Copper Pollution

Among the threats to our water sources is pollution caused by heavy metals such as

copper. Not only does it harm aquatic ecosystems they also pose significant threats to human

health especially in communities where water purification systems are scarce. One of the most

common heavy metals is copper, which is commonly released into water bodies as a result of

industrial activities and natural weathering processes (Zhou et al., 2020).

Over the past decades, copper concentration in water resources has shown to increase

in various continents with some even exceeding world standards (Zhou et al., 2020). Based on

the World Health Organization, copper concentration should not exceed 2000 μg per liter while

the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) set the limit at 1300 μg per liter

(Zhou et al., 2020). In humans, excessive copper exposure through drinking water can lead to

adverse health effects. In fact, studies have shown that elevated copper concentrations in water

sources can cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, as well

as liver toxicity and neurobehavioral disorders (Krewski et al., 2017).

Furthermore, copper is known to exhibit toxic effects on aquatic organisms, particularly

fish and invertebrates. Studies by Malhotra et al. (2020) found that exposure to high copper

concentrations can lead to adverse physiological responses in fish, including impaired growth,

reduced reproductive success, and increased mortality rates. Research by Mirzaei

VandKhanghah et al. (2021) also demonstrated that copper tends to accumulate in the tissues

of organisms, especially in long-lived species higher up the food chain. This process can lead to

a higher risk of copper exposure for organisms, including humans, that rely on contaminated

aquatic resources. These toxic effects highlight the need for effective monitoring and regulation

of copper levels in water bodies.

Currently, several methods have been developed in order to detect and quantify the

levers of copper in water. One commonly utilized technique is Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

(AAS) which offers high sensitivity and selectivity for copper analysis (Fu & Yuan, 2007). By

measuring the absorption of light by copper atoms in a sample, AAS provides accurate results

and has been widely used in routine water analysis.

Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) is another

method commonly employed for multi-elemental analysis, including copper. ICP-OES provides

high precision and sensitivity, enabling the simultaneous determination of multiple elements

(Carvalho et al., 2015). This technique has gained popularity due to its ability to analyze trace

levels of copper in water samples.

Although these methods exhibit low limits of detection and high accuracy, the expensive

equipment and complex techniques required limits the use of these in laboratories in the

presence of trained researchers. In cases where these equipment are inaccessible, it is only

necessary to employ methods that are simple, rapid, and portable. Over the years, colorimetric

and electrochemical methods have been used and developed for this specific purpose.

Colorimetric Method

Colorimetric methods utilize the formation of colored complexes between copper ions

and specific reagents, enabling visual or spectrophotometric analysis. In their study, Awual and

Hasan (2015) created a functionalized nitrogen donor ligand to specifically react with copper

ions forming colored complexes. Moreover, the degree of change in color allows the
quantification of copper concentration (Zhang et al., 2022). Through spectrophotometry, the

absorbance of the samples is correlated with the copper concentration. The result of the

spectrophotometry also allows the identification of the limit of detection which is the lowest

concentration of copper ions that can be measured.

The advantages of colorimetric methods lie in their affordability and ease of use. The

reagents required for colorimetric analysis are often inexpensive and readily available.

Moreover, these methods do not necessitate complex instrumentation, making them suitable for

on-site analysis and field applications. The simplicity of colorimetric techniques allows for rapid

analysis, with results often obtained within minutes.

Electrochemical Methods

Meanwhile, electrochemical methods, such as voltammetry and potentiometry, offer

several advantages for copper determination in water. Voltammetric techniques, including

Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV) and Square Wave Voltammetry (SWV), have been widely

employed. These methods involve measuring the current response generated during the

electrochemical reaction of copper ions at an electrode surface (Simões & Xavier, 2017). By

analyzing the current-voltage relationship, copper concentrations can be quantified.

The affordability and ease of use of electrochemical methods make them suitable for

portable and rapid analysis. These techniques often utilize low-cost disposable electrodes,

contributing to their cost-effectiveness. The simplicity of the electrochemical setup allows for

rapid analysis, with results typically obtained within minutes. Furthermore, electrochemical

methods can be performed in the field, enabling in situ analysis and real-time monitoring.

Advancements in electrode materials and miniaturization have also contributed to the

development of portable electrochemical sensors for copper detection. Carbon-based

among the most commonly used due to their excellent electrochemical properties and low cost

(Mei et al., 2021). These miniaturized sensors offer simplicity, affordability, and portability that is

more advantageous in rapid detection of copper in comparison to other sensors.

Limitations of Existing Methods

Electrochemical and colorimetric detection of copper in water provides a simpler and

inexpensive copper detection method. However, these methods are not without limitations.

Colorimetric techniques, known for their simplicity and visual interpretability, may encounter

issues of selectivity and interference from other species present in water samples.

Electrochemical methods, although rapid and cost-effective, may face challenges in detecting

low concentrations of copper due to their limited sensitivity.

Despite these limitations, the use of nanoparticles in copper detection offers several

advantages. Nanoparticles possess unique physicochemical properties that make them

valuable tools in analytical chemistry. Their high surface area-to-volume ratio allows for

increased interactions with the target analyte, leading to enhanced sensitivity. The tunable size,

shape, and surface properties of nanoparticles provide opportunities for designing selective

probes for copper detection, improving the selectivity and specificity of the method (Mei et al.,

2021).

Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles (NPs) are one broad class of nanoscale materials having dimensions that

scale less than 100 nm. With large surface areas and high mechanical strength, optical activity,

and chemical reactivity, nanoparticles are considered promising and suitable for various

applications such as in drug and medications, manufacturing, environment, electronics, energy

currently restricted by limitations in targeting efficiency, desired property control, toxicities, and

environmental impact (Lv et al., 2019). The inadequacy of detection limits and fouling properties

of these nanoparticles also limit the progress of nanoparticle applications (Chong et al., 2018).

Functionalization of Nanoparticles

To enhance compatibility of nanoparticles with various intended applications,

nanoparticles are functionalized. This approach involves surface modification of NPs to improve

and generate properties needed for high target precision. Numerous researches produced

functionalized nanoparticles with good physical properties, anti-agglomeration, and noninvasive

characteristics enhancing overall nanoparticle efficiency (Thiruppathi et al., 2016).

The process of nanoparticle functionalization entails the conjugation of chemicals or

biomolecules onto the surface of particles. Noncovalent binding, which uses affinity-based

receptor-ligand systems, is one way of performing conjugation. This can be approached through

π–π stacking, electrostatic interaction, and biomolecule entrapment in biocompatible films.

Covalent binding also causes conjugation through direct molecule-ligand binding on

nanoparticle surfaces such as through thiol derivatives chemisorption, bifunctional linkers,

adapter molecules, and dative binding techniques (Thiruppathi et al., 2016).

Other approaches of conjugation include amorphous nanoparticle coating and surface

epitaxial growth that provide wider scopes of nanoparticle functionalization. In the case of metal

nanoparticles, amorphous coating is performed with organic and inorganic layers such as

polymers and metals. Silica and gold coatings, for example, show improved nanoparticle

stability and functionalization (Thiruppathi et al., 2016).

Stabilization of Nanoparticles
 Nanoparticles exhibit high tendencies of aggregation and adhesion. This is due to the

different structures and interactions of nanoparticle surfaces (Iijima & Kamiya, 2009). One

theory that describes these interactions is the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO)

Theory, which considers both attractive van der Waals forces and repulsive electrostatic forces

of nanoparticles. Through generating potential barriers, the attractive forces are limited, thereby

preventing strong agglomerations to happen (Rahnama & Djilali, 2020).

Controlling dispersion stability involves repulsive mechanisms, both electrostatic and

steric, that utilize surface modification techniques. These are performed through the production

of extended particle layers with polymeric surfactants or other modifiers that generate effective

repulsive forces between nanoparticles (Iijima & Kamiya, 2009).

Application of Nanomaterials in Heavy Metals Detection

The recent developments made in nanotechnology and nanoparticles led to the advent

of several studies on heavy metal ions sensing. Most studies, however, reported heavy metal

sensing applicability on buffer solutions at a laboratory level only. Research studies currently

focus on advancing sensors for real-time and on-site detection, following detection strategies

through optical, electrochemical, and biological sensing (Kumar et al., 2017).

Nanoparticles in Colorimetric Sensors

Part of the optical sensing class are colorimetric sensors focused to assay various

species with good sensitivity which can, in turn, be identified by visual readouts (Vilela et al.,

2012). Nanoparticle applications in colorimetric sensing are caused by the quantitative coupling

between metal particles. Such an effect causes dramatic changes in the optical properties of

nanoparticles such as transmission and light reflection (Prosposito et al., 2020). These optical

properties cause Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Effect which occurs when the outer

electron band of nanoparticles are hit with wavelengths of light. This converts it into oscillations
allowing the absorption of specific wavelengths based on the properties of the nanoparticles

(Unser et al., 2015).

A study by Liu et al. (2016) performed colorimetric assay to detect Hg2+ with

oligonucleotides-functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). The shift in the plasmonic

resonance wavelength of the dispersed and aggregated AuNPs was measured with a Limit of

Detection (LOD) of 3.5 ppb.

Nanoparticles in Electrochemical Sensing

Various research studies also focused on expanding the practicality of using

nanoparticles with electrochemical sensing devices for the detection of heavy metals. Through

nanoparticle immobilization on electrodes, higher surface area and higher electron transfer and

mass transfer rates are achieved. Incorporation of nanoparticles also improved sensitivity and

limits of detection that reach as low as 4.6 nA/ppb for heavy metals such as zinc, lead, and

copper (Waheed et al., 2018).

One of the most common electrochemical sensing methods for heavy metals detection

is the use of screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) due to their accessibility, high reproducibility,

versatility, and low-cost application. This was shown by Pérez-Ràfols et al. (2017) in their work

with AgNP-immobilized screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) for the detection of copper ions

with an LOD of 2.29 μg/L.

Silver Nanoparticles in Heavy Metals Detection

One example of metal nanoparticles considered to be promising in heavy metals

detection are silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), which are primarily known for their low cost and

simple synthesis and application. In a study by Palisoc (2018), AgNP graphene paste electrodes

were used to detect lead, cadmium, and copper with LODs of 17 ppb, 12 ppb, and 44 ppb,
respectively. In a more recent study by Eksin (2019), it reported a high selectivity and an LOD of

8.43 μM for the detection of mercury using AgNP-incorporated electrodes.

The synthesis of the optimized polymer-decorated silver nanoparticles used in this study

is based on the study by Aldana, et. al (2015) at the Nanotechnology Research Laboratory of

University of the Philippines Diliman Department of Chemical Engineering. The AgNP utilizes

polyethyleneimine as functionalizing agent, glutaraldehyde as cross-linking agent, and chitosan

and trisodium citrate as stabilizing agents.

With just nanoparticle-based solutions, portability limits its applications. This has caused

a growing interest in its application in the field of paper-based analytical devices (PADs). The

immobilization of nanoparticles onto a paper substrate allows for a simple, low cost, and

portable device suitable for environmental monitoring, biomedical applications, food and

beverage analysis and point-of-care (POC) clinical diagnostics (Mettakoonpitak, et. al, 2016).

Paper-Based Analytical Devices

Paper-based analytical devices (PADs) are miniaturized analytical platforms that utilize

paper as a substrate for performing various chemical and biological assays. These devices

integrate different components, such as reagents, nanoparticles, and buffers, onto paper to

enable sample preparation, detection, and quantification of analytes (Pradela-Filho et al., 2023).

The basic working principle of PADs involves capillary action, where fluids wick through

the porous structure of the paper (Garnier & Then, 2013). The design of PADs can range from

simple lateral flow strips, where a sample is applied at one end and the results are observed at

the other, to more complex microfluidic paper-based devices that incorporate multiple layers and

intricate fluidic pathways (Shi et al., 2012; Liana et al., 2012). PADs can be designed to

accommodate various types of assays, including colorimetric, electrochemical, and

fluorescence-based detections (Pradela-Filho et al., 2023). Reagents and nanoparticles can be

analyte and the detection chemistry generates a visual or electronic signal, which can be

interpreted by the user or captured by external devices for quantitative analysis (Liana et al.,

2012).

The versatility of PADs allows for the detection of a wide range of analytes, including

biomolecules, ions, heavy metals, pathogens, and environmental pollutants (Ding et al., 2021).

Furthermore, PADs offer several advantages, including simplicity, low cost, portability, and ease

of use, making them particularly suitable for point-of-care diagnostics, environmental monitoring,

food safety testing, and resource-limited settings.

Paper as PAD Substrate

The use of paper as a substrate in PADs offers numerous advantages, including its

porous structure, absorbent capacity, availability, affordability, compatibility with detection

methods, and portability (Tan, Ge, & Wang, 2010). These properties make paper an excellent

choice for developing low-cost, user-friendly, and versatile analytical devices for a wide range of

applications.

The porous structure of paper enables the controlled flow of fluids within the PAD using

capillary action. Capillary action allows any fluid to flow through the void spaces between the

interconnected fibers of paper without the need for an external pump (Medina-Sanchez et al.,

2015). The composition of paper, such as fiber type and fiber structure, affects its mechanical

strength, chemical compatibility, and wettability (Liana et al., 2012). Different types of paper,

including cellulose-based papers, filter papers, and chromatography papers, offer varying

properties suited for specific applications. Cellulose fibers have numerous hydroxyl and carboxyl

groups that facilitate the negatively charged adsorption of heavy metals (Ding et al., 2021).

Moreover, paper is a good filter. Contaminants in the samples are filtered through the paper's
pores, reducing interference from background components and enhancing the selectivity and

sensitivity of the analytical assay (Medina Sanchez et al., 2015). Lastly, paper is easily modified.

Physical modification can include folding, crumpling, cutting, and perforating. Chemical

modification of paper encompasses surface alteration using hydrophilic or hydrophobic

treatments or deposition of reagents, nanoparticles, or enzymes for detection or analysis (Ding

et al., 2021).

Since dry paper can absorb more aqueous solutions than its dry mass, PADs exploit this

property of paper to enable low-volume sampling and testing. This allows researchers to

minimize the use of buffer solutions, reagents, and sensors (Ding et al., 2021). Among the

different types of paper, research focuses on Whatman Grade 1 Filter paper as the substrate.

Whatman Grade 1 Paper is clean, made of pure cellulose, has a uniform thickness, and has

good wicking properties (Pradela-Filho et al., 2023).

PADs for Electrochemical Detection

By utilizing the properties of paper, it has become a great medium for microliter sampling

for potentiometry and voltammetry testing. According to the review of Colozza, Caratelli,

Moscone, and Arduini (2021), PADs fabricated for the detection of heavy metals focus on

bismuth, due to its capability to form alloys with cadmium, lead, and zinc. In a study conducted

by Medina-Sanchez, Cadevall, Ros, and Merkoci (2015), the electrochemical response of a

lateral flow PAD in aqueous solutions of lead and cadmium was investigated. It was found that

the PAD could detect both metals in the ppb range and has a high selectivity in real-life samples

such as seawater and mudwater.

Although paper-based analytical devices are very promising, they have high limits of

detection (LOD), low sensitivity, low dynamic range, and long analysis time. To increase the

LOD of PADs, electrochemical signal amplification can be employed by the deposition of

(Oh & Chow, 2015). Therefore, AgNPs can improve PAD stability and electrochemical response

time (Scida et al., 2014).

Screen Printed Electrodes

Screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) are fabricated electrodes. Recently, it has gained

recognition for its simplicity, versatility, and cost-effectiveness. SPEs consist of a conductive

material, such as carbon, gold, or silver, screen-printed onto a substrate, typically a ceramic or

polymer material (Li et al., 2012). Among these conductive inks, most commercially available

SPEs are made from carbon ink. Carbon paste was found to be chemically inert with high

selectivity and sensitivity and can be easily modified (Mei, Yusof, & Ahmad, 2021).

Due to the implemented screen-printing technique, inexpensive SPEs are rapidly

manufactured with consistent and precise features (Barton et al., 2016). The electrode pattern

can be customized according to the specific requirements of the electrochemical analysis,

including the size, shape, and configuration of the working, counter, and reference electrodes

(Costa-Rama & Fernandez-Abedul, 2021). Additionally, screen printing enables the deposition

of multiple layers such as nanoparticles, enzyme coatings, biomaterials, and polymers, among

others, enabling the integration of additional functionalities (Mei, Yusof, & Ahmad, 2021).

SPEs offer several advantages in electrochemical analysis. They are commonly used in

techniques such as cyclic voltammetry, amperometry, impedance spectroscopy, and stripping

voltammetry for the detection and quantification of analytes, such as heavy metals,

biomolecules, drugs, DNA sequences, enzymes, and neurotransmitters. SPEs provide a large

surface area for efficient electron transfer, enabling enhanced sensitivity and lower detection

limits (Li et al., 2012). The disposable nature of SPEs eliminates the need for complex cleaning

procedures, reducing the risk of cross-contamination and improving reproducibility (Barton et al.,
2016). Furthermore, the portability and small size of SPEs make them suitable for on-site and

real-time sensing.

PADs Integrated with SPEs

In the past years, different studies have already tried integrating PADs with SPEs for the

fabrication of biosensors (Costa-Rama & Fernandez-Abedul, 2021). The PADs were integrated

with SPCEs in two different forms: SPE with paper elements and electrochemical cells printed

on paper (Costa-Rama & Fernandez-Abedul, 2021; Ding et al., 2021). SPE cards integrated

with paper elements use paper as a substrate to provide support for biological components,

storage for reagents, or a medium for cell culture. On the other hand, the working electrode is

directly printed on paper making the electrochemical cell fully integrated into the paper

substrate.

According to Tan, Ge, and Wang (2010), the PAD-SPEs produce a multifunctional device

that is utilized in point-of-care testing or environmental monitoring of analytes. In the study of

Sanchez-Calvo, Blanco-Lopez, and Costa-Garcia (2020), the Whatman grade 1 paper was

modified with Bismuth and Mercury films and combined with an SPCE to detect the presence of

Cu (II), Cd (II), Pb (II), and In (II) in aqueous solutions. Various studies also focus on

electrochemical cells printed on paper for the detection of heavy metals. It was reported by

Wang et al. (2023) that the fabricated SPCE demonstrated high selectivity and stability in

detecting Cu (II), Cd (II), and Pb (II) ions in aqueous solutions.

The aforementioned studies demonstrate the integration of PADs and SPCEs for

electrochemical environmental analysis, specifically the detection of heavy metals in water. The

integration of PADs and SPCEs combines the benefits of the individual components such as

simplicity, portability, and cost-effectiveness for sensitive and rapid detection of a wide range of

heavy metals.
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