Engineering Materials and Processes

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Satyam Suwas · Ranjit Kumar Ray

Crystallographic Texture
of Materials

13
Satyam Suwas Ranjit Kumar Ray
Department of Materials Engineering R&D Division
Indian Institute of Science Tata Iron and Steel Co. Ltd.
Bangalore Jamshedpur
India India

ISSN 1619-0181
ISBN 978-1-4471-6313-8 ISBN 978-1-4471-6314-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-6314-5
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This book is dedicated to

Sanjeev Bhargava
(1953–2009)
Formerly, Professor and Head,
Department of Materials and Metallurgical
Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India
Preface

This book is a distillation of our long collective experience as students, teachers,

and researchers in the field of crystallographic textures and its applications, both
in academic and industrial settings. Analysis of texture currently finds widespread
use in several industries as a crucial input toward development of new materials
and products. As such, there has been rapid growth in the need to understand and
use texture analysis, and the user base of this area has seen a concurrent growth.
This has resulted in a need for organized basic learning material to introduce new
and established users to this field.
Why this book at this time? There are already several well-known, recognized
excellent texts in texture analysis, including seminal works by Bunge, Kocks et al.
and Randle and Engler. However, almost all of these are advanced level texts that
delve into the details of texture analysis. The only introductory monograph, by
Hatherley and Hutchinson, is almost 40 years old and certainly does not cover the
advances in the field that have occurred in the intervening time. This has resulted
in a large unmet demand for introductory learning materials in crystallographic
texture analysis. This book aims to meet that demand. This book is influenced by
many years of teaching texture analysis to many batches of students both at IIT
Kanpur and Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. We hope that this effort pro-
vides the reader with an accessible, detailed, and applicable introduction to the
field of texture analysis.
The first three chapters of this book introduce the essentials of texture analysis
to a novice reader. The next three chapters (Chaps. 4–6) deal with the essence of
existing knowledge on texture of metallic materials. The Chaps. 7 and 8 are dedi-
cated to some of the relatively recent topics in texture research, that is, texture in
thin films and nonmetals. Obviously these chapters provide mostly the informa-
tion available in the literature and hence are not rigorous. Chapter 9 deals with
the dependence of material properties on texture, and the last chapter (Chap. 10)
provides a brief account of texture control as practiced in some of the engineering
materials.
This book can be used as a reference for researchers and users of texture analy-
sis in fields as diverse as Metallurgy, Materials Science and Engineering, Physics
and Geology. This book can also serve as a text book for one-semester undergrad-
uate and postgraduate courses in texture analysis by using the content selectively.
We hope that this book will prove useful to anyone who wishes to learn about

vii
viii Preface

textures and will find a place on the bookshelves of researchers in both academic
and industrial settings.
Writing a book such as this is never an isolated experience, but depends on
the contributions of many to come to fruition. This book would not be possi-
ble without contributions and discussions from team members in our respective
research groups. We specially acknowledge K. S. Suresh and R. Madhavan for
their material inputs and for organizing the manuscript into appropriate format;
Nataraj B. R., Narendra Babu N., and Ms. Naina for drawing the figures. We also
thank our professional colleagues Prof. V. Subramanya Sarma (IIT Madras), Dr.
Nilesh Gurao (IIT Kanpur), Prof. Indradev Samajdar (IIT Bombay), Dr. Pinaki
Bhattacharjee (IIT Hyderabad), Prof. Rajesh Prasad (IIT Delhi), and late Prof.
K. S. Sree Harsha (St. Jose University, USA) for their suggestions after reading
early versions of the manuscript. We extend a special thanks to Prof. Tony Rollett
(Carnegie Mellon University, USA) for access to his excellent teaching materials.
The lecture notes of Prof. Olaf Engler (RWTH Aachen and Hydro Aluminium,
Bonn, Germany) have proved of great help in guiding this manuscript. We have
also benefited from professional interactions with our esteemed colleagues Profs.
W. B. Hutchinson (SWEREA, Sweden), T. Leffers (Risoe, Denmark), J. J. Jonas
(McGill, Canada), L. S. Toth and J. J. Fundenberger (Metz, France), G. Gottstein
(RWTH Aachen, Germany), J. Hirsch (Hydro Aluminium, Bonn, Germany), and
W. Skrotzki (TU Dresden, Germany).
We have been fortunate to have, and continue to have, many students pass
through our courses and our labs at different institutions and organizations over
the years, some of whom have become very successful in their own right. The
opportunity to interact with these fresh minds and receive their feedback, on the
material we have included in this book, has been infinitely valuable, and we thank
them individually and collectively for their contribution to this manuscript. Last
but not the least, we acknowledge the support of our wives and families for their
patience and cooperation while preparing the manuscript.

Bangalore, India Satyam Suwas

Jamshedpur, India Ranjit Kumar Ray
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Microstructure and Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Description of Grain Orientation and Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Development of Texture During Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Macro- and Microtexture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Industrial Importance of Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Representation of Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Pole Figure Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Stereographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.2 Pole Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.3 Interpretation of a Pole Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.4 Pole Figures Showing Ideal Orientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.5 Pole Figures Showing Fiber Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.6 Inverse Pole Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Orientation Distribution Function (ODF) Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1 Description of an Orientation by the Euler
Angles ϕ1, Φ, and ϕ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.2 The Orientation Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.3 Pole Figure Inversion Using Series Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.4 Problems with the Series Expansion Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.5 Pole Figure Inversion Using Direct Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Representation of Texture in the Orientation Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5 Volume Fraction of Texture Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

ix
x Contents

3 Experimental Determination of Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Macrotexture Measurement Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.1 Texture Measurement by X-ray Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.2 Texture Measurement Using Synchrotron X-rays . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3 Microtexture Measurement Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy-Based Electron
Backscattered Diffraction (SEM-EBSD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy-Based Orientation
Imaging Microscopy (TEM-OIM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4 Texture Evolution During Solidification and Solid-State

Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 Solidification Texture in Metals and Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2.1 Origin of Solidification Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2.2 Mechanism of Formation of Solidification
Texture in the Columnar Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2.3 Some Examples of Texture Control During Solidification. . . 80
4.3 Transformation Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.1 Transformation Textures in Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.2 Transformation Textures in Titanium and Zirconium
Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

5 Deformation Textures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.2 Crystallography of Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3 Deformation Microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.3.1 Crystallographic Dependence of Microstructural
Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4 Deformation Textures in Metals and Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.4.1 Rolling Textures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.4.2 Texture After Uniaxial Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.4.3 Shear Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.5 Modeling and Prediction of Deformation Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.5.1 The Sachs Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.5.2 The Taylor Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.5.3 Relaxed Constraint Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.5.4 More Recent Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Contents xi

6 Annealing Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2 Stored Energy of Cold Work: A Precursor to the Annealing
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.3 Release of Stored Energy During Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.4 Primary Recrystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.4.1 Nucleation of Recrystallized Grains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.4.2 Role of Lattice Curvature in Recrystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.4.3 Grain Boundary Migration and Its Orientation
Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.5 Recrystallization Textures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.5.1 Recrystallization Textures of FCC Metals and Alloys . . . . . . 155
6.5.2 Recrystallization Textures of BCC Metals and Alloys . . . . . . 163
6.5.3 Recrystallization Textures of Hexagonal Metals
and Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.5.4 Recrystallization Textures in Two-phase Alloys . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.6 Texture Evolution During Dynamic Recovery
and Recrystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.7 Theories of Formation of Recrystallization Textures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.7.1 The Oriented-Nucleation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.7.2 The Oriented-Growth Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.7.3 Orientation Pinning Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.7.4 The Oriented Energy Gain Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.7.5 Relative Roles of Oriented Nucleation
and Oriented Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.8 The Cube Texture in FCC Metals: A Classic Example
of Recrystallization Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

7 Texture Evolution in Thin Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.2 Representation of Texture in Thin Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.3 Texture Measurement in Thin Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.4 Mechanism of Texture Formation in Thin Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.5 Stages of Texture Formation in Thin Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.5.1 Texture Formation During Pre-coalescence Stage . . . . . . . . . 184
7.5.2 Texture Formation During Coalescence Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.5.3 Texture Formation During Post-coalescence Stage . . . . . . . . 185
7.5.4 Texture Formation During Post-deposition
Annealing Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.6 Texture Developed During Various Methods of Film Deposition . . . 186
7.7 Texture in Conducting Films: Electromigration and Texture . . . . . . . 188
7.8 Textures in Magnetic Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
xii Contents

7.9 Texture in a Few Other Industrially Important Thin Films . . . . . . 190

7.10 Effect of Ion Irradiation on Texture of Thin Films. . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

8 Textures of Non-metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.2 Textures in Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.2.1 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.2.2 Zirconia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.2.3 Silicon Nitride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.2.4 Composite Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.2.5 Electric and Magnetic Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.2.6 High Tc Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.2.7 Ceramic Coating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.3 Texture in Geological Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.4 Textures in Crystalline Polymeric Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.5 Textures in Semicrystalline Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

9 Texture and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.2 Texture Dependence of Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.2.1 Texture and Elastic Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
9.2.2 Texture and Yield Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
9.2.3 Texture and r-Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
9.2.4 Texture and Fracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9.2.5 Texture and Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9.2.6 Texture and Stress-Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.3 Texture Dependence of Magnetic and Electrical Properties . . . . . 219
9.3.1 Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.3.2 Electrical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.4 Texture Dependence of Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.4.1 Texture and Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.4.2 Texture and Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

10 Texture Control in Some Engineering Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10.2 Texture Control in Cold-Rolled and Annealed Low-Carbon
Sheet Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10.2.1 Batch Annealed Al-killed Steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
10.2.2 Continuous Annealed Low-Carbon Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
10.2.3 Interstitial Free Steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
10.2.4 Interstitial Free High Strength Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Contents xiii

10.3 Texture Control in Silicon Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

10.3.1 Grain-Oriented Silicon Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
10.3.2 Non-oriented Silicon Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
10.4 Texture Control in Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.5 Texture Control in Ni and Ni Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
10.6 Texture Control in Titanium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
10.7 Texture Control in Zirconium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.8 Texture Control in Magnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.8.1 AlNiCo Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.8.2 Nd–Fe–B Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.8.3 Sm–Co Magnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.9 Texture Control in the Coatings of Industrial
Galvannealed Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255