa rises at an elevation of 470 m in Bhopal district and joins the Yamuna near Hamirpur. It hes a total length of 590 km and a catchment area of 45.580 sq km. The Dhasan is its important tributary. The 360 kin long Ken river rising from the Barer Range of Madhya Pradesh is another tributary which jones the Yamuna near Chila; some 60 km downstream: from the mouth of the Betwa, The Son river springs from the Amarkantak Plateau, no far from the origin of the Narmada, an elevation of about 600 m. After flowing for sore distance to the north. it meets the Kaimur Ramee Which turns its course fo the north-east. passes gras te cascades in the hill reaches and further beyorey through the Palamau district of Jharkhand. te join ye Ganga about 16 km upstream of Danapuc in payne 4 INDIA-A COMPREHENSIVE BOR, ty jet of Bihar after flowing for a distan an 2 source. It has a total catchmens a 71259 sq km in which there are wide Nuc’ water flow changing with the change of seq ve important tributaries ofthe Son are the Jj, Gopat, the Rihand, the Kanhar and the Norn ‘Almost all the tributaries join it on its right bani, The Damodar river rises in the hitls of Chotanagpur plateau and flows through art vas It used to cause devastating floods as a resu, which it earned the dubious name of ‘Sorroy, Bengal’. After flowing through Bankura aq Burdwan districts of West Bengal, it joins the Hug, 48 km below Kolkata. The total length of the river 541 km and its catchment area is 25,820 sq km, Still more important tributaries of the Gangs originate in the Himalayas and join it on its left bank. The major tributaries of this category, apart from the Yamuna, are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Burhi Gandak, the Bagmati, and the Kosi. The Ramganga river rises in the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand at an altitude of 3,110 m and enters the Ganga Plain near Kalagarh. It joins the Ganga at Kannauj after traversing a distance of 59 km. The Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the Kosi, and the Deoha (Gorra) are important tributaries which join the Ramganga, Its basin covers 32,493 sq km. Ms The Ghaghra river originates near the Gurla fndhata peak, south of Manasarovar in Tibet. Obviously it is a St cutting across the Great @ succession of steep defiles. Its aa 4 ies are the Sarda, the Sarju on the Ghaghan Aveda 's located and the Rapti. The downstreang Or chee, Ganga a few kilometres long journe ‘hhapra in Bihar after a 1,080 km KS Source. Soon after reaching the hn Bets divided into many branches va are important. These Pradesh. Project in in Bahraich distri of Uttar as eee the river bed is sandy and sudden Sandy expat in the stream. Flowing over @ Deoria, Azam, ‘Panse, this tiver crosses Gorakhpur, ‘sath and Balia districts of Uttar Pradesh Himalaya through important tributaripanne jded stream. The total catchmei 127,950 sq km out of which 45% nin oe st Hes it Nepal and Tibet. The river has a shy flood frequency and has shifted its course Br imes. 1S average annual flow is 94,990 Sion cubic metres. ‘the Kali river also rises in the high glaciers of gow covered region of the trans-Himalaya, It has sal feeders in the high ranges and forms the ary between Nepal and Kumaon for most of its test acrss the mountains. Its known as the Sarda eG aka afte i reaches the plains near Tanakpur guiow this point it takes a south-easterly course and joins the Ghaghara. ‘The Gandak which originates near the Tibet- epl border at a height of 7,620 m receives a large punter of tributaries in Nepal Himalaya, the most rassanding being the Kali Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and the rishi. It debouches into the plains ai Tribeni and pours into the Ganga at Hajipur in Bia after flowing for a distance of 425 km in Indi itsdrainage area is 46,300 sq km out of which 7,620 «qs, is in India. The average annual flow is 52.200 nillion cubic metres. ‘The Burhi Gandak originates from the western slopes of Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border and flows in south-east direction. It joins the Ganga padi is ‘Name of the ‘Source river Glacier at 7,010 m Gangotti Ganga Yamuna “Yamnotri Glacier at 6.330 ™ Chambat Near Mhow (Madhya Pradesh) | Garhwat district at 3.110 Ramganga Ghaghara_ / “Near Gurla Mandhota peak | south of Manasarovat at 7,620 m | -Tibet-Nepal border Himalay® Kosi Sikkim-Nepal-Tibet TABLE 4.2. The Ganga Drainage System 1 = Length | Area drained (sq Gn km) 105 ‘opposite Mon; ighyr town, i Grainage area is Daa is 610 km and its The Kost river Sut Kosi, Tar consists of seven streams namel; , Tamba Kosi, ae Kosi, Arun and Geena Doodh Kosi, Botia Sopthewsttie an and is popularly known as ee s€ streams flow through a large Part of eastern Nepal which i is Cee is known as the Sapt ‘oh ‘ik region. Arun is the main stream which rises fo the north of Gossinthan, The sores of seven au steams of the Kos ae lose i snow covered areas : iso receive heavy rainfall. Consequently, huge ae of water flows with tremendous speed. ming out of the Saptakosi region, the streams flow in south-west direction. Seven streams mingle with cach other to form three streams named the Tumar, ‘Arun and Sun Kosi. These three streams contribute respectively 44%, 37% and 19% of the total water flow in the river. They unite at Triveni north of the Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi. The river enters the Tarai of Nepal after cutting a narrow gorge for 10 km in the Mahabharata Range at Chatra. The Kosi flows for a distance of 730 km in India and joins the Ganga near Kursela. The total drainage area of the river is 86,900 sq km out of which 21,500 sq km lies in India. Soon after debouching onto the plain the river becomes sluggish and large scale deposition of eroded ‘Volume of average annual flow (in million km) cubic metres) {52,000 at Allahabad, 459,040 at Pana (93,020 at Allahabad 30,050 at confluence with the Yarnuna,106 pannel is braided and ‘material takes place. The river el This has resulted in it shifts its course frequently. frequent devastating floods and has comer os 10,000 sq km cultivable land into waste land in Bi if Thus the river is often termed as the ‘Sorrow of Bikar’. In order to tame this river, a barrage Was constructed in 1965 near Hanuman Nagar in Nepal. Embankments for flood control have been constructed as a joint venture of India and Nepal. THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM ‘The Brahmaputra (meaning the son of Brahma) rises in the great Chemayungdung glacier in the Kailas Range of the Himalayas a little south of the Lake Konggyu Tsho at an elevation of about 5,150 m located at 30° 31' N latitude and 82° 10’ E longitude. This source is about 150 km away from the source of the Indus and only 35 km from the birth place of the Satluj. Both these rivers flow westwards while the Brahmaputra flows eastwards from this region Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake, With a total length of 2.900 km the Brahmaputra is one of the longest rivers of the world and passes through Tibet, India and Bangladesh Known as the Tsdngpo (meaning “The Purifier’), in Tibet and Yarlung Zangbo Jiangin in Chinese language, the Brahmaputra flows eastwards in Southern Tibet for about 1,800 km and for most part of this journey it passes through the depression formed by the Indus-Tsangpo Structure Zone between the Great Himalayas in the south and the Kailas Range in the non. inspite ofthe exceptionally high altitude of the land through which the Tsangpo flows ithas a gentle slope and the river is sluggish and hae g wide navigable channel for about 640 km from Lhatse Dzong down-stream. This is one of the mont remarkable navigable waterways of the world where boats sail at an altitude of 3.000 metres and above he bed is 3.525 m high at Tradom (Teladuomuy ant 3.300 m at Shigase. It receives large numer tributaries in Tibet. The fest major tributary ie yee Raga Tsangpo from the north meeting the Tua? through the trade centre of Gyants inthe sous joins the main river near Zhikase. Further eayt ahd Kyichu (Gya Chhu) from the north runs pase ne sacred town of Lhasa and joins it near Chushut py no INDIA—A COMPREHENSIVE OCR, ‘Tsela Dz, the river is ined by the Griamda from north. Towal abruptly tur rds the end of its journey in Tigg ns to north-east and north ang ie traverses in a succession of rapids between hign mountains of Gyala Peri (7.151 m) and Name Barwa (7,756 m). Further, it turns t0 the south ay south-west and cuts across the eastern Himalay, through the Dihang or Siang Gorge and emerges fron, the mountains near Sadiya in the Assam Valley, Hee it frst flows under the name of Siong and then asthe Dihang. The Dihang gorge is only 50 metres wide places but is 5,485 m below Namcha Barwa. The steepness of its slope can be judged from the fact ta its altitude falls suddenly from 2,450 m north of Namcha Barwa to only 135 m at Sadiya. Here itis joined by two important tributaries viz. the Dibang (or Sikang) from the north and Lohit from the south forming what looks like a ‘delta in reverse’. From Sadiya onwards, this mighty river is known as the Brakmaputra and flows majestically in the Assam Valley for a distance of about 720 km. Here also, a large number of tributaries, both from the north and from the south, pay their tribute to the master river. The main streams merging with the Brahmaputra from the north are, Subansiri, Kameng. Beli, Dhansiri (north), Nyera Ama, Manas— *a—Manas, Champaman, Gangadhar, Raidah, nd Tista. The Tista was a tributary of the rior to the devastating floods of 1787 alter diverted its course eastwards to join the DeoUTing in the main river from ibru, Burhi g +. Deano on he Noa Dihing its a braided channel for most Assam. There is a constant mnels and the sandy shoals. Its Ganga p; which it Brahmaputra. Thos the south are ¢ Disab the river chan shift in the : a the Assam plains has been quite 2 recent ye fd there is excessive ct em: It cartes a fot of sit ich is Majuli. 1 is 90 km long 1250 sq.km. Thien, tt its Widest, having an area of Population gee, 'S!Nd has 144 villages with @ reec’tttated during 50,000. With rainfall Site (0 carry exit’ MONSOON months only the Mich results jn MOUS Quantities of water andpRalNAGe ‘The floods caused by the Brahmaputra in ‘assam Valley affect on an average an area of 8 to 10 Asha km. The Brahmaputra is thus truly a River of it. However the river is navigable fora distance Sorige4 km upto Dibrugarh from its mouth and of gs asan excellent inland water transport route. ‘Traversing round the stairs of the Garo Hills, the prahmaputra bends southwards and enters pangladesh near Dhubri. It flows for a distance of 70 km in the name of Jamuna river and joins the Ganga at Goalundo. The united stream of the Jamuna and the Ganga flows further in the name of Padma. ‘About 105 km further downstream, the Padma is joined on the left bank by the Meghna, originating in the mountainous region of Assam. From. the confluence of Padma and Meghna, the combined river js known as the Meghna which makes a very broad estuary before pouring into the Bay of Bengal. sea THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE ‘The Indian Peninsula is traversed by a large number of rivers which have existed for a much longer period than the Himalayan rivers. As such the peninsular rivers have reached mature stage and have almost reached the base level of their erosion. This is characterised by broad, shallow and largely graded valleys. The beds have very subdued gradient except fora limited tract of river where faulting has allowed steepening of the gradient. Almost the entire Peninsula presents a senile topography showing features of mature drainage. The velocity of water in the rivers and the load carrying capacity of the streams is low due to low gradient and the rivers form big deltas at their mouths. This is especially observed in the east flowing rivers pouring into the Bay of Bengal. But the ‘West flowing rivers of Narmada and Tapi as well as those originating from the Western Ghats and falling. in the Arabian Sea form estuaries in place of deltas. However, there are instances of superimposed and rejuvenated drainage represented by waterfalls. The Jog on the Sharvati (289 m), Yenna of Mahabaleshwar (183 m), Sivasamundram on the Cauveri (101 m), Gokak on the Gokak (55 m)- Kapildhara (23 m) and Dhuandar (15 m) on the Narmada are the major waterfalls in the Peninsular india, 107 Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage Geologists believe that ‘was the main water hypothesis assumes that t the Sahyadri-Aravali axis ee the geological past. One hat the existing peninsula ist ee ing “ of bigger landmass. The Western GUIS were located in the middle of this landmass viding the entire drainage into two symmetrical Parts—one flowing in the east and the other flowing in the West. But the western part of the Peninsula cracked and submerged in the Arabian Sea and disturbed the symmetrical plan of the rivers on either side of the watershed during the early Tertiary period. During the collision of the Indian plate, a second major distortion was introduced in the Peninsular block and it was subjected to subsidence and consequent trough faulting through which now flow main west flowing rivers of the Peninsula, namely the Narmada and the Tapi. This is amply proved by the straight coastline, steep western slope of the Western Ghats, and the absence of delta formations on the western coast. Another view is put forward keeping in view the exceptional behaviour of the Narmada and the Tapi. It is believed that these two rivers do not flow in the valleys formed by the rivers themselves. Rather they have occupied two fault planes or alluvium filled rifts in rocks running parallel to the Vindhyas. These faults are supposed to be caused by bend or ‘sagging’ of the northern part of the Peninsula at the time of upheaval of the Himalayas. According to D.N. Wadia (1975) the Peninsular block, south of the cracks, tilted slightly eastwards thus giving new orientation to the entire drainage towards the Bay of Bengal. While this line of thought explains the present drainage system of the Peninsular India with greater satisfaction, it stil eaves some questions to which there is no satisfactory answer. R.C. Mehdiratta (1962) argues that tilting should have increased the gradient of the river valleys and caused some rejuvenation of the fivers, This type of phenomenon is absent in the Peninsula, barring a few exceptions such as ‘watesfalls, as mentioned earlier. The Peninsular River Systems ‘Although the general direction of flow of the Peninsular rivers is from west to east, a carefal study reveals at least three main directions of flow :108 (@ The Mahanadi, the Godavari Cauvery and several smaller rivers draining s east into the Bay of Bengal. (ii) The Narmada and the Tapi f10% ie well as several small streams originating from Western Ghats flow westwards into the Arabian Sea. (ii) Tributaries of the Ganga and the Yamunt such as the Chambal, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son ani the Damodar flow in the north-casterly direction. the lowing, west as The East Flowing Rivers of the Peninsula ‘The Mahanadi (literally meaning big river) is an important river of the Peninsular India. It has its source in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya near Sihawa in Raipur District of Chhattisgarh at an elevation of 442 m. Its upper course lies in the sauci shaped basin called the “Chhattisgarh Plain’, This basin is surrounded by hills on the north, west and south as a result of which a large number of tributaries join the main river from these sides. The main tributaries are the 1b (251 km), the Mand (241 km), the Hasdo (333 km) and the Sheonath (383 km) ‘on the left bank and the Ong (204 km), the Jonk (196 km), and the Tel (295 km) on the right bank. From its source, the river takes a north easterly course. Beyond Seorinarayan it flows eastwards and after entering, Odisha, it turns southwards below the Hirakud Dam. Further below it turns eastwards near Sonepur. On reaching the Eastern Ghats, the river flows through a narrow Gorge for 23 km near Tikkarpara Range and finally emerges in a delta at Naraj 11 km west of Cuttack. The Mahanadi finally empties itself in the Bay of Bengal after flowing for a distance of 857 km. The delta of Mahanadi spreads over an area of 9,500 ‘sq km and is over 150 km broad, The Godavari is the largest river system of the Peninsular India and is next only to the Ganga and the Indus Systems regarding sanctity, picturesqueness and utility and is held in reverence as Vridha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga. Its total length is 1,465 Kilometres. The source of this river is in the Trimbak Plateau of North Sahyadri near Nashik in Maharasbira which is only 80 km from the shore of the Arabian Sea. From its source it flows eastwards in a narrow rocky bed upto Nashik but the river valley opens out below this point. It receives a large number of tributaries both from the left as well as from the right \ ty 1 left bank tributaries are more in y Hes in size than the right bank tba Manjra (724 km) is the only important ggg" Te tributary. It originates from Jamkhed Hy j, Maharashra and joins the Godavari near Ky, a after passing through the Nizam gagu w Penganga the Wardha, the Wainganga, the yg, and the Sabari are important left bank tbuta! te Penganga (676 km) tses from the Buldara gan and joins the Wardha River (483 km) near Ghupyt The Wardha in its turn joins the Waingang, 7," united Wardha and Wainganga rivers become ye short span Pranhita river which joins the Gaia below Sironcha. The Indravati river from y. Kondhan Hills of Eastern Ghats joins the mastery about 48 km downstream from Sironcha, Below jy confluence with Indravati, the Godavari flows in gorge, 60 km long and 200 m wide through tie Eastern Ghats. It is located about 100 km from te mouth of the river and is supposed to be formed due to faulting. Below Rajahmundry, the river divides itself into two main streams, the Gautami Godavari on the east and the Vashishta Godavari on the west and forms a large delta before it pours into the Bay of Bengal. The current at Rajahmundry is not rapid ani varies from 1.2 to 3.3 metres per second. The dele has a front of 120 km and projects about 35 km into the sea. The delta of the Godavari is of lobate npe with a round bulge and many distributaries. The Godavari causes heavy floods in its lower course below Polawaram. The Godavari is navigable upto a distance of 300 km from its mouth. ___ The Krishna is the second largest cast flowing river of the Peninsula. It rises in the Wester Ghats Just to the north of Mahabaleshwar, about 64 km from the Arabian Sea and flows for a distance of 1,400 kit {0 the Bay of Bengal in a general easterly direction The Koyna, the Ghataprabha, the Malprabha, the Bhima, the Tungabhadra, the Musi and the Muners are its important tributaries. The Koyna is a sll tributary but is very famous for Koyna Dam. This dam was perhaps the main cause of the devastating cee in 1967. The Bhima originates from the Ruutheron Hills and joins the Krishna 26 km from Tea after flowing in the south-easterly direction Nora onsite of 861 km. Mula, Mutha Ghod and formed pi, uo-tibutaries. The Tungabhadra is ‘med by the unification of the Tunga and the INDIA~A COMPREHENSIVE Gp,109 ig from Gangamula in length is 531 km. At Wine Se is as important tributary, the Mis, on eft hak the famous city of Hyderabad is lead, whishaa forms a large delta spreading over an of 4,600 sq km with a shoreline of about 120 km Scrishna delta appears to merge with that Fe bythe Godavari and extends about 35 km into the sea- Kaveri (Cauvery) is the most revered and sacred ver of south India and is designated as the patshina Ganga’ or ‘the Ganga of the South’. The source of this river lies at Taal Cauvery on the Brahmagiri range of hills in the Western Ghats at 1341 m elevation (12° 25’ N and 75° 34° E) situated igihe Coorg Plateau (Coorg district of Karnataka). It flows eastwards for a distance of about 800 km before st empties in the Bay of Bengal. This river is unique jn the sense that its upper catchment area receives ‘ainfall during summer by the south-west monsoon and the lower catchment area during winter season by the retreating north-east monsoon. It is, therefore, almost a perennial river with comparatively less fluctuations in flow and is very useful for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation. Thus the Cauvery is one of the best regulated rivers and 90 to 95 per cent of its irrigation and power production potential already stands harnessed. ra origin Bias ttal The Cauvery river falls rapidly by 450 m from its source of origin within a short distance of 8 km. The middle course of the river over the 750 m high Mysore Plateau is characterised by broad and sweeping meanders. The river descends from the South Kamataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu Plains through the Sivasamudram waterfalls (101 m high). The river which was more than one kilometre wide above the Sivasamudram Falls, narrows down considerably below it and enters a long, picturesque gorge, 200 m deep at places, cut through the Eastern Ghats. The river divides itself into two distines channels at Srirangam. The northern channel is called Kollidam (Coleroon) while the southern one retains the name Cauvery. The delta formation starts rom ® Point about 16 kin away from Tiruchchirappalll The Cauvery has formed a quadrilateral delta spreading over an area of 8.000 sq km. It has almost & straight front which runs for a distance of 130 km song "he coast of Bay of Bengal. The water flowing j we oo river at different places. The piri He the Herangi, the Hemavati, the haat ‘the Srimsha and the Arkavati from the and the Laksmantirtha, the Kabani, the Suvarnavati, th i Sunatnavatis the Bhavani andthe Amravat fom the Among the other east flowing rivers of the Aneel a are, from north to south, the Subarnarekha, the Brakmani, the Penner, the stellen oa ie Vaigai. The Subarnarekha cen 1¢ Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand at an elevation of 600 m and flows in south-east direction forming the boundary between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course. It joins Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas, Its total length is 395 km, The Brahmani river comes into existence by the confluence of the Koel and the Sankh rivers near Rourkela. It has a total length of 800 km. Its main tributaries are the Kura, the Sankhad and the Tikra. Its mouth becomes the northern end of the Mahanadi delta. The Penneru river springs from the Nandi Durg peak in Karnataka and flows in northward direction. It then enters ‘Andhra Pradesh and takes an easterly course. It forms ‘a narrow estuary before it joins the Bay of Bengal ‘The total length of the river is 597 km. The principal tributaries of this river are the Jayamangali, the Kunderu, Saigileru, Chitravari, Papagni and Cheyyerte. The Ponnaiyar is a small stream which is confined to the coastal area only. South of the Cauvery delta, there are several streams, of which the Vaigai is the longest. This flows through dry channels and tends to get lost intermittently and appear again on the surface. The west flowing rivers of the Peninsula ‘The west flowing rivers of the Peninsular India are fewer and smaller as compared t0 (No i flowing counterparts. The two major We loving fivers are the Narmada and the Tap. TMs cxeepicnl behaviour of these two rivers is ee en supposition that they do not flow i. formed by themselves but Rave UWP ie channels two fault planes running para oe Vindhyas. These faults a° supposed 19 hae originated with the bending or sagging_ 0 aval northern part of the Peninsula atthe time 7 pte - Of the Himalayas. It is interesting @ Pi Ne Go Peninsular rivers which fall into the ATAPI Te tot form deltas, but only estuaries. This ISA” fot that the west flowing rivers, especiay Narmada and the Tapi flow through hard ‘06% T form distributaries before they ©” abarmati, Mahi and Luni are other which flow westwards. nating in the Western xd join the Arabian are not able to the sea. The S rivers of the Peninsular India Hundreds of small streams origi Ghats flow swiftly westwards an Sea. ‘The Narmada is the largest of all the west 1¢ Peninsular India, It rises from flowing rivers of th the western flanks of the Amarkantak plateau about 22°40'N and 81°45'E at an elevation of 1,057 m in jesh_and flows Shahdol district of Madhya Prad westwards through a rift valley between the Vindhyan Range on the north and the Satpura Range on the south, Its total length from its source in Amarkantak to its estuary in the Gulf of Khambhat is 1,310 km. For 1,078 km, it flows through Madhya Pradesh. For the next 32 km, it forms the boundary between Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra and for another 40 km between Maharasthra and Gujarat. The remaining 160 km of its course is in Gujarat. After flowing for 400 km from the source, the river slopes down Jabalpur, where it cascades 15 m into a gorge to form the most spectacular and world famous Dhan Dhar (Cloud of Mist) Falls. Since the gorge is composed of popularly known as the Marble Rocks. upper basin is marble ‘The average descent of the river i 7-9 metres per kilometre, Below Jabalpur, it flows in a narrow elongated and well define! basin and forms afew rapids. It makes two waterfalls of 12. m each at Mandhar and Dardi. Near Maheshwar the river again descends from another small fall of 8 m, known as the Sahasradhara Falls. Emerging from the hills near Gardeshwar, it meanders through an alluvial plain past Bharuch and makes an estiry before enterin the Gulf of Khambhat. There are several islands in the estuary of the Narmada of which Aliabet is the largest. At its confluence with the sea, the mouth of the river is about 28 km wide. The Narmada ig navigable upto 112 km from its mouth, Since the river flows through a narrow vale, confined by precipitous hills, it does not have mang tributaries. The absence of tributaries is especially INDIA-A COMPREHENSIVE GEOGRp ay noted on the right ba fhe iver Where the Hing the only exception It is 188 km long ang peel to the Bhanru Range in Jabalpur gi Parmre falling into the Narmada, northeg Petninawara. The other Fight bank tributaries Gheong, the Barna and the Kolar. A few lef go Orputares drain the northern slopes Of the Say Range and join the Narmada at different places, 7h, important tributaries joining the Narmada ong serra the Burhiner (177 ka) the Banjar (184k) the Shar (129 km) the Shakkar (161 km) the Tagg (172 km) and the Kund (169 km) ‘The Tapi (also known as the apt) isthe secong flowing river of the Peninsular India ang s ‘the twin’ or ‘the handmaid of tig Narmada, It originates from the sacred tank of Mut on the Satpura Plateau in Betul district of Madhys Pradesh at an elevation of 730 m above sea level first traverses on open plain and then plunges into a rocky gorge of the Satpura hills between the Kalihit Range in Nimar and Chikalda in Berar. At a distance of 192 km from its source, the river enters the Nimar region. After crossing the Nimar region of Madhya Pradesh it enters the Khandesh Plain of Maharashtra, lying between the Satpura and the Ajanta Ranges. On entering the Khandesh Plain, it receives the Purna river on the left bank. This is the main tributary of the Tapi which originates in the Gawilgarh Hills and joins the main river near Bhusawal. Further west it crosses the Western Ghats through a deep and narrow valley, passes through the alluvial plain of Surat and San estuary before falling into the Gulf of Khambhat, The total length of the river is 730 km. About 48 km stretch of its course is tidal and the river is navigable for only about 32 km from the sea. The important tributaries of this river apart from the Purna oe 7 ce Betul, Patki, Ganjal, Dathranj, Bokad, Gomi and ee Kanki, Guli, Aner, Arunav " Khandu, Ka ‘aler on right bank and Ambhora, Khursi, Vaghon Gine yen Garja, Khokri, Utaoli, Mon’, onthe fot ang bot Panghara, Buray and Amravati Sane Sabarmati is the name siven 1 te from the hills or Sabar and Hathmati. M rises 320 kn long. ci the Aravali Range and is and falls into th lows through a gorge '¢ Gulf of Khambhat. Thi largest west is known a:pRalnace TABI LE 4.3. Major Rivers of the Peni ins aut | Somes Tonathin | sular India never ee ren Volume of average annual eee Gakm | flow (nition. | ‘POrtant tributaries, pana | Dandakaranya near a) ee eee ’ Sihawa in Raipur | "41,600 67.000 | th Mand, iocao, cee | | heMand Has, Sonat, Chhattisgarh adler [pene cecil eee BE | Gaunai | Teimbak Plateau near] 1,465 aan Nashik in eee Manjra,Penganga, Wardha, : anja, Penganga, Wardha | Matsa i Maing. Inka Sa Kasia Near Mshablesvar 1400 | 2sea8 | 67670 —_ in Maharashtra ce 7 Koyna, Ghatprabha, | Malprabha, Bhima, seuss Tungabhadra, Musi, Munem Cawery | Taal Cauvery | 800 | 87900 209: i eee Western Ghats $ .950 | Herangi, Hemavat Lokpavani, Shimsha, ‘Arkavati, Lakshmanatrtha, Kabani, uvanavati Bhavani, Amaravat Narmada ] ‘Amarkantak Plateau 1310 98.795 40,700 | Miran, Orsang, Bama, Kolar, | | Burhner, Banja, Sha. | Shakhar, Tawa, Kundi Tapi | Multai in Betul Distt. 730 65,145 17.980 | Pura, Betul, Patki, Ganjal, orm. | Dathranj, Bokad, Amravati tributaries of this river are the Hathmati, the Sedhi, the Wakul, the Harnav, the Meshwa and the Vatrak. The average annual flow of this river is 3.200 million cubic metres. ‘The Mahi river rises in the Vindhyas at an elevation of 500 m and empties itself into the Gulf of Khambhat after flowing for a distance of 533 km. The tain tributaries of this river are the Som, the Anas and the Panam. The Luni or the Salt River (Lonari or Lavanavari in Sanskrit) is named so because its water is brackish below Balotra. Its source lies to the west of Ajmer in the Aravalli at an elevation of 550 mand it flows in a south-west direction. It is a small stream but has got the distinction of flowing through the Thar desert, The river is known as the Sagarmati in its (Geet course. It is joined by the Sarsutt after passing Sovindgarh and it is from this confluence that the Tiver gets its proper name as the Luni. It traverses for a distance of 482 km and is finally lost in the marshy grounds at the head of the Rann of Kachchh. The river has a low gradient and flows through a wide plain without a well marked valley West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris About six hundred siu.tI streams originate from the Western Ghats and flow westwards to fall into the Arabian Sea. The western slopes of the ‘Western Ghats receive heavy rainfall from the south-west monsoons and are able to feed such a large number of treams. Although only about 396 of the areal extent ar the basins of India is drained by these rivers they contain about 18% of the country’s water resourch ‘The important rivers falling in this category = the Mandovi, Zuari and Rachol in Goa: Kalinadi, Gangavalli-Bedti, Sharavati, Tadei and ‘Netravati in Karnataka, and Beypore, Pannam, Bharatapuzha, Periyar and Pamba in Kerala, Most of the streams12 flow swiftly down the steep slope and some of them make waterfalls. The Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289 ™) made by the Sharavati river is the most famous waterfall of In Inland Drainage Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage. Large parts of the Rajasthan desert and parts of Aksai Chin in Ladakh have inland drainage. The Ghaggar is the most important river of inland drainage. It is a seasonal stream which rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and forms boundary between Haryana and Punjab. It gets lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan near Hanumangarh after traversing a distance of 465 km. Earlier, this river was an affluent of the Indus, the dry N INDIA—A COMPREHENSIVE GEogR ¢ old channel is still traceable, ty, Fiore ae the Tanaris th Marky” Saraswati and the Chaitanya. It contains a fy water in rainy season when i bed becomes 1g p® side at places. Most ofthe streams draining wg Slopes ofthe Aravalli Range dry up immediately ap they enter the sandy arid areas 10 the West of yi ain the range. Differences between the Himalayan ang the Peninsular River Systems ‘The Himalayan rivers are quite different from the rivers of the Peninsular India from the point of view of the drainage features and hydrologica, characteristics. A brief summary of these differences is given below : 1 The Peninsular River System Basis The Himalayan River System a 1. Name “These rivers originate from the lofty Himalayan | These rivers originate in the Peninsular Plateau ranges and are named as the Himalayan rivers. _| and are named as Peninsular rivers, 2. Basins | These rivers have large basins and catchment | These rivers have small basins and catchment areas, The total basin area of the Indus, the | areas. The Godavari hus the largest basin area of Ganga and the Brahmaputra is 11.78, 8.61 and | 3.12 lakh square kilometres only which is less 58 lakh square kilometres respectively than one-third the basin area of the Indus. 3 Valleys | The Himalayan rivers flow through deep I-| The Peninsular rivers flow in comparatively 4. Water Flow 5. Stage 6. Meanders Estuaries H7. Deltas and shaped valleys called gorges. These gorges have been carved out by down cutting carried on side by side with the uplift of the Himalayas. These are examples of antecedent drainage. The Himalayan rivers are perennial in nature, e., water flows throughout the year in these rivers, These rivers receive water both from the ‘monsoons and snow-melt. The perennial nature of these rivers makes them useful for irrigation These rivers flow across the young fold mountains and are stil ina youthful stage The upper reaches of the Himalayan sivers ae highly tortuous. When they enter the plains there is a sudden reduction in the Speed of flow of water. Under these ies these rivers beds, The Himalayan rivers form big dela clas at hel mouths, The Ganga-Brahmaputra dels 4a largest in the world. flowing Withous pOW24S the west enter the Arabian Sea Ct forming any detta ee shallow valleys. These are more or less completely graded valleys. The rivers have little erosional activity to perform. These are examples of consequent drainage. The Peninsular rivers receive water only from rainfall and water flows in these rivers in rainy season only. Therefore, these rivers are seasonal OF non-perennial. As such these rivers are much _ less useful for These rivers have been flowing in one of the oldest plateaus of the world and have reached maturity, The hard rock surface and non-alluvial character ofthe plateau permits litle scope forthe formation Sr meanders. 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