(@) OXFORD CMe Tas tT Chemistry ie) g Bicol) yas et Gere Merl eters es U1 Tie 1 ee aOXFORD oes ein be Loco Yona tino Soo en a ae eee ee Hosmer han a oeprish peseatiy nn ersekeiecagoclen ae Seeioene ceeese eee fee eee, ent psn oi bk a seep de ied Fopuion tm come afore en Acmontgets ‘Seca rin herd anor Cane ered amos ‘piesa ami et tat nk 2 Ras gens 2 Suber: Dan Gaiety Eogntnat obec cig hese fete ner has, ‘alt ips Mu try anc pa Tatoos) Shaeroo fo Sex uoasameac po Sats poe Brsertag yer tance i Crepe eee eevee eeeneeate Scenes cerca prereata Sean. eo eemente See meters eee one erent meee Se eee tee ee ee Beer mes acielerrcerens ees ences inet cen tester giclee et bsp Shey eee aa Evcar haber cecmiatiaermutamer arty Ee cere pater Sere eee ere Bebe cin eter et wean rebyShmere pie OF pas ueskashutcrane pe GU ro shnchtock NS So es ee Ses See eer rene So eee Eber rete Neds fe alts Ragan po Pat Sco een ar ay See eae aein eieecnnenet nae Sot epoca eater reat Essa ereriac cases ate Sa etre eee Reet aires eas aateae ge oman cient ot ea epee an nema ae Eeorrtetes ie me eeeceecee mega Bane petite eerie aarroeae Pe Sees see a eg seattle ear ce Ger ly Hin mare ete ee eshcrereeerna ciate Ca Fraime Naeem cee Epes a meer Se acetone een, Soe eee ees Sep eee toe cal naif cat eee Seca naearee emetereer eer Seetickets a Fegan” dee ceo Seat” Baier eden s aenrecn er tara es tent eer Sees cme reer Boesteeaetnicir meaner aa oe ener ene ‘hc ple sy Me arsenite pie Opes bere ftraneesectamio Cif Cnc 19 4972\Pomt Colla © Boar tendon ee ey eee emi ey cidieeriar eta a a ae a Some Seren ioaet peur pare Socata neemneen tees Seater re rerencreaee a Seer enna, nee een er ereninanane ae eee eee cence eatreceeeat ter ea Beri afeanauienee ae naan fe See ee ee ea ren Eaperarencen tector Sienna ame ‘Suter fami Sta ncn. pb Mp Maroc Scie sects reat an ‘Sy ogee haa po Seater shiner amennemras Scheme, ena pt Stes rmeeermiereetmcnny See aa Cerne Scanner ater aar meer, 2 eee eee eer Soc cei sae See oe enercters eect re ape Roe eee Seer, Seine pe ates ene Shama aemameheae a See ee Soe Sees a eeciemie matey See ae Soaeng emer nemmecies See era eee eaten peta et are oe nee elytra Sees ee re ore enorme toes Si caotareenor arerecnom ea Severin ar fa ciate een aera Speers eee etn Se arma coer iporaihee isn ert a Se ack eear eer Genre ee ne epee nk eer ee ara Epes aethtta ae atta pe rr {te PhtogrciyScen Fico Liven it: aaah, GOOF SEY EIopaRe ata es Packs taaaaterec ps Ace [Enter Psorapiysionse te iba ‘dle nero enti i epi fr te iil ane tegen i em hse pesca nae th peIntroduction If you are taking IGCSE chemistry, using the Cambridge International Examinations syllabus 0620, then this book is for you. It covers the syllabus fully Finding your way around the book The contents list on the next page shows how the book is organised. Take a look, Note the extra material at the back of the book too: for example the juestions from past exam papers, and the glossary. Finding your way around the chapters Each chapter is divided into two-page units. Some colour coding is used within the units, to help you use them properly Core syllabus content Extended syllabus content Ifyou are Following the Core For this, you need aff the syllabus content you can ignore material on the white pages, any material with a red line including the material marked beside it with a red line Extra material Chapter checkups .e8 of this colour contain ‘There isa revision checklist extra material for some topics, at the end of each chapter, We hope that you will ind it and also a set of exam-level interesting ~ but itis not ‘questions about the chapter needed for the exam on a coloured background, Making the most of the book and support website We want you to understand chemistry, and do well in your exams. This book, and the website, can help you, So make the most of them! Work through the units The (vo-page units will help you build up your knowledge and understanding of the chemistry on your syllabus, Use the glossary If you come across a chemical term that you do not understand, try the glossary. You can also use the glossary to test yourself Answer the quest ns [Cis great way to get to grips with a topic This book has lots of questions: at the end of each unit and ich chapter, and questions from past exam papers at the end of the book. Answers to all questions, exce those from exam papers, are at the back of the book, Your teacher can provide answers for the Use the website The website has an interactive test for each chapter advice on revision, exam-style questions, and more. And We hope this book will help you to enjoy it, and succeed in your course nally, enjoy! Chemistry is an important and exciting subie RoseMarie Gallagher Pauil IngramY Contents Cerne Eventing is made of pateles 2 “The mote n 1.2 Solids, ques and gases 4 6.2 Calculations rom equations using themole 74 113° Theparticesin sos, guts andgases =< ~—=—.3._eations involving gases %6 1A Acoser look at gases 8 GA. The concentration of soliton 78 Checkup on Chapters 106.5. Findingtheempincal forma 0 6.6 From empirical to inal formuta 2 6.7 Finding % yes and % purty a 2.1 Mixtures, solutions, and solvents 12 Checkup on Chapter 6 86 2.2 Pure substances and impurities 14 2.3. Separation methods (part) 16 244 Separation methods (part) 1 7 oxidation nd reduction 38 2.5. Mere about paper chromatography 207.2. Redoxand electron transfer 90 The chromatography detectives 2 7.3. Redanand changes n oxidation state 2 Checkup on Chapter2 24 7.4. Oxidising and reducing agents 98 Checlup on Chapter7 36 3.1 Atoms and elements 26 GO Electricity anc chemical change 3.2 Nore aout atoms 28 FL conductors and insulators 98 33 Isotopes andradicactity 30.2. Theprincinles of eectrlyis 100 3.4 Howelectrone are sanged 528.3. Thereactions atthe electrodes 102 How our model of te atom developed 348.4 Theelectrolsis of brine 10a The atomsthe inside story 368.5 Twomoreuresoelecroysis 106 3.5. Themetals and non-metats 28 Checkup on Chapter 8 108 Checkup on Chapters 40 ph S11 Energy changes in reactions 110 Compounds, mixtures, and chemicalchange 42 -—=«9.2._Explaning energy changes m2 \why do atoms form bonds? 44913 Energy fom els na The one bond 45-914 Giving ou enersyaslectrcty 16 More about ons “8 “The batteries in your fe ne The covalent bond 509.8 Reversibereactions 120 Comtent compounds 52 8.8. Shing the equa 122 Comparing onic and covalent compounds 54 Checkup on Chapters na Giant covmlent structures 6 The bonding in metals 58 Checkup on Chapters 60 TO. Ratesofreaction 1% 202. Messurng the rate ofa eaction 128 ee 103 Changing the rate of a reaction (part 1) 130 ‘The names and formule of compounds 104 Changing therate ofa reaction (parm) 132 Equations for chemical reactions 64 105 Explaining ates 4 Themasses of atoms, molecules, andions «65S «108. Catalysts 136 Some calculations about masses and% 68 Nore about enzymes 8 Checkup on Ghaplers 70407. Photochemical reactions 0 Checkup an Chapter 10 142162 Making ammonia in industry 22 183. Fertilisers 228 164 Sulfurand sulfur dioxide 226 165 Sulfuric acid 228 11 Carbon and the carton cycle 230 16.7 Some carbon compounds 232 168 Greenhouse gases, and labal warming 234 18.9 Limestone Ras Checkup on Chapter 16 Petroleum: a fossil fuel Refining petroleum ae a3 Cracking hydrocarbons 24a 117A Families of organic compounds 246 175 Thealkanes 248, 176 Thealkenes 250 177 Thealcohols 252 178 The carboxylic acids a (Checkup on Chapter 17 Q Introducing polymers 18.2 Addition polymerisation 260 1B3 Condensation polymerisation 262 14 Making use of synthetic polymers 264 BS Plastics: here to stay? 266 186 Natural polymers in food (part 1) 268 18.7 Natural polymers in food (part II) 270 Checkup on Chapter 18 Pr ) XH chem: a racteat aie Gel Somunatoneinat me Sa any apne a se aed. Teter ieee ators ie Tham unto apes 202 tan seston ben baoe aa closy 220 Taninminnwmcwame an Support website: www [Link]/9780198399148ED Everything is made of particles Particles everywhere Rock, air, and water look very different, But they have one thing in common: they are made of tiny pieces. Let's call these pieces particles, teverythi around you is made of particles ~ and so are you! In rock and other solids, the particles are not free to move. But in liquids and gases, they are always moving ~ and colliding with each other Proof from pollen For centuries, people had guessed that water and ar were made of tiny particles. But since they could not see them, they could not prove it Then in 1827, a botanist called Robert Brown noticed something strange. He was studying pollen from a flower, in water, under a microscope He siw particles froin the pollen jigeting around. They were not alive — 78 years later, Albert Einstein came up with the answer The particles moved because they were being struck by tiny invisible moving water ‘A. All made of pattces! particles. In fact their movement proved that water is made of particles Brownian motion Today the random motion of particles that you ean see with the naked eve, or under'a microscope, is called Brownian motion, The particles follow a zig-zag path, because they are being struck by tiny invisible particles. Look at the drawing on the right. on More evidence me Everyone now accepts that things are made of particles. Most are far too The random motion of a parte. small to be seen under a microscope. But there is plenty of evidence for This is what Robert Brow observed. them. Let's look at more examples, Outside the tab at 1. In sunlit rooms, you sometimes see dust dancing 2. Cooking smells spread. The ‘smells’ are due to tiny in the air. It dances because the dust particles are being particles, which spread because they are bombarded bombarded by the tiny moving particles in ait: This is _by the particles in air: This is an example of diffusion, an example of Brownian motion. (See next page.) Some of them end up in your nose!Inthe lab parle toa pails om thecal mix sang the ‘water particles a theeystal 3. Place a crystal of purple potassium manganate(VI1) ina beaker of water. The colour spreads through the water, because the particles leave the solid crystal ~ it dissolves — and spread among the water particles. Diffusion Look again at the two examples above. The particles mix and spread by colliding with other moving particles, and bouncing off in all directions, ‘This mixing process is called diffusion. bron ‘The end result is that the particles spread from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated, until they are evenly mixed. Look at the drawings on the right. ‘So what are these particles? In examples 2, 3, and 4, we cannot see the moving particles ~ even with the most powerful microscope, They are far too small. So what are they? ‘© The smallest particles, that we cannot not break down further in chemical reactions, are called atoms. © In some substances, the particles are just single atoms, For example air contains single argon atoms. © In many substances, the particles consist of two or more atoms joined together: These particles are called molecules. Water and bromine exist as molecules, Air is mostly nitrogen and oxygen molecules, © In other substances the particles are atoms or groups of atoms that carry a charge. These particles are called ions. In example 3 above, the particles in potassium manganate(VII) are ions, You'l find out more about all these particles in Chapters 2 and 3. But what about the particles Robert Brown observed? They contained thousands of atoms. That's why they were big enough to be seen with a microscope. Dust particles in air contain thousands of atoms too. panicle bromine parties and ar partes row fly mined bromine ponte 4 Place an open gas jar of air upside down on an open, sas jar containing a few drops of red-brown bromine, The colour spreads upwards because particles of vapour mix among the gas particles in the air, ‘The moving parices colide, en bounce apart inal directions eo ° e eo %e 3 e @%e0"o ce « ©" a oe 2 e eo" e%o Inia ey area ed {But they keep on moves)STATES OF MA rE? Solids, liquids, and gases What's the difference? It is easy to tell the difference between a solid, a liquid, and a gas: solid has a fixed shape and a fixed A liquid flows easily. It has a fixed volume. It does not flow. Think of volume, but its shape changes. I. all the solid things around yous their takes the shape of the container shapes and volumes donot change. you pour it into, Water: solid, liquid and gas Water can be a solid (ce), liquid (water), and a gas (water vapour am) Ts state can be changed by heating oF co thermometer shows Le water vancur ice cubes meting 1 Ice slowly changes to water, 2) When the water is heated its when itis put in a warm place. temperature rises, and some of it This change is called melting, changes to water vapour. This The thermometer shows 0°C until change is called evaporation, all the ice has melted. So 0°C is ‘The hotter the water gets, the called iis melting point. more quick! it evaporates, And when steam is cooled, the opposite changes take place: A gas does not have a fixed volume fr shape. It spreads out to fil its container: Itis much lighter than the same volume of solid or liquid, — thermometer ‘hows 100°C (isle) isle boing weer eat 3 Soon bubbles appear in the ‘water: [tis boiling, The water vapour shows up as steam. ‘The thermometer stays at 100°C while the water boils off. 100°C is the boiling point of water sear condenses to fom nater coo! below 100° coolbelow 0% freeze or soliifies ‘o fom ce You can see that © condensing is the opposite of evaporating © freezing is the opposite of melting © the freezing point of water is the same as the melting point of ive, 0°C.ewarTER Other things can change state too ¥ olten iron being poured out at an It’s not just water! Neatly all substances can exist as solid, liquid, and gas. iran works. Hot ~ over 1540°C: Even iron and diamond can melt and boil! Some melting and boiling points are given below. Look how different they are. coygen 219 ethanal aE sodium i 8 sulfur 19 ‘ron i 1540 | diamond 3550 4332 Showing changes of state on a graph Look at the graph on the right below. It shows how the temperature changes as a block of ice is steadily heated. First the ice melts to water. Then the water gets warmer and warmer, and eventually turns to steam, ‘This (ype of graph is called a heating curve, esting cure for weiter Look at the step where the ice is melting. 150 vapou Once melting starts, the temperature stays at 0°C until aif the ice has melted " ‘pater baling fas Then when the water starts to boil, the temperature stays at 100°C until all the water has turned to steam. — | ind boiling points are tvapcsston ofc | ° ‘You ean draw a heating curve for any os | substance. -o tell ‘Sublimatior ‘Some substances go straight from solid to special change when they warm up. This change is called sublimation, For example, if you leave solid (frozen) carbon dioxide sitting at room temperature, it will sul And if you warm some iodine crystals gently on a clock glass, they will give off a purple vapour Naphthalene, which is used in old-fashioned moth balls, also sublimes. Reapers Rltanse ‘4. Carbon diaxide sublining. Solid carton dioxide fs also called ey ice.TATES OF MAT VED The particles in solids, liquids, and gases How the particles are arranged Water can change from solid to liquid to gas. Its particles do not change. They are the same in each state, But their arrangement changes, The same is true for all substances. ‘The particles in a solid are arranged ina fixed pattern or lattice. Strong forces hold them together: So they cannot leave their positions. ‘The only movements they make are tiny vibrations to and fro, ‘The particles in a liquid can move about and slide past each other: They are still close together, but not in a lattice. The forces that hold them together are weaker than in a solid, Gas The particles in a gas are far apart, and they move about very quickly. ‘There are almost no forces holding them together: They collide with each other and bounce off in all directions, Changing state So why do substances change state Melting When a solid is heated, its particles get more eng more. This makes the solid expand. At the melting point, the particles vibrate so much that they break away from their positions. The solid turns liquid, when you heat them? It is because the particles take in heat energy and this changes how they move. and vibrate ee reking point ‘he vibrations ge larger a liquids formed