GEI002 NOTES
Structure of English 2
Prelim
Great! Meera and her friend are the only brilliant girls with highest score in class.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH POEM
Every name is called a noun, How things are done the adverbs tell,
As field and fountain, street and town. As quickly, slowly, badly, well.
In place of noun the pronoun stands, The preposition shows relation,
As he and she can clap their hands. As in the street or at the station.
The adjective describes a thing, Conjunctions join, in many ways,
As magic wand or bridal ring. Sentences, words, or phrase and phrase.
The verb means action, something done, The interjection cries out, "Hark!
As read and write and jump and run. I need an exclamation mark!"
How do we study SoE
study classes of words (parts of speech)
meanings of words, with or without considering changes of meaning (semantics)
how words are organised in relation to each other and in larger constructions
(syntax)
how words are formed from smaller meaningful units (morphology)
How do we study SoE (con)
the sounds of words (perception and pronunciation or articulation)
how they form patterns of knowledge in the speaker's mind (phonetics and
phonology)
how standardized written forms represent words (orthography).
and how written forms represent these (lexicography).
The most basic units of meaning are simple words (e.g.: dog, yes and swim) or the
elements of complex words (e.g.: un- -happi- and -ness in unhappiness). These basic
elements are called morphemes, and the study of how they are combined in words
is morphology.
The study of how words are organised into phrases, clauses and sentences is usually
referred to as syntax.
A longer stretch of language is known as discourse, the study of its structure as
discourse analysis.
This hierarchy is partly explained by the table, from David Crystal's The Cambridge
Encyclopedia of Language. The right hand column should be read upwards, in the
direction of the arrow.
Three-part model of English
Outline structure of English
Basic constituent structure analysis of a sentence
Morphology: the study of the structure of words
Definition of Structure of English
It refers to the structure or unit of language
It focuses mainly on a variety of basic and complex structures of English, (grammar,
vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling, comprehension and writing) phonology,
semantic, lexical, syntax and morphology comparing them to structures of other
languages.
SoE requires us to gather and analyse information and data on English usage in
current authentic discourse.
11 RULES OF SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
1. Singular subject = singular verbs
2. Plural subject = plural verbs
3. Compound subject = plural verbs ("'and")
4. or and nor = singular / plural= (depend on use closest Subject)
Ex. jerry or the girls (is/are)
5. Collective nouns = singular (flock, herd, goverment, school of fish tringster)
6. Indefinite Pronouns = singular (not define) any, one, them, everybody(are),
everyone(is)
7. Pair = singular (is) Pairs (are)
8. Plural form subjects = singular (Physics, News)
9. Gerund (-ing)= singular (but swimming and dancing are plural)
10. One of the boys = singular (is/are) (“one of the” phrase)
11. They = plural (can be singular – rare)
Sentence is composed of Subject and Predicate
Letters ⇨ words ⇨ phrase ⇨ fragment (incomplete sentence) ⇨ sentence paragraph ⇨
essay/stories/novels
MIDTERM
A simple guide to Capitalizations and Punctuations
Part One (Period, Comma, Colon)
Capitalizations
Rules of Capitalization
Ever got yourself confused on whether to make a word in your sentence begin with
a Big or small initial letter? In this lesson we'll learn when to use upper & lower case
letters. Sounds easy, but it's actually quite tricky too.
1. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a period.
"Friends, romans, countrymen…”
"She left the door open. Now, warm wind is rushing in."
2. Capitalize proper nouns-and adjectives derived from proper nouns. (The main function
of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within any group of people, places,
or things).
The Golden Gate Bridge
The Grand Canyon
a Russian song
3. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is followed by a
comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used after a name or instead of a name.
The president will address Congress.
Chairman of the Board William Bly just died.
The chairman of the board, William Bly, just died.
4. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations before full names.
director Steven Spielberg
owner Helen Smith
coach Biff Sykes
5. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address. The more formal the title, the
more likely it is to be capitalized.
I found out that Mom is here.
You look good, Grandpa.
Andy and Opie loved Aunt Bee's apple pies.
6. Capitalize nicknames in all cases.
Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter.
I just met two guys named Junior and Scooter.
7. Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the compass.
We had three relatives visit from the West.
Go west three blocks and then turn left.
We left Florida and drove north.
8. In general, do not capitalize the word the before proper nouns. It is not necessary to
capitalize city, town, county, etc., if it comes before the proper name. (Break this rule if
"the" is part of the proper name)
We visited the Grand Canyon.
They're fans of the Grateful Dead.
the city of New York
I saw The Avengers
9. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence. Do not
capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.
Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win.
Lamarr said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will win.”
10. Capitalize the names of specific course titles, but not general academic subjects.
I must take history and Algebra 101.
He has a double major in European economics and philosophy.
11. Do not capitalize the first item in a list that follows a colon.
Bring the following: paper, a pencil, and a snack.
12. Some rules on capitalizing composition titles:
* Capitalize the title's first and last word.
* Capitalize all adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.
* Capitalize all pronouns (including it).
* Capitalize all verbs, including the verb to be in all forms (is, are, was, has been,
etc.).
*Capitalize no, not, and the interjection O (e.g., How Long Must I Wait, O Lord?).
* Do not capitalize an article (a, an, the) unless it is first or last in the title.
* Do not capitalize a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor; but, for, yet, so) unless it
is first or last in the title.
* Do not capitalize the word to, with or without an infinitive, unless it is first or last
in the title.
Punctuations Part One (Period, Comma, Colon)
1. When to use a Period (.)
Periods are used to end a neutral sentence.
“I am going to do some research. It has something to do with Bioplastics."
2. When to use a Comma (,)
To list items or short phrases
“I bought bread, cheese, and pickles at the grocery store.”
To separate long independent clauses when conjunctions connect them
“Astronomers have known about the positions of stars for centuries, but they didn't
understand that the earth revolves around the sun.”
To follow an introductory phrase.
“In preparation for the next convention, the representatives studied the most
important issues.”
To separate a parenthetical phrase or interrupter
“All doctors, if they care about their patients, are concerned with good office
hygiene.”
3. When to use a Colon (:)
To introduce an item or series of items
Humans use five major senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
To separate independent clauses when the second clause/sentence illustrates,
explains, paraphrases, or expands on the first:
“Martha realized that her worst fear was coming true: her son was being sent to
war.”
follow the salutation in a business letter or more formal letter
“To the Central Valley Committee Chairman:”
Common Period (.) Mistakes
Using periods for questions and exclamatory statements
Incorrect: How have you been since I last saw you.
Correct: How have you been since I last saw you?
Incorrect: Wow. You surprised me.
Correct: Wow! You surprised me!
Common Comma (,) Mistakes
1. Comma splice. Do NOT use a comma to divide two independent clauses without a
conjunction. For such cases use a semicolon instead.
Incorrect: Thousands of protesters showed up on the streets, they were shouting
and carrying large posters.
Correct: Thousands of protesters showed up on the streets; they were shouting and
carrying large posters.
2. Combining lengthy phrases
Using commas with compound sentences or to separate clauses with other commas
can cause confusion. Use a semicolon.
Incorrect: Some useful subjects are English, which is an international language,
math, which is used in all domains of sciences and social sciences, and philosophy,
which underpins many other areas of study.
Correct: Some useful subjects are English, which is an international language; math,
which is used in all sciences and social sciences; and philosophy, which underpins
many other areas of study.
Common Colon (:) Mistakes
Separating two clauses that have equal rank or unrelated information:
Incorrect: Sarah and her friends loved spending time on the mountain: nature
always held a special meaning for them.
Correct: Sarah and her friends loved spending time on the mountain; nature always
held a special meaning for them.
On Using Colons (:)
Do not capitalize the first word after the colon unless it is a proper noun, is part of a quote,
or is the first in a series of sentences:
Incorrect: I have three desires: To eat, sleep, and work.
Correct: I have three desires: to eat, sleep, and work.
When a quotation contains multiple sentences, many writers prefer to introduce it with a
colon rather than a comma:
In Chapter 3, the author explains his theory: "Dogs have dreams, but they don't
dream as humans do. Their dreams reflect a primal desire for pleasure, whereas
humans are preoccupied with the ego and self-image. This is equally true in
wakefulness and sleep."
REMEMBER!
Choose Punctuations with Your Context and Audience in Mind
As with any technical decisions regarding writing, when choosing which
punctuation marks to use and apply consistently, it is a good idea to consider your
audience and the context of your work.
Try it!
Complete the following paragraph with the correct punctuation marks (.), (,), and (:).
Racism occurs in more ways than we think It is not always shown by being mean to
a person of color idealizing white complexion as the most beautiful or making jokes about
black people. We may not mean harm but sometimes we use words that are actually
racially offensive ching-chang- chong "negro "Ghetto' Here's something you can do to be
less racist be more empathic and sensitive towards others.
