6 Heat Transfer We have leamt that heat is a form of nergy as it can cause change in matter. Earlier it was thought that heat was a fiuid that was transferred between objects at Gifferent temperatures, We use the word ‘heat’ to mean something that feels warm, but heat in science is defined as the energy that is transferred from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. Therefore, heat is energy in transit from a body of higher temperature fo one of lower temperature. Transfer of heat can be done by conduction, Convection, and radiation. Once transferred, the energy stops to be heat. Heat can change the temperature of a Body, cause expansion, or change its state of matter 'tis important to note that matter does not contain heat. Matter Contains internal energy in the form of molecular kinetic energy and potential energy. The process of increasing the internal energy is called heating, and the Process of decreasing internal energy is called cooling. All substances—solids, li Contain intemal energ of kinetic energy (du which can be vibrati oF rotational) and potential energy (due to intermolecular forces). Change in the Overage kinetic energy leads to Change in temperature, while Change in the Potential 19e in phase (or 19 OF ice oF boiling Iquids, and gases— y which is the sum 1@ to its movement ional, translational, energy leads to chan, state), such as mettin of water. Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy of all the molecules, (Tota) energy of all molecules divided by the number of molecules). Since it is an average measurement, it does not Cepeng on the number of particles in an Object, In that sense it does not depend on the size of it. For example, the temperature of a small cup of boiling water is the same as the temperature of a large kettle of boiling | water. Or, a small cup of water at 100°Cis_| at a higher temperature than © bucket of Cold water at 30°C, In a hot object, atoms and molecules Move rapidly, whereas they move slowly in |. If these two Objects touch will flow from the hotter temperature, fone Mat we have leamt in class 7 the temmac, ubstance changes its state. Particui: CMe remains constant at a Boiling pore P erature (melting point or 'S Point) as there is no change ine kinetic energy of the molecules, one is change only in its internal meri energy: prERENCE BETWEEN BOILING AND oF PORATION igs can change into gas or vapour iat th boiling and evaporation. Let us Oy Jestand the difference between these wn yo processes evaporation gyaporation is the change of state fomliquid to gas that takes place otthe surface of a liquid. It occurs at jemperatures below the boiling point. We see evaporation of water around us every day when we see a wet ground or road drying up after rainfall, or when we put wet clothes for drying. Evaporation of water from oceans and water bodies happens throughout the day. The water that evaporates becomes water vapour in the ai. Evaporation reduces the volume of liquid or water. How does evaporation occur? Heat is necessary for evaporation to occur 0s energy is used to break the bonds ‘that hold liquid molecules together. Not allmolecules in a liquid have the same SNeIgy as they have a wide variety of Seeds, moving about in all directions and “olliding with each other. When molecules Solide with each other, some gain energy, Some lose energy. €n Molecules at the surface gain Snough ki Molecules below, they will have enough ®scape the force of attraction by Sther liquid molecules. They break ing’. 0™ the surface of the liquid a the space above (Fig. 6.1). Hence ation occurs with the molecules of inetic energy on colliding with the @ liquid, that have greater kinetic energy. Escape of the more energetic molecules decreases the average temperature of the molecules that are left -— behind, and hence cools Fig. 6.4 Evaporation down the liquid. Evaporation is all albout the energy in individual molecules, not about the average energy of a system. Factors affecting rate of evaporation. 1. Area of the exposed surface — Larger the area of the surface, higher is the rate of evaporation. This is why we spread wet clothes while drying them. 2. Temperature of the surroundings — Higher the temperature of the surroundings, higher is the rate of evaporation. This is why wet clothes dry rapidly in summer. 3. Temperature of the liquid — Higher the initial temperature of the liquid, more is the rate of evaporation. After a hot bath we feel cold as warm water from the body evaporates taking heat energy from it, 4. Presence of water vapour in the air — More the amount of water present in the atmosphere, less is the rate of evaporation. This is why wet clothes dry very slowly in rainy season 5. Wind — More the wind, more is the rate of evaporation. This is why wet clothes dry more rapidly on a windy day than on a normal day. 6. Nature of liquid — Certain liquids evaporate more rapidly as compared to other liquids at the same temperature, For example, petrol evaporates more rapidly than water.I, Is the energy required during evaporation and boiling same? The energy needed for a water molecule fo change into vapour is the same, whether it is by boiling or by evaporation. At a higher temperature, water molecules need less energy to evaporate as they already possess high kinetic energy. However, at a lower temperature, they need more energy. This is why water at a higher temperature evaporates more rapidly than water at a lower temperature. The energy Needed for water to turn to vapour is taken Continuously from the surroundings, and hence the surroundings become cool. } Applications of evaporation * During summer, pouring cold water on floor and then switching on a fan will help cool the room faster. When water evaporates it uses heat from the room to evaporate, thus cooling the room. The evaporation of our perspiration (sweat) cools the skin, thus cooling the blood just below the skin. It helps us to maintain a cool temperature, If you have fever, keeping a piece of linen cloth dipped in water or vinegar on your forehead can reduce the temperature of your body. The cool liquid takes heat from your body and evaporates feducing the body temperature. When you put a drop of perfume on your hand, you experience Cooling effect due to its evaporation, Atefrigerator works by combining two basic principles, evaporation and condensation. Inside the refrigerator, special liquid called fefrigerant is Pumped through a series of tubes. As the liquid is passed around, it absoros heat from inside and becomes a gas thereby cooling down the air inside, In the condenser, the gas is changed it liquid releasing its sto back into a liqui eq energy to the outside. Then the liquuig refrigerant flows back to the vapor} 7 again and the cycle continues ig, &3 Expansion valve evaporates gas s) heat goes Out into air hot compressed 85 goes out compressor Fig. 6.2 Refrigeration cycle Boiling Boiling is the rapid change of < state from liquid to vapour at a particular temperature. Boiling (or vaporization) is accompanied by formation of bubbles. Unlike evaporation, boiling takes place throughout a liquid and not just at the surface (Fig. 6.3). Fig. 6.3 Boling Boiling explained on the basis of kinetic theory of matter We know that all materials are made of atoms and molecules that are in constant Motion. The total energy of the substance is the internal energy of all the molecules (which is the sum of both kinetic and Potential energies), As a liquid is heated, the average kinetic energy of its molecules nereases and hence the temperature. As he temperature increases, the liquid will 's0ch a point where the bonds between tHe liquid molecules cannot hold on any More, and the molecules start to break from each other (In case of water, thisat 100°C) Now, all the energy 0027. Gt this point is used to break PPE tne liquid and therefore increase ponte tial enerGy of the molecules of P24, instead of their kinetic energy, pein. the temperature of the liquid js21P*'ine same and does not show in [Link] Molecules gain enough ay yo overcome the attractive forces of 220 chbours and break away into the ronda space. » fore, during he entire process of ing, the temperature remains constant faded heat is being used to break fe attraction between the particles or in ser words change the arrangement of ‘pe particles inside the body or change inemal potential energy of the particies oy 0! tre boling point is also unique for each pu substance. The temperature at which aliquid boils is called its boiling point. Treboiling point of a liquid is affected by simospheric pressure and the amount of impurities present in it. For example, water bois at a lower temperature at higher in transit Methods in which transfer of heat can be done @ Gilitude where atmospheric pressure is less. Pure water has a fixed boiling point, however, if some impurities are added in the water (e.g., common salt), its boiling point increases. Table 6.1 lists the differences between evaporation and boiling Table 6.4 Differences between boiling and evaporation we Speed ofthe tisafast tis a slow process. process process Where does Takes place Takes place at it take place? throughout the surface of the the mass of liquid the liquid Temperature Takes place It takes place at all atthe boiling temperatures point Factors that Atmospheric Area of the affectthe pressure and exposed process Presence of surface, wind, impurities temperature of liquid, temperature of surroundings, ‘amount of water vapour in atmosphere, and nature of the liquicl Formation of Bubblesare Bubbles are not bubbles formed formed Temperature Temperature Temperature ofthe liquid of the liquid remains body decreases constant gs a result of throughout evaporation the process Source of Source of Energy is taken energy energy is from surroundings needed3, Two methods by which liquid can change into vapour 4, Two factors that affect evaporation 5. Measure of average KE of all molecules in a substance THERMAL EXPANSION Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in shape, area, and volume in response to a change in temperature. The rise in temperature increases the energy of atoms and the average distance between the atoms increases. So, the matter as a whole expands. Thermal expansion is least in the case of solids and most in the case of gases because intermolecular force is the greatest in solids and the least in gases. Solids can expand in the following ways: Aim:To show that matter expands on heating Materials Required: Plastic bottle, a straw, playdough, a Procedure: 1. Fill half the bottle with cold water 2. Put the straw in the bottle so that it the mouth of the bottle so that ther owl and Observation: Water comes out of the straw. Conelusion: When you put hot water, the ‘ Gir inside the bottie warms uj there is no space for expansion of ai inside the bottle, Pushesthe water oui sane ne lating, le the Gir (which is a kind of matter) expands on hi Linear expansion in solids Expansion in the length of a rod due to heating is known as linear expansion (Fig. 6.4). When a metal rod is heated, its length increases. The increase in length depends jug of hot water, and a large bow! from the refrigerator, touches the water in the bottle, "e is no air gap at the mouth of 3._ Now, keep the bottle in the large bi Pour hot water on top of it, * When a solid expands in one dimension, it is called linear expan, * When a solid expands in two dimensions, it is called superficiqy expansion. * When a solid expands in three dimensions, it is called volume expansion or cubical expansion, Liquids and gases can only show volume expansion. Not all materials contract or expand at the same rate; the amount of contraction or expansion varies depending on the i i ture, and initial _Mmaterig|, change in tempera ial dimensions of the substance. res TP Use playdough to seal the bottle. he water [Link] shows that & L a FIE, 6.4 Linear expansion in a rod (L is the original fength and A Lis the increase in length)original length of the rod, the rise opine Or jure, and the nature of the to measure how much an object nd linearly with temperature, a called the coefficient of linear Joonsion is used. Tgp coefficient of linear expansion of a eal is defined as the increase in its jengih per unit length per unit rise in its emperature. ‘expansion in a solid. is bummer. Gnd iron, and join them together ; will formn a bimetallic strip. lic strip over the flame of a burner happens. n and observe what happens. is when heated as brass expands more tee [Link] the strip e opposite direction as brass contracts more than iron, in the area of a thin sheet heating is known as superficial in area depends on the A brass strip and an iron strip of the Coefficient of linear expansio Increase in length/ (Initial length x rise in temperature), The unit of coefficient of linear expansion is per degree Celsius (°C)-" [Its SI unit is K". As the difference in temperatures will remain the same, the answer will be the same in both units]. It is denoted by « (alpha): a = AL/Lx AT Lis the original length, AL is change in length, and AT is change in temperature. If the coefficient of linear expansion of o_ “material is is high, the m material will expand “EG "Before heating ‘After heating The coefficient of superficial expansion is defined as the ratio of increase in area to its original area for every degree increase in temperature. Coefficient of superficial expansion = Increase in area/(Initial area x rise in temperature.)The unit of coefficient of superficial expansion is (°C)=" fits SI unit is K1). Iris denoted by B (beta): B = AA/Ax AT Ais the increase in area, A is the initial ‘alien, ATis the change in temperature._ {tis twice the coefficient of linear expansion. Cubical expansion or volume expansion in solids When solids that have a definite shape ‘are heated, they expand in all directions— length, breadth, and height. Expansion in the volume of a solid with a definite shape due to heating is known as cubical expansion (or volume expansion). The increase in volume depends on the original volume of the solid, the rise in temperature, and the nature of the material of the solid. Coefficient of cubical expansion = Increase in volume/ (Initial volume x rise in temperature) The unit of coefficient of cubical expansion no Volume expansion in liquids A liquid has a definite volume but has no definite shape. They take the shape of the a dir ia and gained volume so it cannot pass is CC): (tts SI unit is K7). Itis denoteg ‘yy (gamma y = AV/V x AT AVis the increase In volume, V is the initial volume, and ATis the change in temperature. the coefficient of cubical expansion of solids is three times more than coefiicient of linear expansion: Relation between a, f,and "What happens when a solid object that has a hole in it is heated? Will the hole the size of the le expands Fea volume expansion occurs on heating. . ‘ container, Hence, liquids undergo only lume or cubical expansion B sa -XPansion in liquids is greater thansolids. If equal volumes of 278i0F id, nd a gas are heated in oie game rise in temperature, itis nod, found that the liquid expands gon inthe solid but less than the gas nt liquids have different rates of plier jon. Also, the tate of expansion for 9908 id differs greatly in diferent nes ure ranges. For example, the pe pansion in water from 10°C to ie igitferent from that in the range 93°C re prplanation of expansion of liquid on the basis of kinetic theory idmolecules can move around 16 within the liquid. They are loosely ,d compared to the molecules in lids. An increase in the temperature of a juid causes an increase in the average speed of its molecules, thereby increasing ‘heirkinetic energy. This, in tum, increases iheirintermolecular spacing, therefore ing the volume of the liquid. rs affecting volume expansion ofa liquid The volume expansion of a liquid depends onthe original volume of the liquid, rise in femperature, and nature of the liquid. Pr - More the original volume of the liquid is more, more is the increase in expansion - Greater the rise in temperature, more the increase in volume. The coefficient of cubical expansion of a liquid is expressed as y = AV/Vx AT AVis the increase in volume, Vis the initial volume, and ATis the change in temperature. Its unit is per degree Celsius (°C)-1. ts SI unit is K7 Table 6.2 lists the thermal expansion coefficients for various solids and liquids. Table 6.2 Thermal expansion coefficients (at 20°C) Solids Aluminium: 25 x 10-6 75x 10-¢ Bross 19x 10-6 56 x 10-6 Copper 17x 10-6 51 x 10-6 lronorSteel_ 12x 10-8 35 x 10°¢ Invar (Nickebiron 0.9 x 10° 2.7 x 10-6 alloy) Glass (ordinary) 9 x 10-¢ 27x 10-¢ Glass (Pyrex®) 3x 10-6 9x 10-6 Liquids Ethyl alcohol 1100 x 10°¢ Petrol 950 x 10°¢ Glycerin 500 x 10-¢ Mercury 180 x 10-¢ Water 210% 10-6Anomalous expansion of water Generally, the volume of substances. decreases on cooling and increases on heating. When water is cooled from room temperature to 4°C , it contracts. However, when cooled further from 4°C to 0°C, its volume increases rather than decreasing. This unusual behaviour of water from 4°C to 0°C is known as anomalous expansion of water. At 4°C, water has minimum volume and maximum density. Solid ice at 0°C has maximum volume, and hence minimum density; therefore, it floats in water. Anomolous expansion of water helps Aim:To demonstrate thermal expansion in liquids Materials required: A glass flask fitted with a one-holed rubber cork, a thin Glass tube, and water Procedure: J. Take a small amount of water in a glass flask fitted with a one-holed rubber cork (Fig. A) 2. Insert a thin glass tube and mark the water level in it as A. 3. Now heat it on a flame for a few minutes and observe. Observation: There will be a steady rise in the water level. The raised water [Link] be marked as C. Conclusion: This shows that liquids expand on heating. Aim: To study the relative expansion of different Materials required: Three identical round-bot narrow stem, different liquids such as oil, water bath Procedure: 1. Take the identical round-bottom equal volumes of liquids such a: 2. Arrange them side-by-side in a types of liquids ttom glass flasks with water, and alcohol, and a glass flasks and fill them with s watter, oil, and aleohol, water bath and to sustain aquatic animals and plants When the weather becomes cold, the top layer of a water body becomes cojq and contracts, and hence the water becomes denser and sinks to the bottom, A circulation is set up until the entire Water has turned 4°C. It reaches the moximur, density then. If the temperature falls further, the top layer expands (norolous expansion) and remains on top until it freezes. At 0°C, ice forms on top and this acts as an insulator to the layers below, So, even though the upper layer is frozen, water at the bottom will be at 4°C ang aquatic life can survive. heat the water (Fig. B). 3. Observe the liquid level in each glass flask ca Observation: it can be observed that the hohe Conclusion: This shows that diferent lypes of qui Sf expansion is different for different liquids. Ids expand by different amounts.nt expansion and absolute eo con of liquid jg nas 10 be contained in a vessel. alae nen the liquid is heated the 200% iso exoond along with the ee gist, when the vessel expands, the ia of liquid goes down. Then, the level of pel Aes9e8 uP a8 the quid expands, We jade Fee able to see the intermediate vil ye can only observe the initial ‘nal levels. This observed expansion is called apparent expansion ‘andis less than the actual on liquid liquid. eqoansion- econsider the expansion of the oiainer also and measure the total joonsion in volume of the liquid, then freexpansion is termed as the absolute pansion of the liquid. In practice, theabsolute expansion of a liduicl Sa) fabulated by-adding the increase in__) volume of the nt (ameosured) expansion of the liquid ume expansion in gases ‘expand the most. When the perature of a gas increases on heating, volume increases, itexpands. A balloon fixed to the eck of a bottle gets air expands Fig. 6.5 Expansion in gases ‘of hot water, the deflates. This duse when heat is transferred, the Of air inside the balloon increases, Making the balloon to inflate. heat is removed, the volume of air ses and hence the balloon defiates Explanation of thermal expansion on the basis of kinetic theory Gases consist of molecules or atorns that are in constant random motion Molecules within gases are far apart and are only weakly attracted to each other. Heat causes the molecules to move faster. which increases their kinetic energy. This means that the volume of a gas increases more than the volume of a solid or liquid However, gases that are contained in a fixed volume cannot expand beyond that volume. In such cases, increase in temperature results in increase in pressure EXAMPLES OF THERMAL EXPANSION IN DAILY LIFE 1. Lids on jam jars can be loosened by heating them in water. When you heat the metal lid using hot water. it expands. and becomes easy to remove 2. Bridges, roads, and railway lines are made in sections separated by rubber strips or gaps to allow for expansion in summer and contraction in winter. 3, Bridges are kept on rollers to allow for expansion in summer and contraction in winter (Fig. 6.6). 4, Telephone wires sag Fig. 6.6 Rollers under a bridge during summer. Because of this. when they are laid in winter. they are laid tight. ‘Aso, as the wires contract during winter, if they are laid in summer, they are laid (a) summer ater Fig. 6.7 Telephone wireslittle loose to allow for contraction 7. A bimetallic strip consists of two Strips | (Fig.6.7) of different metals joined together thay The pendulum of a wall cloekrandl siteren Bese Heating, the balance wheel of a wris usually ms Se ee and are made of invar (an alloy which - copper, or Wongn ss " oes or have very low value of coefficient of “copper expands more on heating than ee expansion) so that they neither expand ifon Of steel. When the strip is heateg,g, during summers nor contract during sidesof the strip becomes longer than, winters. Expansion would lead to losing the other causing it fo bend into q Curve, time. while contraction would lead to thus breaking the connection. They are gaining time. ° Used in thermostat switches to contro) GE orercicrs and ovens, © lass has very low coefficient of n Volume expansion. Items made of pyre, Ge well-suited for cooking. % Adentist uses filing material that has the \ same rate of expansion as that of the énamel. in In thermometers, thermal expansion is used for measurement. Merc! large coeffici It expands greatly even for small sé in temperatures. Hence, it is used in thermometers to measure tempe! Temperature can be measured as i rises through the capillary. Labo! fincandescent bulb, the wire going thermometers often use red-ColoUt bulb and the glass must have “ethanol, which also has a relativel the same rate of expansion so that “large coefficient of volume expansion. vacuum 'in a bulb is preserved. Write T for True and F for False. Correct the false statements. 1. Thermal expansion is least in the case of gases and most in the case of solids. 2. If the coefficient of linear expansion of a material is high, the material will expand more for each degree rise in temperature. 3. When water is cooled from 4°C to 0°C, its volume decreases, |. The observed expansion of liquid is called apparent expansion of liquid, and is less than the actual expansion. ._ Mercury has a small coefficient of volume expansion. * Evaporation is a change of state from liquid state to vapour by absorbii tt. It occurs at temperatures below the boiling point, ee esse! Kom * Evaporation depends on area of the exposed surface, wind, temperature of surroundings, amount of water vapour in at |, temperature of liquid, mosphere, and nature of liquid. mm liquid fo Vapour at a particular temperature. it ___ depends on the atmospheric pressure and impurity present in the liquia. i * When solids expand in one dimension, itis called linear expansion, in two dimensions it is called superficial expansion, and in three dimensions, it is known Qs volume expansion or ___ cubical expansion.