Algebra Final
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BASICS OF ALGEBRA
Variable :
A variable is a letter that is used to represent a numerical quantity. We often use a lower-case letters such as a,
b, c etc. for a variable.
Algebraic Expre ssion :
An algebraic expression is a combination of numbers, variables, operations and grouping sign.
Illustration - x + 5, 3y , 2x + 5y, –3t2, 5(n – 2)
Simplificat ion :
Illustration-1 : Simplify : 3a + {–4b – [4a – 7b – (–4a – b)] + 5a}
Solution : 3a + {–4b – [4a – 7b – (–4a – b)] + 5a}
= 3a + {–4b – [8a – 6b] + 5a} = 3a + {–3a + 2b} = 2b
or
3a + {–4b – [4a – 7b – (–4a – b)] + 5a}
= 8a – 4b – [4a – 7b – (–4a – b)] = 4a + 3b + (–4a – b) = 2b
Note : We can remove the brackets from the innermost to outermost layer, or vice versa.
Illustration-2 : Simplify the expression : 4{(3x – 2) – [3(3x – 2) + 3]} – (4 – 6x).
Solution : Taking 3x – 2 as whole as one number y in the process of simplification first, we have
4{(3x – 2) – [3(3x – 2) + 3]} – (4 – 6x) = 4{y – [3y + 3]} + 2y
= 4{–2y – 3} + 2y = –6y – 12 = –6(3x – 2) – 12 = –18x
Illustration-3 : Evaluate : –9xn–2 – 8xn–1 – (–9xn–2) – 8(xn–2 – 2xn–1), where x = 9, n = 3.
Solution : –9xn–2 – 8xn–1 – (–9xn–2) – 8(xn–2 – 2xn–1) = 8xn–1 – 8xn–2.
By substituting x = 9, n = 3, it follows that the expression
= 8xn–1 – 8xn–2 = 8 (81 – 9) = 576
Illustration-4 : Expand : (x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3) (x – 4).
Solution : (x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3) (x – 4) = [(x – 1)(x – 4)]•[(x – 2)(x – 3)]
= (x2 – 4x – x + 4) (x2 – 3x – 2x + 6)
= [(x2 – 5x + 5) – 1][(x2 – 5x + 5) + 1]
= (x2 – 5x + 5)2 – 1 = x4 + 25x2 + 25 – 10x3 + 10x2 – 50x – 1
= x4 – 10x3 + 35x2 – 50x + 24
2 1 2 2 1 2
Illustration-5 : Expand : 5xy 3x y 5xy 3x y
2 2
Solution : Considering the formula (a – b) (a + b) = a2 – b2, we have
2 1 2 2 1 2
5xy 3x y 5xy 3x y
2 2
1 1
5xy 3x 2 y 2 5xy 3x 2 y 2
2 2
1
2 1 1
2
(5xy)2 3x2 y 2 25x 2 y 2 (3x2 )2 2(3x2 ) y 2 y 2
2 2 2
1 1
25x 2 y 2 9x 4 3x 2 y 2 y 4 9x 4 28x 2 y 2 y 4
4 4
a 5 7a 4b
Illustration-6 : If , then ?
b 7 7a 4b
a 5
7 4 7 4
7a 4b
Solution : b 7
7a 4b a 5
7 4 7 4
b 7
54 9
9
54 1
8x 2x
Illustration-7 : Find x : 2
6x 3x
(23 ) x 2 x 23x 2 x
Solution : 2 2
(2.3) x 3 x 2x 3x 3x
2 x (22x 1) 2 x [(2 x )2 1)
x x
2 2
3 (2 1) 3 x (2 x 1)
2 x [(2 x 1)(2 x 1)]
2 [Using a2 – b2 Identity]
3 x (2 x 1)
2 x (2 x 1)
2
3x
Also, 2 x 1 0
2x 1
x0
Now, 2x(2x + 1) = 2.3x
2 x 1 (2x 1) 3 x
Now, for x 2;
x 1 x
2
(2
1) 3x
even odd
odd
even odd
So, no solution if x 2
Now, for x = 1;
2x–1 (2x + 1) = 3x
20 (2 + 1) = 3
3=3
Hence, x = 1 is a solution.
Now, for x = –n (n 1)
2x–1 (2x + 1) = 3x
2n 1 (2n 1) 3n
1 1
2 (n 1) n 1 n
2 3
1 2 1 1
n
n 1 n n
2 2 3
2n 1 1
22n 1 3n
2n 1
3n (2
n
1) 2
where n 1
odd odd even
odd even
Hence, x = –n has no solution.
So, x 1 is only one solution.
Illustration-8 : For x > 0; the expression x2 – 145x = 144 x . Find x x .
Solution : x2 145x 144 x
x2 x 144x 144 x
x2 x 144x 144 x
x 2 x 144x 144 x
2
x x x x 144 x x
x x 144
Hence, x x 144 12
Simplificat ion of Radical Problems :
Illustration-9 : Simplify : 7 15 16 2 15
Solution : Taking 16 2 15
15 1 2 15
15 (1)2 2 15 (1) 15 1
2 2
7 15 15 1
2
7 15 15 1
7 15 15 1
8 2 15
5 3 2 5 3
5 3 2 5 3
2 2
5 3 5 3
2
So, 7 15 16 2 15 5 3
Do Yourself - 1
1. Simplify : 10 25 108 154 225
9 11
2. Evaluate : 5 2 7 5 2 7
ALGEBR AIC IDENTITIES AND FACTORISATION
Square Identit ie s :
(i) (a + b) (a – b) = a2 – b2
(ii) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(iii) (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
(iv) (a + b)2 + (a – b)2 = 2(a2 + b2)
(v) (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab
1
(vi) a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca = [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
2
(vii) (a2 + b2) (c2 + d2) = (ac + bd)2 + (ad – bc)2
(viii) a4 + 4b4 = (a2 + 2ab + 2b2) (a2 – 2ab + 2b2) = [(a + b)2 + b2] [(a – b)2 + b2]
(ix) 1 + a2 + a4 = (1 – a + a2) (1 + a + a2)
(x) (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca.
Cubic Ident it ie s :
(i) a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) = (a + b)3 – 3ab (a + b)
(ii) a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2) = (a – b)3 + 3ab(a – b)
(iii) (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)
(iv) (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab(a – b)
(v) a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca)
1
= (a + b + c) [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
2
(vi) If a + b + c = 0, then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc.
(vii) If a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc, then either a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c.
Generalizat ion of Formulae :
1. (a – b) (a3 + a2b + ab2 + b3) = a4 – b4
2. (a – b) (a4 + a3b + a2b2 + ab3 + b4) = a5 – b5
3. (a – b) (an–1 + an–2b + ..... abn–2 + bn–1) = an–bn for all n N.
Proof : (a – b) (an–1 + an–2b + ..... abn–2 + bn–1)
(an + an–1b + .... + a2bn–2 + abn–1) – (an–1b + an–2b2 + .... + abn–1 + bn) = an – bn
4. (a + b) (an–1 – an–2b + ...... – abn–2 + bn–1) = an + bn for odd n N .
Proof : For odd n, by using (–b) to replace ‘b’ in (3), we obtain
(a + b) (an–1 + an–2 (–b) + an–3 (–b)2 + ..... + a(–b)n–2 + (–b)n–1) = an – (–b)n
(a + b) (an–1 – an–2 b + an–3 b2 – ....... – abn–2 + bn–1) = an + bn
5. (a1 + a2 + ..... + an)2
= a12 + a22 + ...... + an2 + 2a1a2 + 2a1a3 + ..... + 2a1an + 2a2a3 + .... + 2a2an + ..... + 2an–1an.
Proof : (a1 + a2 + a3 ..... + an) (a1 + a2 + a3 + ..... + an)
a12 + a22 + .... +an2 + 2a1a2 + 2a1a3 + ..... + 2a1an + 2a2a3 + .... + 2a2an + .... + 2an–1an.
Illustration-10 : Factorize : a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc.
Solution : a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc
(a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3) + c3 – 3a2b – 3ab2 – 3abc
(a + b)3 + c3 – 3ab(a + b + c)
[(a + b) + c] [(a + b)2 – (a + b)c + c2] – 3ab (a + b + c)
(a + b + c) (a2 + 2ab + b2 – ac – bc + c2) – 3ab (a + b + c)
(a + b + c) [a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab – bc – ac – 3ab]
(a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca)
Now that above identity leads to the following result : if a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc.
Another way to obtain above factorisation is to consider the determinant.
a b c
D c a b
b c a
Try solving this by own.
Illustration-11 : If a – b = 2 and b – c = 3, then find the value of a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca.
Solution : a – b = 2, b – c = 3
Now, c – a = (c – b) + (b – a)
= –(b – c) – (a – b)
= –3 – 2 = –5
So, a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ac
1
= [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
2
1
= [22 + 32 + (–5)2]
2
1
= [4 + 9 + 25] = 19
2
Illustration-12 : x – y = 8, xy = –15 find the value of (i) (x + y)2 (ii) (x4 + y4)
Solution : (i) (x + y)2 = x2 + y2 + 2xy = (x2 + y2 – 2xy) + 4xy
(x – y)2 + 4xy
= (8)2 + 4(–15) = 4
(ii) x4 + y4 = (x4 + 2x2y2 + y4) – 2x2y2
= (x2 + y2)2 – 2(xy)2
= [(x2 – 2xy + y2) + 2xy]2 – 2(–15)2
= [(x – y)2 – 30]2 – 2(–15)2
= (34)2 – 2(225) = 1156 – 450 = 706
1 3 1 4 1
Illustration-13 : Given x 3, find the value of (i) x 3 (ii) x
x x x4
1 1 1
Solution : (i) x3 x x2 2 1
x3 x x
1
2
3 x 3
x
= 3 [32 – 3] = 18
1 1
2
x 4 4 x 2 2 2 2
2
(ii)
x x
2
1
x2 2 2
x
2
1
2
x 2 2
x
= (32 – 2)2 – 2 = 47
Illustration-14 : Find 4 consecutive positive integers whose product is 1680.
Solution : Let 1680 = n(n + 1) (n + 2) (n + 3)
Where ‘n’ is a positive integer
So, 1680 = [n(n + 3)] [(n + 1) (n + 2)]
1680 = (n2 + 3n) (n2 + 3n + 2)
1680 = (n2 + 3n)2 + 2(n2 + 3n)
1680 + 1 = (n2 + 3n)2 + 2(n2 + 3n) + 12
1681 = (n2 + 3n + 1) 2
41 = n2 + 3n + 1
n2 + 3n – 40 = 0
n2 + 8n – 5n – 40 = 0
n(n + 8) – 5(n + 8) = 0
(n – 5) (n + 8) = 0
n = 5 [ ‘n’ is a positive integer]
1680 = 5 × 6 × 7 × 8
Illustration-15 : If a, b, c, d > 0 and a4 + b4 + c4 + d4 = 4abcd. Prove that a = b = c = d.
Solution : a4 + b4 + c4 + d4 – 4abcd = 0
(a4 – 2a2b2 + b4) + (c4 – 2c2d2 + d4) + (2a2b2 + 2c2d2 – 4abcd) = 0
(a2 – b2)2 + (c2 – d2)2 + 2(ab – cd)2 = 0
a2 – b2 = 0, c2 – d2 = 0, ab – cd = 0
Since, a, b, c, d > 0
So, a = b, c = d and c2 = a2 i.e. a = c
Thus a = b = c = d
Illustration-16 : Factorize (d2 – c2 + a2 – b2)2 – 4(bc – da)2.
Solution : (d2 – c2 + a2 – b2)2 – 4(bc – da)2 = (d2 – c2 + a2 – b2)2 – (2bc – 2da)2
= (d2 – c2 + a2 – b2 – 2bc + 2da)(d2 – c2 + a2 – b2 + 2bc – 2da)
= [(d + a)2 – (b + c)2].[(d – a)2 – (b – c)2]
= (d + a – b – c)(d + a + b + c)(d – b – a – c)(d + c – a – b).
Illustration-17 : Factorize 64x6 – 729y12.
Solution : 64x6 – 729y12 = (2x)6 – (3y2)6 = [(2x)3 – (3y2)3][(2x)3 + (3y2)3]
= (2x – 3y2)[(2x)2 + (2x)(3y2) + (3y2)2].(2x + 3y2)[(2x)2 – (2x)(3y2) + (3y2)2]
= (2x – 3y2)(2x + 3y2)(4x2 + 6xy2 + 9y4)(4x2 – 6xy2 + 9y4).
Illustration-18 : Factorize 2a3 + 6a2 + 6a + 18.
Solution : 2a3 + 6a2 + 6a + 18 = 2[(a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1) + 8] = 2[(a + 1)3 + 23]
= 2(a + 3)[(a + 1)2 – 2(a + 1) + 4] = 2(a + 3)(a2 + 3).
Illustration-19 : Factorise : (i) x4 + 2x3 + 7x2 + 6x – 7; (ii) x3 + 9x2 + 23x + 15.
Solution : Let y = x2 + x. Then
(i) x4 + 2x3 + 7x2 + 6x – 7 = x2(x2 + x) + x(x2 + x) + 6(x2 + x) – 7
= (x2 + x + 6)(x2 + x) – 7 = y2 + 6y – 7 = (y + 7)(y – 1)
= (x2 + x + 7)(x2 + x – 1)
(ii) x3 + 9x2 + 23x + 15 = x2(x + 1) + 8x(x + 1) + 15(x + 1)
= (x + l)(x2 + 8x + 15) = (x + l)(x + 3)(x + 5).
Illustration-20 : Factorize the following expressions
(i) x9 + 7x6y3 + 7x3y6 + y9; (ii) 4x2 + y2 + 9z2 – 6yz + 12zx – 4xy;
(iii) (x2 – l)(x + 3)(x + 5) + 16; (iv) (2x2 – 4x + l)2 –14x2 + 28x + 3;
(v) x11 + x10 + .... + x2 + x + 1.
Solution : (i) x9 + 7x6y3 + 7x3y6 + y9 = [(x3)3 + (y3)3] + 7x3y3(x3 + y3)
= (x3 + y3)(x6 – x3y3 + y6) + 7x3y3(x3 + y3)
= (x3 + y3)(x6 + 6x3y3 + y6).
(ii) 4x2 + y2 + 9z2 – 6yz + 12zx – 4xy
= (2x)2 + (–y)2 + (3z)2 + 2(-y)(3z) + 2(3z)(2x) + 2(2x)(–y)
= (2x – y + 3z)2.
(iii) Let y = x + 2, then
(x2 – l)(x + 3)(x + 5) + 16 = (x – l)(x + l)(x + 3)(x + 5) + 16
= (y – 3)(y – 1)(y + 1)(y + 3) + 16
= (y2 – l)(y2 – 9) + 16 = y4 – 10y2 + 25
= (y2 – 5)2 = [(x + 2)2 – 5]2 = (x2 + 4x – 1)2
(iv) (2x2 – 4x + 1)2 – 14x2 + 28x + 3
= (2x2 – 4x + 1)2 – 7(2x2 – 4x + 1) + 10
= (2x2 – 4x + 1 – 2)(2x2 – 4x + 1 – 5)
= (2x2 – 4x – l)(2x2 – 4x – 4) = 2(2x2 – 4x – l)(x2 – 2x – 2).
x12 1 (x 6 1)(x 6 1)
(v) x11 + x10 + .... + x2 + x + 1 =
x 1 x 1
(x 3 1)(x3 1)(x6 1)
= (x2 + x + 1)(x3 + 1)(x6 + 1)
(x 1)
= (x2 + x + l)(x + l)(x2 – x + l)(x2 + l)(x4 – x2 +1)
Illustration-21 : Factorize the following expressions (i) x4 – 2(a2 + b2)x2 + (a2 – b2)2; (ii) (ab + l)(a + l)(b +1) + ab.
Solution : (i) x4 – 2(a2 + b2)x2 + (a2 – b2)2
= [x2 – (a2 + b2)]2 – (a2 + b2)2 + (a2 – b2)2
= [x2 – (a2 + b2)]2 – 4a2b2
= (x2 – a2 – b2 – 2ab)(x2 – a2 – b2 + 2ab)
= [x2 – (a + b)2][x2 – (a – b)2]
= (x – a – b)(x + a + b)(x – a + b)(x + a – b).
(ii) (ab + 1)(a + l)(b + 1) + ab = (ab + l)(ab + a + b + 1) + ab
= (ab + 1)(ab + b + 1) + (ab + 1)a + ab
= (ab + 1)(ab + b + 1) + a(ab + b + 1)
= (ab + b + 1)(ab + a + 1).
Illustration-22 : Factorize : (i) (a + 1)(a + 2)(a + 3)(a + 4) – 120 (ii) x5 + x + 1
Solution : (i) (a + 1)(a + 2)(a + 3)(a + 4) – 120
= [(a + 1)(a + 4)][(a + 2)(a + 3)] – 120
= (a2 + 5a + 4)(a2 + 5a + 6) – 120
= [(a2 + 5a + 5) – 1] [(a2 + 5a + 5) + 1] – 120
= (a2 + 5a + 5)2 – 121 = (a2 + 5a + 5)2 – 112
= (a2 + 5a – 6)(a2 + 5a + 16) = (a – 1)(a + 6)(a2 + 5a + 16).
(ii) x5 + x + 1 = (x5 – x2) + (x2 + x + 1)
= x2(x3 – 1) + (x2 + x + 1)
= x2(x – l)(x2 + x + 1) + (x2 + x + 1)
= (x2 + x + 1)[x2(x – 1) + 1] = (x2 + x + 1)(x3 – x2 + 1).
Illustration-23 : Factorize (2y – 3z)3 + (3z – 4x)3 + (4x – 2y)3.
Solution : Let 2y – 3z = a, 3z – 4x = b, 4x – 2y = c, then a + b + c = 0.
Hence (2y – 3z)3 + (3z – 4x)3 + (4x – 2y)3 = a3 + b3 + c3
= (a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc) + 3abc
= (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 – bc – ca – ab) + 3abc
= 3abc = 3(2y – 3z)(3z – 4x)(4x – 2y).
Illustration-24 : Factorize the following expressions:
(i) (x2 + x – 1)2 + x2 + x – 3 (ii) (x – y)3 + (y – x – 2)3 + 8
Solution : (i) Let y = x2 + x – 1, then
(x2 + x – I)2 + x2 + x – 3 = y2 + y – 2 = (y – 2)(y + 1)
= (x2 + x – 3)(x2 + x) = x(x + l)(x2 + x – 3).
(ii) Let u = x – y, v = y – x – 2, w = 2, then u + v + w = 0,
(x – y)3 + (y – x – 2)3 + 8 = u3 + v3 + w3
= 3uvw + (u + v + w)(u2 + v2 + w2 – uv – vw – wu)
= 3uvw = 3(x – y)(y – x – 2)(2) = –6(x – y) (x – y + 2).
Illustration-25 : (i) (6x + 5)2(3x + 2)(x+l)-6 (ii) (x2 + 5x + 6)(x2 + 6x + 6) – 2x2
Solution : (i) Let y = 6x + 5, then
1 2 y 1 y 1
(6x + 5)2 (3x + 2) (x + 1) – 6 =
12
y (y – 1) (y + 1) – 6 2 3x 2 and 6 x 1
1 2 2 1 4
= y (y –1) – 6 = (y – y2 – 72)
12 12
1 2 1
= (y – 9) (y2 + 8) = [(6x + 5)2 – 32] [(6x + 5)2 + 8]
12 12
1
= (6x + 8)(6x + 2) (36x2 + 60x + 33)
12
= (3x + 4) (3x + 1) (12x2 + 20x + 11)
(ii) Let y = x2 + 5x + 6, then
(x2 + 5x + 6)(x2 + 6x + 6) – 2x2 = y(y + x) – 2x2
= y2 + xy – 2x2 = (y + 2x)(y – x)
= (x2 + 7x + 6)(x2 + 4x + 6) = (x + l)(x + 6)(x2 + 4x + 6).
Do Yourself - 2
1. Factorize (3a + 3b – 18ab)(3a + 3b – 2) + (1 – 9ab)2.
2. Factorize 2x2 + 7xy – 4y2 – 3x + 6y – 2.
3. Given that x5 – 5qx + 4r has a factor (x – c)2 for some constant c. Prove that q5 = r4.
4. Prove that 816 – 9.277 – 911 is divisible by 45.
5. Factorize 2(x2 + 6x + I)2 + 5(x2 + l)(x2 + 6x + 1) + 2(x2 + I)2.
6. If x2 + 2x + 5 is a factor of x4 + ax2 + b, find the value of a + b.
7. Factor (ab + cd)(a2 – b2 + c2 – d2) + (ac + bd)(a2 + b2 – c2 – d2).
8. Factorize (ay + bx)3 + (ax + by)3 – (a3 + b3)(x3 + y3).
9. Given that a, b, c are three distinct positive integers. Prove that among the numbers asb – ab5, bsc – bc5, c5a – ca5, there
must be one that is divisible by 8.
10. Factorize : (i) (x2 – 2x)3 + (x2 – 4x + 2)3 – 8(x2 – 3x + I)3
(ii) a3 + b3 + c3 + (a + b)(b + c)(c + a) – 2abc.
MODULUS FUNCTION
The modulus of a real number x is defined as
x if x 0
x
-x if x < 0
Modulus is also known as absolute value
Graph of Modulus Function :
y
y = –x y=x
x
O
Absolute Value a nd Dista nce :
Geometrically, the absolute value of x is the distance between the real number x and the origin on the real number
line.
|-3|= 3 |4|= 4
-3 0 4
Absolute value as the distance from 0.
Illustrati on-26 Solve |3x – 1| = |x + 5|
Solution : 3x – 1 = x + 5 or 3x – 1 = – (x + 5)
3x – 1 = x + 5 or 3x – 1 = – x – 5
2x – 1 = 5 4x – 1 = – 5
2x = 6 4x = – 4
x = 3 x = – 1
The solution set is {–1, 3}
Illustrati on-27 Solve the equation x2 –5|x| + 6 = 0
Solution : The given equation is equivalent to
x 2 5x 6 0 if x 0
2
x 5x 6 0 if x < 0
(x 2)(x 3) 0 if x 0
(x 2)(x 3) 0 if x < 0
Hence, the solution of the given equation are x1=2, x2=3, x3= –2, x4= –3.
Illustrati on-28 Solve the equation |2x – 1|2 – 3|2x – 1| + 2 = 0
Solution : Let |2x – 1|=y, substituting
y2 – 3y + 2 = 0
(y – 1)(y – 2) = 0
y = 1 or 2
Now,
|2x – 1| = 1 or |2x – 1| = 2
2x = 0, 2 2x = 1 – 2 or 1 + 2
1 3
x = 0, 1 x or
2 2
Illustrati on-29 Find the value(s) of real x satisfying |x2 – 5x + 6| = |x2 – 2x| + |3x – 6|
Solution : Since, (x2 – 2x) – (3x – 6) = x2 – 5x + 6
and we know that
|f(x) – g(x)| = |f(x)| + |g(x)|
f(x).g(x) 0
|x2 – 5x + 6| = |x2 – 2x| + |3x – 6|
(x2 – 2x)(3x – 6) 0
3x(x – 2)(x – 2) 0
3x(x – 2)2 0
x 0 or x = 2
x ,0 {2}
Do Yourself - 3
1. Solve the equation |2x – 5| = x – 1.
2. Solve the equation |x2 – x – 6| = x + 2.
3. Solve the equation 2|x – 2|– 3 |x + 4| = 1.
4. Solve the equation 4
1 x 4 15 x 2 .
5. Solve the equation x 1 2x 6 6 .
Par tial Fract ions :
The sums of rational expressions are found by combining two or more rational expressions into one rational expression.
Here, the reverse process is considered : given one rational expression, express it as the sum of two or more rational
expressions. A special type of sum of rational expressions is called the partial fraction decomposition; each term in
the sum is a partial fraction. The technique of decomposing a rational expression into partial fractions is useful in
calculus and other areas of mathematics.
f(x)
Partial fraction decompostion of .
g(x)
To form a partial fraction decomposition of a rational expression, we use the following steps:
Step-1 :
f(x)
If is not a proper fraction (a fraction with the numerator of lower degree than the denominator), divide f(x)
g(x)
by g(x).
x 4 3x 3 x 2 5x 14x 6
For example, x 2 3x 2 3
x3 3 x 3
Then, apply the following step to the remainder, which is a proper fraction.
Step-2 :
Factor g(x) completely into factors of the form (ax + b)m or (cx2 + dx + e)n, where cx2 + dx + e is irreducible and
m and n are integers.
Step-3 :
A
(a) For each distinct linear factor (ax + b), the decomposition must include the term .
ax b
(b) For each repeated linear factor (ax + b) m , the decomposition must include the terms
A1 A2 Am
....
ax b ax b 2
ax b m
Step-4 :
(a) For each distinct quadratic factor (cx 2 + dx + e), the decomposition must include the term
Bx C
cx 2 dx e
(b ) For each repeated quadratic factor (cx 2 + dx + e) n , the decomposition must include the terms
B1 x C1 B2 x C2 Bn x Cn
...
cx dx e cx dx e
2 2 2
cx2 dx e
n
Step-5 :
Use algebraic techniques to solve for the constants in the numerators of the decomposition.
Distinct Linear Factors :
2x 4 8x 2 5x 2
Illustration-30 : Find the partial fraction decomposition of .
x 3 4x
Solution : The given fraction is not a proper fraction; the numerator has higher degree than the denominator.
Perform the division.
2x
x 3 4x 2x 4 8x 2 5x 2
2x 4 8x 2
5x 2
2x 4 8x 2 5x 2 5x 2
The quotient is 2x 3 .
x 3 4x x 4x
Now, work with the remainder fraction.
Factor the denominator as x3 – 4x = x(x + 2)(x – 2). Since the factors are distinct linear factors, use
step 3(a) to write the decomposition as
5x 2 A B C
…(1)
x 3 4x x x 2 x 2
where A, B and C are constants that need to be found. Multiply both sides of equation (1) by x(x +
2)(x – 2), getting
5x – 2 = A(x + 2)(x – 2) + Bx(x – 2) + Cx(x + 2) …(2)
Equation (1) is an identity, since both sides represent the same rational expression. Thus, equation (2)
is also an identity. Equation (1) holds for all values of x except 0, –2 and 2. However, equation (2)
holds for all values of x.
1
In particular, substituting 0 for x in equation (2) gives –2 = –4A, so that A = .
2
3
Similarly, choosing x = –2 gives –12 = 8B, so that B = .
2
Finally, choosing x = 2, 8 = 8C, so that C = 1.
The remainder rational expression can be written as the following sum of partial fractions :
5x 2 1 3 1
3
x 4x 2x 2(x 2) x 2
and the given rational expression can be written as
2x 4 8x 2 5x 2 1 3 1
2x
3
x 4x 2x 2(x 2) x 2
Verification can be done by combining the terms on the right.
Repeated Linear Factors :
2x
Illustration-31 : Find the partial fraction decomposiion of .
(x 1)3
Solution : This is a proper fraction. The denominator is already factored with repeated linear factors. Write the
decomposition as shown, by using step 3(b) above.
2x A B C
(x 1)3 x 1 (x 1)2 (x 1)3
Clear the denominators by multiplying both sides of this equation by (x – 1)3.
2x = A(x – 1)2 + B(x – 1) + C
Substituting 1 for x leads to C = 2, so that
2x = A(x – 1)2 + B(x – 1) + 2 …(1)
The only root has been substituted and values for A and B still need to be found. However, any number
can be substituted for x. For example, when we choose x = –1 (because it is easy to sustitute), equation
(1) becomes
–2 = 4A – 2B + 2
–4 = 4A – 2B
–2 = 2A – B …(2)
Subsituting 0 for x in equation (1) gives
0 = A – B + 2
2 = –A + B …(3)
Now, solve the system of equations (2) and (3) to get A = 0 and B = 2.
The partial fraction decomposition is
2x 2 2
3
2
(x 1) (x 1) (x 1)3
Three substitutions were needed because there were three constants to evaluate, A, B and C.
To check this result, combine the terms on the right.
Distinct Linear and Quadrat ic Factors :
x 2 3x 1
Illustration-32 : Find the partial fraction decomposition of .
(x 1)(x 2 2)
Solution : This denominator has distinct linear and quadratic factors, where neither is repeated. Since x2 + 2 cannot
be factored, it is irreducible. The partial fraction decomposition is
x2 3x 1 A Bx C
2
2
(x 1)(x 2) x 1 x 2
Multiply both sides by (x + 1) (x2 + 2) to get
x2 + 3x – 1 = A(x2 + 2) + (Bx + C) (x + 1) …(1)
First, substitute –1 for x to get
(–1)2 + 3(–1) – 1 = A[(–1)2 + 2] + 0
–3 = 3A
A = –1
Replace A with –1 in equation (1) and substitute any value for x. For instance, if x = 0.
02 + 3(0) – 1 = –1(02 + 2) + (B•0 + C) (0 + 1)
–1 = –2 + C
C = 1
Now, letting A = –1 and C = 1, substitute again in equation (1), using another value for x.
For x = 1,
3 = –3 + (B + 1) (2)
6 = 2B + 2
B = 2
Using A = –1, B = 2 and C = 1, the partial fraction decomposition is
x2 3x 1 1 2x 1
(x 1)(x2 2) x 1 x2 2
Again, this work can be checked by combining terms on the right.
For fractions with denominators that have quadratic factors, another method is often more convenient.
The system of equations is formed by equating coefficients of like terms on both sides of the partial
fraction decomposition. For instance, in example 3, after both sides were multiplied by the common
denominator, the equation was
x2 + 3x – 1 = A(x2 + 2) + (Bx + C) (x + 1).
Multiplying on the right and collecting like terms, we have
x2 + 3x – 1 = Ax2 + 2A + Bx2 + Bx + Cx + C
x2 + 3x – 1 = (A + B)x2 + (B + C)x + (C + 2A).
Now, equating the coefficient of like powers of x gives the three equations.
1 = A + B
3 = B + C
–1 = C + 2A
Solving this system of equations A, B and C would give the partial fraction decomposition. The next
example uses a combination of the two methods.
Repeated Quadrat ic Factors :
2x
Illustration-33 : Find the partial fraction decomposition of .
(x 1)2 (x 1)
2
Solution : The expression has both a linear factor and a repeated quadratic factor. By steps 3(a) and 4(b) from
the beginning of this section.
2x Ax B Cx D E
(x2 1)2 (x 1) x 2 1 (x2 1)2 x 1
Multiplication of both sides by (x2 + 1)2 (x – 1) leads to
2x = (Ax + B) (x2 + 1) (x – 1) + (Cx + D) (x – 1) + E(x2 + 1)2 …(1)
1
If x = 1, equation (1) reduces to 2 = 4E, or E = .
2
1
Substituting for E in equation (1) and combining terms on the right givess
2
1
2x = (A + 1/2)x4 + (–A + B)x3 + (A – B + C + 1)x2 + (–A + B + D – C)x + (–B – D + ).
2
To get additional equations involving the unknowns, equate the coefficients of like powers of x on the
two sides of equation (2). Setting corresponding coefficients of x4 equal,
1 1
0 = A + or A = – . From the corresponding coefficients of x3, 0 = –A + B. Since
2 2
1 1
A = , B = . Using the coefficients of x2, 0 = A – B + C + 1. Since
2 2
1 1
A = and B = , C = –1
2 2
Finally, from the coeffcient of x, 2 = –A + B + D – C.
1 1 1
Substituting for A, B and C gives D = 1. With A = , B = , C = –1, D = 1 and E = , the
he
2 2 2
given fraction has the partial fraction decomposition
1 1 1
x
2x 2 2 x 1
2 2 2
(x 2 1)2 (x 1) x 1 (x 1)2 x 1
2x (x 1) x 1 1
or 2
2 2 2
(x 1) (x 1) 2(x 1) (x 1) 2
2(x 1)
(x 1) x 1 1
= 2
2
2(x 1) (x 1) 2
2(x 1)
Do Yourself - 4
1. Find the partial fraction decomposition for the following ratio and expressions :
7x 10
(a)
(x 2)(x 1)
4x2 13x 9
(b)
x 3 2x 2 3x
6x 11
(c)
(x 1)2
5x2 6x 7
(d)
(x 1)(x2 1)
3x 4 9x 3 14x2 9x 2
(e)
(x 1) (x2 2x 2)2
PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Mathematical induction is a tool by which we can prove correctness of any mathematical statement or proposition
easily. As the name suggests, it works on the principle of induction i.e., result for higher integer gets induced from
the result for lower integers. It is widely used in proving identities, inequalities, divisibility of an expression by another
number or by another expression, theorems etc. It involves three steps Verification, Induction and Generalization.
Let P(n) be a statement involving the natural number n. To prove that P(n) is true for all natural numbers n, we
prove as follows.
Step I : Prove that P(m) is true for some initial condition i.e., for m = 1 or m = 2 or for some other natural number.
Step lI : Assuming that P(m) is true and show that P(m + 1) is also true. It is important that usually the 2nd step
is the most difficult to prove and various mathematical tools may have to be applied for doing this according to the
nature of a given question.
Step III : The statement is generalized i.e., P(n) is true for all values of n.
n(n 1)
Illustration-34 : Prove using PMI that 1 + 2 + 3 + ..... + n , nN .
2
n(n 1)
Solution : Let P(n) be the statement P(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ..... + n =
2
Step-1 : Consider P(1)
1(1 1)
LHS = 1 and RHS = 1
2
P(1) is true …(i)
Step-2 : Assuming P(k) to be true.
k(k 1)
p(k) : 1 + 2 + 3 + ....... + k = …(ii)
2
is valid. We will prove the corresponding identity for k + 1.
According to formula, the terms on the LHS, for k + 1 are
k(k 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ...... + k + (k + 1) = (k 1)
2
k
= (k + 1) 1
2
(k 1) (k 2)
=
2
Which is same as the RHS of the formula for k + 1.
P(k + 1) is true.
Thus we have proved that p(n) is true for n = k + 1, if it true for n = k.
This can be mathematically written as p(k) is true P(k + 1) is true.
1
Illustration-35 : Prove using PMI that 1.3 + 2.4 + 3.5 + ..... + n(n + 2) = n(n + 1)(2n + 7) n N .
6
1 1
Solution : P(1) = 1.3 = (1) (1 + 1) (2 + 7) = 2 9 3
6 6
Hence, true for n = 1.
Let statement be true for n = k.
1
i.e. 1.3 + 2.4 + 3.5 + ...... + k(k + 2) = k(k + 1) (2k + 7) k N .
6
P(k) is true.
Now, P(k + 1) = 1.3 + 2.4 + ..... + k(k + 2) + (k + 1) (k + 3)
= P(k) + (k + 1) (k + 3)
1
= k(k + 1) (2k + 7) + (k + 1) (k + 3)
6
k 1 2
2k 13k 18
6
k 1
(k 2) (2k 9)
6
Hence, P(k + 1) is true.
P(k) P(k + 1) The assumption is true.
1 n 1
Illustration-36 : Using the PMI prove that, if x is an integer, then x n is also an integer n N .
x x
Solution : Let P(n) be the statement.
n 1
P(n) : x is an integer for all n N.
xn
1 1
Consider P(1) : x 1 2 is an integer..
x 1
Which is true, as it is given
P(1) is true. …(i)
Assuming P(n) is true 1 n k. …(ii)
k 1 1
Consider P(k + 1) : x k 1
x
1 1 1
x k k x x k 1 k 1
x x x
integer by integer by
P(k) Integer P(k-1)
= Integer
P(k + 1) is true.
P(k) is true P(k + 1) is true. …(iii)
So, from equation (i) and (ii) and by PMI; P(n) is true n N.
Illustration-37 : Prove using PMI that 3n + 8n is not divisible by 5 n N .
Solution : Let P(n) : 3n + 8n is not divisible by 5. Consider n = 1 : 31 + 81 = 11 is not divisible by 5.
P(1) is true.
Let for n = k – 1 : 3k–1 + 8k–1 is not divisible by 5. …(i)
Consider : 3k + 8k = 3.3k–1 + 8.8k–1
= 3(3k–1 + 8k–1) + 5.8k–1
Which is not divisible by 5.
( of equation (i), 3k–1 + 8k–1 is not divisible by 5, whereas 5·(8)k–1 is divisible by 5)
3k–1 + 8k–1 is not divisible by 5.
3k + 8k is not divisible by 5.
P(k – 1) is true P(k) is true. …(ii)
From (i) and (ii) and by PMI.
P(n) is true n N .
Do Yourself - 5
2
n(n 1)
1. Prove the formula 13 + 23 + 33 + ..... + n3 = .
2
2. Prove by PMI that 1.2 + 2.5 + ..... + n(3n – 1) = n2 (n + 1) n .
n(n 2 1)(3n 2)
3. Prove by PMI that 1.22 + 2.32 + ..... + (n –1)n2 = n N.
12
4. Prove by PMI that 2 + 22 + 23 + ..... + 2n = 2(2n – 1) n .
1 1 1 n
5. Prove by Induction ..... to n-terms = .
1.2 2.3 3.4 n 1
SURDS
Definitions :
For an even positive n, by the notationa , where a 0, we denote the non-negative real number x which satisfiess
n
n
the equation x = a. In particular, when n = 2, 2 a is called square root of a, and denoted by a usually..
For odd positive integer n and any real number a, by the notation n
a we denote the real number x which satisfiess
the equation xn = a.
An algebraic expression containing a, where a > 0 is not a perfect square number, is called quadratic surd expression,
1
like 1 2, etc.
2 3
Basic Operat ional Rule s on a
(I) ( a )2 a, where a 0 .
a for a 0,
2
a a 0 for a 0,
(II)
a for a 0,
(III) ab a b if ab 0
a a
(IV) if ab 0, b 0 .
b b
a an
n
(V) if a 0
(VI) a c b c (a b) c if c 0
Laws of Radicals :
If a > 0, b > 0 and n is a positive rational number, then
(i) n a n b n ab
n
a a
(ii) n
n
b b
(iii) m n
a mn a n m
a
Order of Surd :
In the surd n
a , n is called the order of the surd. Thus, the order of 2, 3 3, 4 5 are 2, 3, 4 respectively..
Rationalization of Denominators :
1 a b c d
(I) 2 , where a, b, c, d are rational numbers, b, d 0 and a2b – c2d 0.
a b c d a b c2 d
1 a b c d
(II) 2 , where a, b, c, d are rational numbers, b, d 0 and a2b – c2d 0.
a b c d a b c2 d
In algebra, the expressions A B C and A B C , where A, B, C are rational and C is irrational, are called
led
conjugate surd expre ssions.
The investigation of surd forms is necessary and very important in algebra, since surd forms and irrational number
have close relation. For example, all the numbers of the form n, n are irrational if the positive integer n is
not a perfect square. In other words, the investigation of surd form expressions is the investigation of irrational numbers
and their operations essentially.
12
Illustration-38 : Simplify :
3 5 2 2
12 3 5 2 2
Solution :
3 5 2 2 3 5 2 2
12 3 5 2 2
3 5 2 2
2 2
12 3 5 2 2
66 5
2 3 5 2 2 5 1
5 1 5 1
6 5 6 10 2 5 4 10 4 2
4
4 5 4 10 4 2 4
4
1 5 10 2
• To find the factor which w ill rationalise any given binomial surd.
Case-I :
p q n n
Suppose the given surd is p q
a b . Let a x, b y and let n be the L.C.M. of p and q; then x and y are
both rational.
Now, xn – yn is divisible by (x – y) for all values of n, and xn – yn = (x – y) (xn–1 + xn–2y + xn–3y2 + ... + yn–1).
Thus the rationalising factor is xn–1 + xn–2 y + xn–3 y2 + .... + yn–1; and the rational product is xn – yn.
Case-II :
Suppose the given surd is p q
a b. Let x, y, n have the same meanings as before; then
1. If n is even, xn – yn is divisible by x + y and xn – yn = (x + y) (xn–1 – xn–2y + ..... + xyn–2 – yn–1).
Thus the rationalising factor is xn–1 – xn–2y + ..... + xyn–2 – yn–1; and the rational product is xn – yn.
2. If n is odd, xn + yn is divisible by (x + y) and xn + yn = (x + y) (xn–1 – xn–2y + ..... – xyn–2 + yn–1).
Thus the rationalising factor is xn–1 – xn–2y + ...... – xyn–2 + yn–1; and the rational product is xn + yn.
Illustration-39 : Find the factor which will reationalise 335.
Solution : Let x = (3)1/2, y = (5)1/3
LCM of (2 and 3) = 6
then x6 and y6 are both rational, and x6 – y6 = (x + y) (x5 – x4y + x3y2 – x2y3 + xy4 – y5)
Thus, substituting for x and y, the required factor is
(3)5/2 – (3)4/2 (5)1/3 + (3)3/2 (5)2/3 – (3)2/2 (5)3/3 + (3)1/2 (5)4/3 – (5)5/3
or (3)5/2 – 9.(5)1/3 + (3)3/2(5)2/3 – 15 + (3)1/2 (5)4/3 – (5)5/3
and the rational product is (3)6/2 – (5)6/3 = 33 – 52 = 27 – 25 = 2
Illustration-40 : Express (51/2 + 91/8) ÷(51/2 – 91/8) as an equivalent fraction with a rational denominator.
Solution : To rationalise the denominator, which is equal to 51/2 – 31/4, put 51/2 = x and 31/4 = y; then since
x4 – y4 = (x – y) (x3 + x2y + xy2 + y3)
the required factor is 53/2 + 52/2 • 31/4 + 51/2 • 32/4 + 33/4
and the rational denominator is 54/2 – 34/4 = 52 – 3 = 22
51/2 31/ 4 53/2 52/2 31/4 51/2 32/ 4 33/4
the expression =
22
5 4/2 2.53/2 31/ 4 2.52/2 32/ 4 2.51/2 3 3/ 4 3 4/4
22
14 53/2 31/ 4 5 31/2 51/2 33/ 4
11
Square Root of a Quadrat ic Surd :
Consider the real number a b, where a and b are rational numbers and b is a surd. Equate the square root
of a b to x y, where x and y are rational number, i.e. a b x y .
Squaring both sides, a b x y 2 xy
Equating the rational numbers on the two sides of the above equation,
We get a = x + y …(1)
and equating the irrational numbers, we get
b 2 xy …(2)
By solving (1) and (2), we get the values of x and y.
Similarly, a b x y
Square Root of a Trinomial Quadrat ic Surd :
Consider the real number a b c d , where a is a rational number and b, c and d are surds.
a b c d x y z
By squaring both sides, and comparing rational and irrational parts on either sides, we get,
a b c d x y z 2 xy 2 xz 2 yz
x + y + z = a
2 xy b; 2 xz c; 2 yz d
1 bd 1 bc 1 cd
By solving, we get the values of x, y and z as x , y and z .
2 c 2 d 2 b
Illustration-41 : Find the square root of 21 4 5 8 3 4 15 .
Solution : 21 4 5 8 3 4 15 x y z
21 4 5 8 3 4 15 x y z 2 xy 2 xz 2 yz
Put 2 xy 8 3, 2 xz 4 15, 2 yz 4 5
x + y + z = 21
By multiplication,
xyz = 240 i.e. xyz 4 15
x 2 3, y 2, z 5
Required root is 2 3 2 5
Other Impor tant Re sults :
3 bc
• ab c c
3
x2 k x2 k
• a b a b 2a, a2 b 1 x k 1
Illustration-42 : Find the cube root of 72 32 5 .
Solution : 3 then 3
72 32 5 x y 72 32 5 x y
By multiplication,
5184 1024 5 x 2 y
4 = x2 – y …(1)
Again 72 32 5 x3 3x2 y 3xy y y
72 = x3 + 3xy …(2)
From (1) and (2);
72 = x3 + 3x (x2 – 4)
x3 – 3x = 18
By trial, we find that x = 3
y = 5 and the cube root is 3 5 .
2 3 5
Illustration-43 : Simplify the expression by rationalizing the denominator..
2 3 5
2 3 5 2 5
Solution : 1
2 3 5 2 3 5
2 5 2 3 5 2 10 15 5
1 1
2 3 5
2 2
2 2 3
10 15 5 60 90 5 6 15 10 5 6
1 1 1
6 6 3 2 6
Illustration-44 : Evaluate : 10 11 12 10 11 12 10 11 12 10 11 12
Solution : Let A = 10 11 12 10 11 12 10 11 12 10 11 12
A 10 11 12 10 11 12
2 2 2 2
Then
9 2 10 11 9 2 10 11 81 440 359
Do Yourself - 6
1. Express as equivalent fractions with rational denominator :
1 2 1
(a) (b) (c)
1 2 3 2 3 5 a b ab
2. Find a factor which will rationalise :
(a) 3
3 2 (b) a1/6 + b1/4
3. Find the square root of
(a) 16 2 20 2 28 2 35 (b) 24 4 15 4 21 2 35
4. Find the cube root of
(a) 10 6 3 (b) 99 70 2
x2 1 1
5. Evaluate , when 2x a .
2
x x 1 a
6. Evaluate 5 6 7 5 6 7 5 6 7 5 6 7 .
1 1 2
7. Calculate the value of .
1 5 1 5 1 5
4 4
1 1 1
8. Simplify : P .... .
2 1 2 3 2 2 3 100 99 99 100
2014 4 4 20134 20124 4 20134
9. Calculate the value of : .
20132 40272 20132 40252
4 1 1
10. If x > 0 and x 47, then find the value of x 3 3 .
x4 x
Compound Surds :
Illustration-45 : Find the value of 17 4 13 17 4 13 .
Solution : 17 4 13 17 4 13
13 2 13 2 13 2 13 2 4
Illustration-46 : Evaluate 8 63 8 63 .
2 2
Solution : Let a = 8 63 , b 8 63 , then a + b = 16, ab = 1 so
(a – b)2 = 16 – 2 = 14 a – b = 14
Illustration-47 : Simplify 7 15 16 2 15
Solution : 7 15 16 2 15 7 15 15 1 5 3
Illustration-48 : Given x y 3 5 2 , x y 3 2 5 , find the value of xy.
1
(x y) (x y) , so
2 2
Solution : Since xy
4
1
xy 3 5 2 3 2 5 5 2
4
Illustration-49 : Simplify 4 15 4 15 2 3 5
1 1 5 3
Solution : Since 4 15 8 2 15 5 3
2
2 2 2
1 1 5 3
4 15 8 2 15 5 3
2
2 2 2
1 1 5 1
3 5 62 5 5 1
2
2 2 2
so 4 15 4 15 2 3 5
5 3 5 3 2 5 1 2
2
2 2
Illustration-50 : Simplify M 2 2 2 5 2 2 2 5 .
2 2
Solution : Let a 2 2 2 5 , b 2 2 2 5 . Then a + b = 4 and
ab 4 2 2 5 6 2 5 5 1
(a b)2 4 2 5 1 6 2 5 5 1 , so
2
Therefore
M a b 5 1
Illustration-51 : Simplify 7 2 1 3 1 5
Solution : Considering that 7 2 1 3 1 5 9 2 3 2 5 2 15 , where the coefficients of the terms
of 3, 5, 15 are all 2, it is natural to use the coefficient determining method, assume that
7 2 1 3 1 5 a b c .
Taking squares on both sides yields
9 2 3 2 5 2 15 a b c 2 ab 2 ac 2 bc
By the comparison of coefficients, the following system of equations is obtained :
a + b + c = 9 (1)
ab = 3 (2)
ac = 5 (3)
bc = 15 (4)
(2) (3) (4) yields (abc) = 15 , i.e.., abc = 15.
2 2
So a = 1 from (4), b = 3 from (3), and c = 5 from (1).
Thus, 7 2 1 3 1 5 1 3 5
4 3 2
x 6x 2x 18x 23
Illustration-52 : Find the value of when x 19 8 3 .
x2 8x 15
Solution : x 19 8 3 4 3 4 3 yields 4 x 3 .
2
By taking squares, it follows that x2 – 8x + 13 = 0
Hence, by long division, at x 19 8 3 the value of
x4 – 6x3 – 2x2 + 18x + 23 = (x2 – 8x + 13) (x2 + 2x + 1) + 10 = 10
The value of x2 – 8x + 15 at x 19 8 3 is 2.
10
So value of the given expression is = 5.
2
Illustration-53 : Given that the integer part and fractional part of 37 20 3 are x and y respectively. Find the value
4
of x y .
y
Solution : 37 20 3 5 2 3 1 2 2 3 implies that
x = 1 and y 2 2 3
4 2
Hence, xy 52 3 5 2 3 2 2 3 9
y 2 3
a 1 a
5
a 1 a
5
Illustration-54 : Simplify : 3 3
a 1 a a a 1
a 1 a
5
a 1 a
5
Solution : 3 3
a 1 a a a 1
3
a 1 a
6 3
a 1 a
6
a 1 a a 1 a 4 a(a 1)
2 2
Illustration-55 : Simplify : x 2 3 2x 5 x 2 2x 5
(y 2 5)
Solution : 2x 5 y, then y 0 and x , so that
2
x 2 3 2x 5 x 2 2x 5
1 2
y 5 2 3y 1 (y2 5) 2 y
2 2
1 1
y 2 6y 9 y 2 2y 1
2 2
1 1 2
(y 3) (y 1) 2
2 2 2
Do Yourself - 7
2 2
1. Find the value of .
52 6 52 6
2. Simplify : 8 2 2 5 2 7 .
3. Find the value of 2 2 2 2...... 2 2 2 2 ...... .
2
4. Given that y is the nearest integer of 3 3 , find the value of 94 y .
3
3 1
1
5. Find the nearest integer of .
17 12 2
1 x 2 x2 4x
6. Given x a , find the value of .
a x 2 x2 4x
a 8 a 1 3 a 8 a 1
7. Simplify 3 a a .
3 3 3 3
8. Evaluate a 3 4 a 1 a 3 4 a 1 .
9. Simplify 2 ab a b, where a b.
10. Simplify 1 a2 1 a 2 a 4 .
Tele scoping Sums, Serie s and Products :
The term telescoping sum applies to an expression of the form
n
(a(k 1) a(k))
k 0
(a(1) – a(0)) + (a(2) – a(1)) + (a(3) – a(2)) + ..... + (a(n + 1) – a(n))
and observe that all the intermediate terms in the sum cancel out, leaving the last and the first :
a(n + 1) – a(0)
n n n n 1 n
Also, (a(k 1) a(k)) a(k 1) a(k) a(k) a(k)
k 0 k 0 k 0 k 1 k 0
n n
a(k) a(n 1) a(k) a(0)
k 1 k 1
= a(n + 1) – a(0)
• The concept of telescoping extends to finite and infinite products.
n
f(k 1) f(n 1)
e.g.
k 1 f(k) f(1)
1 a 2 ?
k
Illustration-56 :
k 0
Solution : For a fixed n > 0,
1 a 2 .
n k
Let f(a) = Then
k 0
f(a) = (1 + a) (1 + a2) (1 + a4) .... 1 a2
n
(1 – a) f(a) = (1 – a) (1 + a) (1 + a2) (1 + a4) ..... 1 a2
n
= (1 – a2) (1 + a2) (1 + a4) .... 1 a2
n
= (1 – a4) (1 + a4) .... 1 a2
n
= ......
1 a 2 1 a2
n n
1 a 2
n 1
n 1
1 a2
f(a) .
1 a
1 a 2 1 a .
k1
Now assuming, 0 < a < 1 and passing to the limit,
k 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
Illustration-57 : Evaluate the product 1 1 1 ..... 1 1 1
2 3 4 97 98 99
3 4 5 98 99 100
Solution : ......
2 3 4 97 98 99
100
50
2
49
Illustration-58 : Evaluate 3k 2 3k 1
k 0
49 49 49 49
Solution : Method-1 : Power sums 3k 2 3k 1 3 k 2 3 k 1
k 0 k 0 k 0 k 0
(49)(50)(99) 49(50)
3 3 2 50(1)
6
= 125000
49 49
Method-2 : Telescopic Sums (3k 2 3k 1) (k 3 3k 2 3k 1) k 3
k 0 k 0
49
(k 1)3 k 3
k 0
= 503 – 493 + 493 – 483 + 483 – 473 + ...... + 13 – 03
= 503 = 125000
(4 7 2)(6 9 2)(8 11 2).....(100 103 2)
Illustration-59 : Evaluate : .
(5 8 2)(7 10 2)(9 12 2).....(99 102 2)
Solution : From n(n + 3) + 2 = n2 + 3n + 2 = (n + 1) (n + 2) for any integer n, we have
(4 7 2)(6 9 2)(8 11 2).....(100 103 2)
(5 8 2)(7 10 2)(9 12 2).....(99 102 2)
(5 6)(7 8)(9 10).....(101 102)
=
(6 7)(8 9)(10 11).....(100 101)
= 5 102 = 510.
1 1 1
Illustration-60 : ..... to
1.4 4.7 7.10
1 1 1
Solution : ..... to
1.4 4.7 7.10
1 3 3 3
= .... to
3 1.4 4.7 7.10
1 4 – 1 7 – 4 10 – 7
= .... to
3 1.4 4.7 7.10
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1– – – .... to
3 4 4 7 7 10
1 1
3 3
1 1 1 1
Illustration-61 : The value of (1 – 2 ) (1 – 2 ) (1 – 2 ) . . . (1 – ) is
2 3 4 2007 2
2008 1004 2007
(1) (2) (3) (4) 1
2007 2007 2008
1 1 1 1 1
Solution : 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 ... 1
2 3 4 5 2007 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 1 1 1 ... 1 1 2007
2 2 3 3 2007
1 3 2 4 3 5 2006 2008
=
2 2 3 3 4 4 2007 2007
1 2008 1004
= .
2 2007 2007
3 3 3 3
Illustrati on-62 Calculate : ... .
1 4 4 7 7 10 19 22
3 3 3 3
Solution : ...
1 4 4 7 7 10 19 22
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 21
= ... 1
1 4 4 7 7 19 19 22 22 22
Do Yourself - 8
1 1 1 1 1 1
1. Evaluate the sum ...... .
2 6 12 20 380 420
1 1 1 1 1 1
2. Evaluate the sum ..... .
12 2 3 3 4 4 5 19 20 20 21
1 1 1 1 1 1
3. Evaluate .
3 15 35 63 99 143
1 1 1 1 1
4. Find the sum + + + + .
5 7 7 9 9 11 11 13 13 15
1 1 1 1 1
5. Find the sum .
10 40 88 154 238
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6. Evaluate ... 1 2 ... 2008 – 1 3 4 ... 2009 2 3 ... 2008 .
3 4 2009
3 2 1 5 2 1 72 1 99 2 1
7. Calculate + 2 + 2 +...+ 2 .
3 1 5 1 7 1
2
99 1
RATIO AND PROPORTION :
a
If a and b be two quantities of the same kind, then their ratio is a : b; which may be denoted by the fraction .
b
(This may be an integer or fraction)
In the ratio a : b, a is the first term (Antecedent) and b is the second term (Consequent).
a ma na
A ratio may represented in a number of ways e.g. ..... where m, n, .... are non-zero numbers.
b mb nb
Let a, b, c, d be positive integers now to compare two ratios a : b and c : d we use following :
• (a : b) > (c : d) if ad > bc
• (a : b) = (c : d) if ad = bc
• (a : b) < (c : d) if ad < bc
To compare two or more ratios, reduce them to common denominator.
Note :
a ax 41 45
• If a > b > 0 and x > 0, then , e.g.
b bx 40 44
a ax
• If 0 < a < b and x > 0, then .
b bx
Illustration-63 : What term must be added to each term of the ratio 5 : 37 to make it equal to 1 : 3?
Solution : Let x be added to each term of the ratio 5 : 37.
x5 1
Then 3x + 15 = x + 37 i.e. x = 11
x 37 3
Illustration-64 : If x : y = 3 : 4; find the ratio of 7x – 4y : 3x + y.
x 3 3
Solution : x y
y 4 4
3
7 y 4y
7x 4y
4
Now 3x y 3 (putting the value of x)
3 y y
4
5y 5
i.e. 5 : 13.
13y 13
Proportion :
When two ratios are equal, then the four quantities composing them are said to be proportional.
a c
So, if , then it is written as a : b = c : d or a : b :: c : d.
b d
Where ‘a’ and ‘d’ are known as extremes and ‘b and c’ are known as means.
(i) An important property of proportion : Product of extremes = Product of means.
a c e ac e
(ii) If then each is equal to .
b d f bdf
(iii) If a : b = c : d, then b : a = d : c (Invertando)
a c b d
i.e.
b d a c
(iv) If a : b = c : d, then a : c = b : d (Alternando)
a c a b
i.e.
b d c d
ab cd
(v) If a : b = c : d, then (Componendo)
b d
a c a c
i.e. 1 1
b d b d
ab cd
(vi) If a : b = c : d, then (Dividendo)
b d
a c a c
i.e. 1 1
b d b d
ab cd
(vii) If a : b = c : d, then (Componendo and dividendo)
ab cd
a c a c ab cd
i.e. 1 1 …(1)
b d b d b d
a c ab cd
1 1 …(2)
b d b d
Dividing equation (1) by (2) we obtain
ab cd
ab cd
x y z x 3 a 3 y 3 b 3 z 3 c 3 (x y z)3 (a b c)3
Illustration-65 : If show that 2 .
a b c x a 2 y 2 b 2 z 2 c 2 (x y z)2 (a b c)2
x y z
Solution : k (constant)
a b c
x = ak; y = bk; z = ck
substituting these values of x, y, z in the given expression, we obtain
a 3 k 3 a 3 b3 k 3 b3 c 3 k 3 c 3
L.H.S. =
a 2 k 2 a 2 b2 k 2 b2 c 2 k 2 c 2
a 3 (k 3 1) b3 (k 3 1) c 3 (k 3 1) (k 3 1)
(a b c)
a 2 (k 2 1) b2 (k 2 1) c 2 (k 2 1) (k 2 1)
(ak bk ck)3 (a b c)3
Now R.H.S. =
(ak bk ck)2 (a b c)2
k 3 (a b c)3 (a b c)3
k 2 (a b c)2 (a b c)2
(k 3 1)(a b c)3 (k 3 1)
(a b c) L.H.S.
(k 2 1)(a b c)2 (k 2 1)
a b c d
Illustration-66 : If , prove that (ab + bc + cd + de)2 = (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2) (b2 + c2 + d2 + e2)
b c d e
a b c d
Solution : , then we have
b c d e
a b c d (a 2 b2 c 2 d 2 )
k (say)
b c d e (b2 c 2 d 2 e 2 )
i.e. a = bk ab = b2k
b = ck bc = c2k
c = dk cd = d2k
d = ek de = e2k
So, (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2) = k2 (b2 + c2 + d2 + e2) …(i)
2
Now L.H.S. = (ab + bc + cd + de)
= (kb2 + kc2 + kd2 + ke2)2
= k2(b2 + c2 + d2 + e2)2
= k2(b2 + c2 + d2 + e2) (b2 + c2 + d2 + e2)
= (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2) (b2 + c2 + d2 + e2) = R.H.S. (by use of (i))
3x 4 x2 2x 3 5x 4 2x 2 7x 3
Illustration-67 : Solve the equation
3x 4 x2 2x 3 5x 4 2x 2 7x 3
3x 4 x2 2x 3 5x 4 2x2 7x 3
Solution :
3x 4 x2 2x 3 5x 4 2x2 7x 3
Applying componendo and dividendo, we have
3x 4 5x 4
x 2 2x 3 2x2 7x 3
or 3x4 (2x2 – 7x + 3) – 5x4(x2 – 2x – 3) = 0
or x4 [6x2 – 21x + 9 – 5x2 + 10x + 15] = 0
or x4 (x2 – 11x + 24) = 0
x = 0 or x2 – 11x + 24 = 0
x = 0 or (x – 8) (x – 3) = 0
x = 0, 8, 3
Do Yourself - 9
a 2 b 4 ab
1, If and , then find value of .
b 3 c 5 bc
a 3 b 7
2. If and , then find the value of a : b : c.
b 5 c 13
p
3. If sum of two numbers is s and their quotient is . Find number..
q
a c e 2a 4 b2 3a 2 c 2 5e 4 f
4. If , then find the value of in terms of a and b.
b d f 2b6 3b2 d 2 5f 5
5. If x : a = y : b = z : c, then show that (a2 + b2 + c2) (x2 + y2 + z2) = (ax + by + cz)2.
Solved Examples
Example-1 : Solve : 3
20 14 2 3 20 14 2
Solution : Let 3
20 14 2 3 20 14 2 x
Cubing both sides, x3 20 14 2 20 14 2 3 3 (20 14 2 )(20 14 2) 3 20 14 2 3 20 14 2
x3 40 3x 3 400 392
x3 40 6x
x3 6x 40 0
By solving cubic polynomial, we get; x = 4 is a root of this equation.
The other two roots are complex, and hence x can only equal 4.
Try solving this by finding cube root of both the expression and check whether the result is same.
Example-2 : Solve in real numbers the equation 3
x 1 3 x 3 x 1 0.
1
Solution : Using the identity a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) [(a – b)2 + (b – c)2 + (c – a)2]
2
Let a 3 x 1, b 3 x, c 3 x 1
We transform the equation into the equivalent.
(x 1) x (x 1) 3 3 (x 1)x(x 1) 0
x 3 x3 x
Raising both sides to the third power, we obtain x3 = x3 – x.
We conclude that the equation has the unique solution x = 0.
49
1
Example-3 : Express as a b 2 for some integers a and b.
n 1 n n2 1
1 1 1
Solution : We have
2
n 1
2 n 1 n 1
n n 1 n 1
2 2
2 2
n 1 n 1
2 2 n 1 n 1
n 1 n 1 2 2
2 2
49 1 48 1 1
Hence the sum from the statement telescopes to 0
2 2 2
7 1
5 53 2
2 2
9999
1
Example-4 : Prove that 9
n 1
n n 1 4 n 4 n 1
Solution : The sum telescopes once we rewrite the general term as
4
1 n 1 4 n
n n 1 4 n 4 n 1 n 1 n 4 n 1 4 n 4 n 1 4 n
4
n 1 4 n
n 1 n n 1 n
4
n 1 4 n 4
n 1 4 n
n 1n
The sum from the statement is therefore equal to 4
10000 1 10 1 9 .
Example-5 : Let x, y, z [0, 1], then the maximum value of M = xy yz z x is ......
Solution : We may assume 0 x y z 1 . Then M y x z y z x .
Since y x z x 2[(y x) (z y)] 2(z x)
We have M 2(z x) z x 2 1 z x 2 1
The equality holds if and only if
1
y – x = z – y, x = 0, z = 1 {i.e. x = 0, y = , z = 1}
2
M max 2 1
Example-6 : Factorise the polynomial x8 + x4 + 1 into factors of at most the second degree.
Solution : x8 + x4 + 1 = x8 + 2x4 + 1 – x4
= (x4 + 1)2 – x4
= (x4 + x2 + 1) (x4 – x2 + 1)
= (x4 + 2x2 + 1 – x2) (x4 + 2x2 + 1 – 3x2)
= [(x2 + 1)2 – x2] [(x2 + 1)2 – (x 3 )2 ]
= (x2 + x + 1) (x2 – x + 1) (x2 x 3 1) (x2 x 3 1)
The polynomial has been decomposed into four factors of the second degree. Since none of those factors
has real roots, the factors cannot be further decomposed in the domain of real numbers.
13 1 1
Example-7 : Find x knowing that x a, where a is given number..
x13 x
Solution : We shall approach the problem in a more general manner and show that for any natural k we can find
1 1
xk given x . It will be observed that
x k x
m 1 n 1 m n 1 1
x m x n x m n x m n m n
x x x x
1 1 1 m n 1
xmn x m m xn n x m n …(1)
x m n x x x
k 1
Equation (1) allows us to reduce the evaluation of x to the evaluation of expressions of the same
xk
form but with a lower exponent formulas of this kind are called recursive formulas.
If n = 1, (1) gives
1 1 1 m 1 1
x m 1 xm m
m 1 x x m 1 …(2)
x x x x
and if n = m, we obtained
2
1 1
x2m xm m 2 …(3)
x2m x
13 1 1
We shall use the above formulas to find x 13 given x a.
x x
By formula (3),
2
1 1
x2 x 2 a2 2
x 2
x
2
1 1
x4 4
x2 2 2 a 4 4a 2 2
x x
By formula (2),
1 1 1 1
x3 x2 2 3
x x a 3a
x3
x x x
2
1 3 1
x6 x 3 2 a 6 6a 4 9a 2 2
x6 x
Then, by using formula (1), we obtain
1 1 1 1
x7 x 4 4 x3 3 x
x7
x x x
= (a4 – 4a2 + 2) (a3 – 3a) – a
= a7 – 7a5 + 14a3 – 7a
and finally,
1 1 1 1
x13 x7 7 x 6 6 x
x13 x x x
= (a7 – 7a5 + 14a3 – 7a) (a6 – 6a4 + 9a2 – 2) – a
= a13 – 13a11 + 65a9 – 156a7 + 182a5 – 91a3 + 13a
(20202 20100)(201002 1002 )(20002 20100)
Example-8 : Evaluate
2010 6 106
Solution : Let x = 2010 and y = 10
The numerator becomes [(x + y)2 – xy] • (x2y2 – y2y2)•[(x – y)2 + xy]
(x2 + xy + y2)•y2(x – y)(x + y)•(x2 – xy + y2)
y2(x3 – y3) (x3 + y3)
y2 (x6 – y6)
Denominator becomes x6 – y6
y 2 (x 6 y 6 )
y2
x6 y 6
Hence, the answer is 100.
8 x 27x 7
Example-9 : Find all real numbers x for which x x
.
12 18 6
Solution : By setting 2x = a and 3x = b, the equation becomes
a3 b3 7
2 2
a bb a 6
a2 ab b2 7
ab 6
6a2 – 13ab + 6b2 = 0
(2a – 3b) (3a – 2b) = 0
2x+1 = 3x+1 or 2x–1 = 3x–1
x = –1 x=1
Example-10 : For all real numbers x satisfying the equation 2x + 3x – 4x + 6x – 9x = 1.
Solution : Setting 2x = a and 3x = b, the equation becomes 1 + a2 + b2 – a – b – ab = 0.
Multiplying both sides of the last equation by 2 and completing the square gives
(1 – a)2 + (a – b)2 + (b – 1)2 = 0
1 = 2x = 3x, and x = 0 is the only solution.
1
Example-11 : Resolve into the simplest partial fractions .
(x 1)(x2 1)(x3 1)
Solution : Consider the given expression as
1 a b c d ex f
2 …(A)
(x 1)(x 1) (x x 1) x 1 (x 1) (x 1)
3 2 2
(x 1) 3
x x 1
We first find e and f. Multiply both sides of (A) by x2 + x + 1, and then let x2 + x + 1 = 0.
1
This gives ex f, when x2 + x + 1 = 0.
(x 1)(x 1)3
We have x2 = –x – 1 and x3 = 1, hence we find that
(x – 1)3 = x3 – 3x2 + 3x – 1 = 3(x + 1) + 3x = 3(2x + 1)
and (x + 1) (x – 1)3 = 3(2x2 + 3x + 1) = 3(x – 1)
It follows that
1 = 3(x – 1) (ex + f) = 3{ex2 – (e – f)x – f}
3(f – 2e)x – 3(e + f) = 1
This relation holds for two values of x (namely the roots of x2 + x + 1 = 0)
f – 2e = 0 and 1 = –3(e + f),
giving e = –1/9 and f = –2/9
Next, multiply (A) by x + 1, and then let x = –1;
1
a
8
Multiply (A) by (x – 1)3, then let x = 1;
1
d
6
Multiply (A) by x, and let x
O=a+b+e
17
b=
72
In (A), let x = 0, –1 = a – b + c – d + f
c = –1/4
1 1 1 17 1 1 1 1 1 1 x2
2
2 3
(x 1)(x 1)(x 1) 8 x 1 72 x 1 4 (x 1) 2
6 (x 1) 3
9 x x 1
Example-12 : Prove that n2 + n is even for all natural numbers n.
Solution : Let p(n) be n2 + n is even.
p(1) is true as 12 + 1 = 2 is an even number.
Let p(k) be true.
Now, we have to prove that p(k + 1) is also true.
p(k + 1) states that (k + 1)2 + (k + 1) is even.
Now, (k + 1)2 + (k + 1)
= k2 + 2k + 1 + k + 1
= k2 + k + 2k + 2
= 2 + 2k + 2
[ p(k) is true, k2 + k is an even number, or can be written as 2, where is some natural number.]
= 2 ( + k + 1)
= a multiple of 2
Thus, (k + 1)2 + (k + 1) is an even number, or p(k + 1) is true when p(k) is true.
Hence, by PMI, p(n) is true for all n, where n N.
Example-13 : Prove that 23n – 1 is a multiple of 7 for all n, where n is a natural number.
Solution : Let p(n) be the statement, 23n – 1 is a multiple of 7.
Clearly, p(1) is true, as 7 is a multiple of 7,
Let p(k) be true i.e. let 23k – 1 be a multiple of 7 or 23k – 1 = 7,
where is some natural number. Now,
23(k + 1) –1 = 23k+3 – 1
= 23k • 23 – 1
= (23k – 1 + 1)•8 – 1
= (7 + 1) 8 – 1 ( p(k) is true)
= 56 + 8 – 1
= 56 + 7 = 7(8 + 1)
= a multiple of 7.
So, p(k + 1) is true when p(k) is true. Hence, by PMI. p(n) is true for all n.
x a b 6a
Example-14 : Solve 2 3
a x a b
x a 1
Solution : y; then
a x y
3 b 6a
2y
y a b
2aby2 – 6a2y – b2y + 3ab = 0
(2ay – b) (by – 3a) = 0
b 3a
y or
2a b
x b2 9a2
2 or
a 4a b2
b2 9a 3
x or
4a b2
Example-15 : Let a, b, c, d, e be real numbers. Prove that the expression (a – b) (a – c) (a – d) (a – e) + (b – a)
(b – c) (b – d) (b – e) + (c – a) (c – b) (c – d) (c – e) + (d – a) (d – b) (d – c) (d – e) + (e – a) (e – b) (e – c)
(e – d) is non-negative.
Solution : Without loss of generality, we may assume that a b c d e.
Then a – b = –(b – a) 0
a – c b – c 0, a – d b – d 0
and a – e b – e 0 and hence
(a – b) (a – c) (a – d) (a – e) + (b – a) (b – c) (b – d) (b – e) 0
Analogously, (d – a) (d – b) (d – c) (d – e) + (e – a) (e – b) (e – c) (e – d) 0
Finally, (c – a) (c – b) (c – d) (c – e) 0 as a product of two non-negative numbers, from which the inequality.
EXERCISE - 1
1. Find the positive real solutions of the equation x 2 x ... 2 x 2 3x x .
1 1 1
2. Find the sum ..... .
1 2 2 3 n n 1
3. Let be a root of unity. Prove that 1 n (1 )(1 2 )....(1 n ) with the convention that the 0thh term of the
n0
series is 1.
4. Let a n 3n n 2 1 and b n 2 n2 n n2 n , n 1.
Show that a1 b1 a 2 b 2 .... a 49 b 49 A B 2 for some integers A and B.
5. Solve the equation x 3 4 x 1 x 8 6 x 1 1.
6. Let a, b be real numbers, and f(x) = ax + b satisfies |f(x)| 1 for any x [0, 1]. Then the maximum of ab is ........
7. Factorise the expression a(b – c)3 + b(c – a)3 + c(a – b)3.
ab bc ca
8. Prove that if 0 then at least two of the numbers a, b, c are equal. (Try solving using Trigonometric
1 ab 1 bc 1 ca
identities too)
9. Find the value of number 143 153 163 .... 243 253 .
10. Prove that the number 3
45 29 2 3 45 29 2 is a rational number..
3 3 2001
11. Evaluate 1! 2! 3! 2! 3! 4! ..... 1999! 2000! 2001! .
1 1 1 1 n(n 3)
12. Prove that .... for all n, where n is a natural number..
12 3 23 4 3 4 5 n(n 1)(n 2) 4(n 1)(n 2)
13. Prove that for any positive integer number n, n3 + 2n is divisible by 3.
14. Find the square root of 7 24 1 .
m
15. If the value of x for |x – 1| = |x – 2| is of the form , where m and n are co-primes, then find value of m + n.
n
16. If one root of a x b x a b is 2012, then find the possible values of ‘a’ and ‘b’.
2014 4 4 20134 20124 4 20134
17. Calculate the value of 2 2
.
2013 4027 20132 40252
52 6 43
3/2
52 6 43
3/2
18. Find the value of .
18
x y z x y z x(y z) y(z x) z(x y)
19. If , prove that .
bca cab abc abc 2(ax by cz)
x 1 x 1 4x 1
20. Solve the equation .
x 1 x 1 2
mx n
21. Resolve into partial fractions.
(x a)(x b)
22. Find the cube root of 9 3 11 2 .
1 1 1
23. Find all positive integers x, y satisfying .
x y 20
8 x 27x 7
24. Find all real numbers x for which x x
.
12 18 6
25. Solve the equation x3 3x x 2 .
26. Find all real numbers x satisfying the equation 2x + 3x – 4x + 6x – 9x = 1.
2
27. Solve the equation 2(2x – 1)x2 + (2x – 2)x = 2x+1 – 2 for real numbers x.
a a 2 4ab 4b 2
28. Simplify the expression .
a 2b a(2b a)
7 3 7 3
29. Given x , y , find the value of x4 + y4 + (x + y)4.
7 3 7 3
x 2 4x 3 (x 1) x 2 9
30. Simplify the expression , where x > 3.
x 2 4x 3 (x 1) x 2 9
EXERCISE - 2
1. Prove that 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 .... 3 .
x y y z
2. Find all triples (m, n, p) of positive integers such that m + n + p = 2002 and the system of equations m; n;
y x z y
z x
p has at least one solution in non-zero real numbers.
x z
4n 4n2 1
3. Let a n ; for n 1 . Prove that a1 + a2 + .... + a40 is a positive integer..
2n 1 2n 1
4. How many different integer solutions to the inequality |x| + |y| < 100 are there ?
5. Factorize the expression (x + a)7 – (x7 + a7).
2x 7 a b
6. Find numbers a, b, c, d for which the equation would be an identity..
4x 16x 15 x c x d
2
7. Solve the equation |x| + |x – 1| + |x – 2| = a where ‘a’ denotes a given positive number.
x3 m3 x3 n3 x3 p3 3(x m)(x n)(x p) 3
8. Find all real x which satisfy .
(x m) 3
(x n) 3
(x p) 3
2(x m)(x n)(x p) 2
1 1
9. The number 1, ,........, are written on a blackboard. A student chooses any two of the numbers, say x, y erasess
2 2010
them and then writes down x + y + xy. He continues to do this until only one number is left on the blackboard. What is
this number?
10. Let x, y and z be complex numbers such that x + y + z = 2, x2 + y2 + z2 = 3, xyz = 4.
1 1 1
Evaluate .
xy z 1 yz x 1 zx y 1
11. Find a triple of rational numbers (a, b, c) such that 3 3
2 1 3
a3b3c.
(n 1)! 1
12. Let x be a positive real number. Prove that (x 1).........(x n) x .
n 1
13. Prove that n! > 2n for n being a positive integer greater than or equal to 4.
14. Solve : 8x3/2n – 8x–3/2n = 63
3x 2 x 2
15. Find the general term of when expanded in a series of ascending powers of x.
(x 2)2 (1 2x)
7x
16. Expand in ascending powers of x and find the general term.
(1 x)(1 x 2 )
3
17. Find the square root of (x 1) 2x2 7x 4 .
2
9
18. Suppose a, b are positive real numbers such that a a b b 183, a b b a 182. Find (a b) .
5
19. Find polynomials f(x), g(x) and h(x), if they exist, such that for all x,
1 if x 1
f(x) g(x) h(x) 3x 2 if 1 x 0
2x 2 if x0
20. Let x a 2 a 1 a2 a 1, a R. Find all possible values of x.
21. Find all real numbers x for which 10x + 11x + 12x = 13x + 14x.
n
1
22. Evaluate : (n k)! (n k)! .
k 0
23. What is the coefficient of x2 when (1 + x) (1 + 2x) (1 + 4x) ...... (1 + 2nx) is expanded?
x2 3 x2 3
24. If 5 2 6 5 2 6 10, then x = .......................
c 2 c 1 c 2 c 1 c c 1
25. Given that c > 1 and x , y , z arrange x, y, z in ascending
c c 1 c 1 c c 2 c 1
order.
1 3x x 2 2 x
26. Let x be a real number, and let A . Prove that A is an integer, and find the unit digit of
1 x 2x
A2023.
1
3 4 2 1
27. Simplify 33 3 3 .
9 9 9
Given that the decimal part of M 13 11 is P, find the value of M(1 – P).
6
28.
x 4 6x3 2x 2 18x 23
29. Find the value of when x 19 8 3 .
x2 8x 15
1
30. Find the nearest integer of .
17 12 2
ANSWER KEY
Do Yourself - 1
1. 4 2. 5 2 7
Do Yourself - 2
1. (3a – 1) (3b – 1)
2 2
2. (2x – y + 1)(x + 4y – 2) 3. r4 4. 45
5. 9(x2 + 4x + 1)(x + 1)2 6. 31 7. (a–d)(b+c)(a+b–c+d)(a–b+c+d)
8. 3abxy(a+b)(x+y) 9. 8 10. (a+b+c)(a2+b2+c2)
Do Yourself - 3
9
1. x = 2, 4 2. x = –2, 2, 4 3. x 15,
5
4. x1 = 1, x2 = –15 5. x=5
Do Yourself - 4
4 3 3 2 1 6 5
1. (a) (b ) (c )
x 2 x 1 x x 1 x 3 x 1 (x 1)2
3 2x 4 1 2x 1 x
(d ) 2 (e)
x 1 x 1 (x 1) x2 2x 2 (x2 2x 2)2
Do Yourself - 6
2 2 6 3 6 15 a b b a ab(a b)
1. (a) (b ) (c )
4 6 2ab
2. (a) 35/3 + 34/3 • 21/2 + 3.2 + 32/3 • 23/2 + 31/3 • 22 + 25/2
(b ) a11/6 – a10/6 • b1/4 + a9/6 b1/2 – ..... + a1/6 b10/4 – b11/4
3. (a) 5 7 2 (b ) 5 7 2 3
4. (a) 1 3 (b ) 32 2
a 1 9
5. 6. 104 7. –1 8. 9. 0 10. 18
2 10
Do Yourself - 7
1. 4 2. 2 5 7 3. 0 4. 1 5. 6
4, if 1 a 5
6. a2 7. 2 8. 9. A a b
2 a 1, if a 5
2 a2 a 1 a2 a 1
10.
2
Do Yourself - 8
20 20 6 1 5 2007 49
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 49
21 21 13 15 17 4018 100
Do Yourself - 9
20 sp sq a4
1. 2. 21 : 35 : 65 3. , 4.
27 pq pq b4
EXERCISE - 1 EXERCISE - 2
2. (2, 1000, 1000), (1000, 2, 1000), (1000, 1000, 2)
4. 19801 integer solution
1. x=3
2 2
2. n 1 1 1 i 3 1i 3
5. 7ax (x a) x a x a
2 2
4. A B 2 5 4 2
5 5 3
6. a = 3, b = ,c= ,d=
5. 5 x 10 2 2 2
6. 1/4 7. If a < 2, equation has no solution.
7. (a – b) (b – c) (c – a) (a + b + c) If a = 2, x = 1
If 2 < a < 3, x = 3 – a, x = a – 1
9. 312
(3 a) a3
1 1 If a 3, x , x
11. 3 3
2 2001!
8. x1,2 = 0; x3,4 = ± mp np mn
14. 3 4 1
x5,6 = mn np mn
15. 5
9. 2010
17. 0
2
18. 46 10.
9
5
20.
4 4 2 1
11. , ,
9 9 9
1 ma n mb n
21. 1
(a b) x a xb 14. x = 22n or
22n
22. 3 2 2r 5 1 r 1 r
15. r r x
23. {(45, 180), (80, 80), (180, 45)} 3 6 2 2
24. x = ±1 1
17. 2x 1 x 4
4 4 2
25. x = 2, x 2 cos , x 2 cos
5 7 18. 73
26. x=0 (3x 3) 5x 1
19. f(x); g(x) & h(x) x
27. x = –1, 0, and 1 2 2 2
20. x (–1, 1)
a 21. x=2
28.
2b a
22n 1 1
29. 1152 22. Sn
(2n)! 2(n!)2
x2 9 2n 1 1 2n 1 2
30.
x3 23.
3
24. x = ±2
26. Unit digit = 3
27. 3
2 1
28. 64
29. 5
30. 6
POLYNOMIALS
Introduction :
An expression of the form f (x) a 0 x n a1x n 1 a 2 x n 2 ..... a n 1x a n .
in which a0, a1, a2, ....., an are called coefficients (constants free from x) and n is a non-negative integer, is called polynomial
in x.
Leading Coefficient and Leading Term :
If a 0 0 , the polynomial is of degree n, a0xn is the leading term, and a0 is the leading coefficient. Also, an is the constant
term.
A non - zero univariate polynomial (that is , a polynomial in a single variable ) in which the leading coefficient is equal to
1.
Degree of a Polynomial :
In a polynomial, degree is the highest power of x having non-zero coefficient.
• Degree of a polynomial is unique and can only be greater or equal to.
Thus, f(x) = 2 is also a polynomial with degree 0. It is called a constant polynomial.
• Degree of a polynomial is a whole number.
Number of terms in a Polynomial :
It is the number of distinct terms in a polynomial in irreducible form.
Zero Polynomial :
f(x) = a for some constant value a is called constant polynomial. When the value of constant is Zero, f(x) is called Zero
polynomial
• Degree of Zero Polynomial is not defined while degree of other constant polynomials is 0 .
Note : All the powers of the variable in different terms of any polynomial should be whole numbers, otherwise it will not
be called as a polynomial
E.g.: x4 + x2 + 2, it will be a polynomial as the power of variables in the terms are 4,2 and 0 respectively.
1 1
x1/2 + x + 4, will not be called a polynomial as the power of x are , 1 and 0 out of which is not a whole number..
2 2
Different Type s of Polynomials :
Based on Degrees :
(1) Zero Degree Polynomial : Any non-zero number (constant) is regarded as a polynomial of degree zero or zero degree
polynomial i.e. f(x) = a, where a 0 is a zero degree polynomial
The constant c = cx0 is called Polynomial of degree zero.
(2) Linear Polynomial : The polynomial f(x) = ax + b, a 0 is of degree one and is called a linear Polynomial.
(3) Quadratic Polynomials : The polynomial f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a 0 is of degree two and is called a quadratic
Polynomial.
(4) Cubic Polynomial : The polynomial f(x) ax3 bx2 cx d, a 0 is of degree three and is called a cubic Polynomial.
(5) Biquadratic Polynomial/Quartic Polynomial : The Polynomial f(x) ax 4 bx3 cx2 dx e, a 0 is of degree
four and is called a biquadratic/Quartic Polynomial.
Based on Number of Terms :
(1) Monomial : A polynomial is said to be a monomial if it has only one term.
e.g. x, 8x2, 4x3, ..........
(2) Binomial :- A polynomial is said to be a binomial if it contains two terms.
e.g. 2x2 x, 5x 2 3x, 8x 4 4
(3) Trinomial : A polynomial is said to be a trinomial if it contains three terms.
e.g. x3 x2 x, x 4 4x 1.. ....
Multivariate Polynomials/Homogeneous Polynomial :
A Polynomial in more than one variable is called multivariate polynomial.
e.g. P(x, y) x 3 y 2 7x 2 y 3 3x 5
P(x, y) is a bivariate polynomial of degree 5.
Illustration-1 : Factorize the following polynomial consisting of vanishes x, y, z.
f(x, y,z) x 3 y x 2 y 2 x 3 z x 2 yz y 3 x xzy 2 y 4 zy 3
Solution : Rearranging the expression and grouping we get
x 3 y zx 3 x 2 y 2 x 2 yz y 3 x y 2 xz y 4 y 3 z
x 3 (y z) x2 y(x z) y 2 x(y z) y 3 (y z)
(y z)(x 3 x 2 y y 2 x y 3 )
(y z)(x 3 xy 2 x2 y y 3 )
(x z) x(x2 y 2 ) y(x 2 y 2 )
(y z)(x 2 y 2 )(x y)
Value of Polynomial Expressions :
In the polynomial expression y = f(x), x is independent variable (input); y is called dependent variable (output) corresponding
to each input for variable x the equation generates exactly one output as variable y.
Illustration-2 : If the value of the polynomial a 0 x 2 a1 x a2 one 10, 19 and 7 for x = 1, 2 and –2 respectively,,
determine the coefficients.
Solution : Here, a 0 (1)2 a1 (1) a2 10
a 0 a1 a 2 10 …(i)
a 0 (2)2 a1 (2) a 2 19
4a 0 2a1 a 2 19 …(ii)
a 0 ( 2)2 a1 ( 2) a2 7
4a 0 2a1 a 2 7 …(iii)
From (i), (ii) & (iii), we get
a 0 2, a1 3,a 2 5
Identical Polynomials :
Two polynomials in x are identical if the co-efficients of their like powers of x are equal.
Thus, a 0 x n a1 x n 1 a2 x n 2 ... an 1 x a n b0 xn b1 xn 1 b2 xn 2 .... bn 1 x bn
implies that a 0 b 0 ,a1 b1 ,......a n b n .
Illustration-3 : Obtain the condition that x3 + 3px + q may have a factor of the form (x – a)2.
Solution : If (x – a)2 is a factor we may assume that
x3 3px q (x a)2 (x b)
(x 2 2ax a 2 )(x b)
x 3 (b 2a)x2 (a 2 2ab)x a 2 b
the two polynomials are identical, we have ;
b – 2a = 0 b = 2a …(i)
a2 – 2ab = 3p …(ii)
ab=q
2
…(iii)
Putting b = 2a in equation (ii);
a2 – 4a2 = 3p 3p = –3a2
p = –a2
From (iii), 2a3 = q 4a6 = q2
= 4(–p)3 = q2
= 4p3 + q2 = 0
Addition and Multiplication of Polynomials :
Given any two polynomials in f(x), we add them by adding the coefficient of like powers of x
Illustration-4 : Find the sum of P(x) 5x 4 3x 2 4x 2 ; Q (x) 6x3 7x 3 .
Solution : P(x) Q(x)
5x 4 3x2 4x 2 (6x2 7x 3 )
5x 4 6x3 3x 2 (4 7)x (2 3 )
Note : Given a polynomial p (x), the polynomial -p(x) is obtained by changing each coefficient of p(x) to its
negative.
Thus if p(x) 3x 3 5x 2 3x 4
then –p(x) is given by p(x) 3x 3 5x2 3x 4 .
We define the product of two polynomials by multiplying them term by term and then adding the coefficients
of like powers of x using the law of indices.
Illustration-5 : Multiply p(x) and q(x), where p(x) 3x 3 2x 1,q(x) x 3 .
Solution : The product is p(x).q(x) (3x 2 2x 1)(x 3)
3x3 9x 2 2x2 6x x 3
3x3 11x 2 7x 3
Do Yourself - 1
1. Multiply p(x) and q(x), where p(x) 5x 4 3x 2 4x 2 ; q(x) 6x 3 7x 2 3 .
2. Find the sum and product of p(x) and q(x), where
(a) p(x) x7 9x 3 3x 1 , q(x) x 5 6x 2 4x
(b) p(x) 10x3 9x2 2x 1, q(x) x2 2, r(x) x 1
(c) p(x) 3x3 2x2 x, q(x) 3x3 2x x
Note : If p(x) and q(x) are two polynomials,
Then deg (p(x) +q(x)) max {deg p(x), deg q(x)} …(i)
and deg {p(x).q(x)} = deg p(x) + deg q(x) …(ii)
If we take, p(x) x2 1, q(x) x 2 1 then deg(p(x) + q(x)) = deg(2) = 0
whereas max { deg p(x), deg q(x)} = 2.
Thus, there may be strict inequality in (i).
Division of Polynomials :
Given two integers m and n with n>0, we know that we can divide m by n to get a quotient ‘q’ and a remainder ‘r’ and
express it as
m = nq + r …(i)
where 0 r < n. Here q and r are uniquely determined by m and n.
Illustration-6 : Divide p(x) x3 8x 2 21x 8 by g(x) x 2 .
Solution : x 2 x 3 8x2 21x 8(x2 6x 9)
x 3 2x2
6x 2 21x 8
6x 2 12x
9x 18
9x 18
0
Quotient = x2 + 6x + 9
Remainder = 0.
Illustration-7 : Divide p(x) by g(x), where p(x) = x5 + 3x2 +9; g(x) = x2 + 4x + 1.
x 3 4x2 15x 53
Solution : x2 4x 1 x 5 0x 4 0x3 3x2 0x 9
x 5 4x 4 x3
4x 4 x 3 3x2
4x 4 16x3 4x 2
15x 3 7x2 0x
15x 3 60x2 15x
53x2 15x 9
53x3 212x 53
197x 62
Quotient = x3 – 4x2 + 15x – 53
Remainder = 197x + 62
The result of the division can be written in the form
(x 5 3x 2 9) (x 2 4x 1)(x 3 4x 2 15x 53) (197x 162)
Illustration-8 : What is the remainder when x + x9 + x25 + x49 + x81 is divided by x3 – x ?
Solution :
x x 9 x25 x 49 x 81 x 1 x 8 x 24 x 48 x 80
x x 80 1 x 48 1 (x24 1) (x 8 1) 5
x x 80 1 x x 48 1 x x 24 1 x x 8 1 5x
Now, x3 – x = x(x2 – 1) and all, but the last term 5x is not divisible by x(x2 – 1). Thus, the remainder is 5x.
Illustration-9 : Prove that the polynomial x9999 x8888 x 7777 ....... x1111 1
is divisible by x 9 x 8 x7 .............. x 1 .
Solution : Let P x 9999 x8888 x7777 .......x1111 1
Q x 9 x 8 x 7 ........ x 1
P Q x 9 (x 9990 1) x 8 (x 8880 1) x 7 (x 7770 1) ......... x(x1110 1)
P Q x 9 x10
1 x 8 x10
1 x7 x10
1 ...... x x10 1 …(i)
999 888 777 111
But (x10)n – 1 is divisible by x10 – 1 for all n 1.
RHS of eq. (i) is divisible by x10 – 1.
P-Q is divisible by x10 – 1.
As x 9 x 8 ............ x 1|(x10 1)
x 9 x 8 x 7 .......... x 1|(P Q)
x 9 x 8 x 7 ........ x 1|P
• Division Algorithm :
If f(x) and g(x) are two non-zero polynomials, then there exist unique polynomials q(x) and r(x)
such that f(x) = q(x) • g(x) + f(x).
where either r(x) = 0
deg r(x) < deg g(x)
The polynomial q(x) is called the quotient and r (x) the remainder.
When f(x) is divided by g(x), the degree of q(x) = deg f(x) – deg g(x).
Particular Case : When g(x) : ax + b, a linear polynomial, then either r (x) = 0 or
deg r(x) < deg g(x) =1
deg r(x) = 0
So, that r(x) is a constant.
Horner's Process for Synthetic division of Polynomials :
When a polynomial f(x) P0 x n P1 xn 1 ...... Pn 1 x Pn is divided by a binomial x – , let the quotient be Q(x) and
remainder ‘r’:
We can find quotient Q(x) and remainder ‘r’ by using Horner's Synthetic division process as explained below.
P0 P1 P2 .........Pn 1 Pn 1st row
q 0 q1 ........q n 2 q n 1 2nd row
q0 q1 q 2 ..........q n 1 | r 3 rd row
Step-1 : Write all the coefficients Po, PI, P2, ..... Pn of the given polynomial f(x) in the order of descending powers of x as in
the first row.
When any term in f(x) (as seen with descending powers of (x) is missing, we write zero for its coefficient in f(x).
Step-2 : Divide the polynomial f(x) by (x – ) by writing in the left corner as shown above. (x 0 x )
Step-3 : Write the first term of the third as q0 = P0 then multiptly qo by to get q0 and write it under P1, as the first
element of the second row.
Step-4 : Add q0 to P1 to get q1, the second element of the third row.
Step-5 : Again multiply q1 with to get q1 and write q1 under P2 and add q1 to P2 to get q2, which is the third
element of the third row.
Step-6 : Continue this process till we obtain qn–1 in the third row. Multiply qn–1 with and write qn–1 under on Pn and add
qn-1 to Pn on to get r in the third row as shown above.
In the above process the elements of the third row i.e. q0,q1,q2,....,qn–1 are the coefficients of the quotient Q(x) in the
same order of descending powers starting with xn–1.
Q(x) q 0 x n 1 q1 xn 2 ........q n 2 x q n 1 and the remainder is ‘r’ i.e. the last element of the third row..
Note : If the remainder r = 0, then is one of the roots of f(x) = 0 or x – is a factor of f(x).
Illustration-10 : Use synthetic division to divide 5x4 + 6x + 2 by x + 4.
Solution : x + 4 = x – (–4), we can take = –4 in the synthetic division we have performed earlier;
5 0 0 6 2
4
20 80 320 1256
5 20 80 314 |1258
Thus the remainder after division is 1258 and the quotient is 5x 3 20x2 80x 314 .
We can use synthetic division even when the divisor is a polynomial of higher degree
Illustration-11 : Divide 3x4 – 5x3 – 11x2 + x – 1 by x2 – 2x – 2.
Solution : We write x2 2x 2 x 2 (2x 2)
The division process can be recorded as follows :
3 –5 –11 +1 –1
+(2 + 2) +6 +2 –6 …(a)
+6 +2 –6 …(b)
3 +1 –3 –3 –7 …(c)
• The first term in line (c) is 3. We have 3(2 + 2) = 6 + 6. We put first 6 in line (b) and another 6 in line (a) in a diagonal way
as shown above.
• Since –5 + 6 = 1, this is placed in line (c) adjacent to 3. Again 1(2 + 2) = 2 + 2 and these two 2’s are placed in a diagonal
way with 2 appearing in each of the lines (a) and (b).
• Again –11 + 6 + 2 = –3 and this is placed in line (c) adjacent to 1. Since –3(2 + 2) = –6 + (–6), we place these numbers
in a diagonal way as described earlier.
• We add the last two columns; 1 + 2 – 6 = –3, – 1 – 6 = –7. The quotient is 3x2 + x – 3 and the remainder is –3x – 7.
Do Yourself - 2
1. Divide p(x) by g(x) by long division method.
(a) p(x) x10 x 8 x 6 x 4 x2 1, g(x) x5 x3 1
(b) p(x) 4x 4 2x3 16x 2 5x 9, g(x) x 2 2x 1
(c) p(x) 20x 4 12x3 20x2 7x 6, g(x) x 2 x
2. Use Synthetic division to divide p(x) by g(x) in the following set.
(a) p(x) 4x3 24x2 21x 5, g(x) 2x 1
(b) p(x) x6 x 4 x2 1, g (x) x2 1
(c) p(x) 4x 5 3x2 2, g(x) x3 x 1
Applications of Synthetic Division :
Let f(x) be a polynomial in x.
(1) To express f(x) as a polynomial in x-h. Suppose that
f(x) a 0 (x h) n a1 (x h) n 1 .....a n 1 (x h) a n
Then a n is the remainder when f(x) is divided by x–h. If Q is the quotient, a n–1 is the remainder when
Q is divided by x–h. If Q’ is the quotient, a n–2 is the remainder when Q’ is divided by x–h. Continuing
this, we can find all the coefficients.
Illustration-12 : Express 2x3 + x2 – 5x – 3 as a polynomial in x – 2.
2 1 –5 –3
Solution : 2 4 10 10
2 5 5 7
2
4 18
2 9 23
2 4
2 13
2x3 x 2 5x 3 2(x 2)3 13(x 2)2 23(x 2) 7
(2) To expand f(x+h) in powers of x, we express f(x) as a polynomial in x–h, and then change x into x+h.
Illustration-13 : If f(x) = 2x3 + x2 – 5x – 3, find f (x + 2).
Solution : Proceed as Illustration-12 and substitute x + 2 for x in the result, thus
f(x 2) 2x 3 13x 2 23x 7
(3) If f(n) is a polynomial in n of degree r, to express f(n) in the form
a 0 a1n a 2 n(n 1) a 3 n(n 1)(n 2) .... a r n(n 1)(n 2)....(n r 1)
This can be done by dividing by n, n + 1, n + 2, ...... in succession.
Illustration-14 : Express n4 + 3n2 + 2 in the form a bn cn(n 1) dn(n 1)(n 2) en(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) .
Solution : Divide n4 + 3n2 + 2 by n, the quotient by n + 1, the quotient thus obtained by n + 2, and finally the last
quotient by n + 3.
–1 1 0 3 0 2
–1 1 4
–2 1 –1 4 –4
–2 6
–3 1 –3 10
–3
1 –6
The required coefficients are the numbers in thick type.
n 4 3n 2 2 2 4n 10n(n 1) 6n(n 1)(n 2) n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)
Do Yourself - 3
1. Use synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder when p(x) is divided by g(x).
(a) p(x) x5 1; g(x) 2x 1 (b) p(x) 3x 4 5x3 11x2 x 1; g(x) x 2 2x 2
1
2. Express x3 2x 2 x 80 as a polynomial in (a) x 1 (b) x
3
3. If f(x) 6x3 4x 2 3x 2, find the values of f(–3/2), f(–2/3), f(1/3).
HCF of Polynomials :
The highest common factor (HCF) of two polynomials f(x) and g(x) is that common factor which has highest degree
among all common factors and in which the coefficient of highest degree term is positive.
Steps to solve :
• Let us take two polynomials f(x), g(x).
• Divide the polynomials f(x)/g(x) to get
f(x) = g(x) • q(x) + r(x). Hence the degree of g(x) > degree of r(x).
• If the remainder r(x) is zero, then g(x) is the highest common factor of polynomials.
• If the remainder is not equal to zero, then again divide g(x) by r (x) to obtain
g(x) = r(x) • q(x) + r1(x)
Here, if r1(x) is zero, then required HCF is r(x).
• If it is not zero, then continue the process until we get zero as a remainder.
Illustration-15 : Find the HCF of x4 + 4x3 + x – 10 and x2 + 3x – 5 by using the division method ?
Solution : Given polynomials are f(x) x 4 4x 3 x 10; g(x) x2 3x 5
x2 x 2
By division method, x2 3x 5 x 4 4x 3 x 10
x 4 3x 3 5x2
x2 5x 2 x 10
x2 3x2 5x
2x2 6x 10
2x2 6x 10
0
The remainder is zero.
4 3 2
So, the required HCF of x 4x x 10 and x2 3x 5 is x 3x 5 .
LCM of Polynomial :
The least common multiple (LCM) of two or more polynomials is the polynomial of the lowest degree, having smallest
numerical coefficient which is exactly divisible by the given polynomials and whose coefficient of highest degree term has
the same sign as the sign of the coefficient of highest degree term in their product.
2 4 2
Illustration-16 : Find the LCM of (2x 4x), (3x 12x ) and (2x5 2x 4 4x 3 ) .
Solution : Given Polynomials are (2x2 4x), (3x 4 12x 2 ) and (2x 5 2x 4 4x3 ) .
2
First Polynomial = (2x 4x)
= 2x(x 2)
Second Polynomial = (3x 4 12x 2 )
3x 2 (x 2 4)
3x 2 (x + 2)(x 2)
Third Polynomial = (2x 5 2x 4 4x 3 )
2x 3 (x 2 x 2)
2x 3 (x 2 2x + x 2)
2x 3 [x(x 2) +1(x 2)]
2x 3 (x + 1)(x 2)
2 4 2
The common terms of (2x 4x), (3x 12x ) and (2x 5 2x 4 4x3 ) = x(x 2) .
2
Extra common terms are 2, 3x(x + 2), 2x (x + 1)
2
Therefore, the required LCM = x(x 2) * 2 * 3x(x + 2) * 2x (x + 1) .
12x 4 (x 2)(x + 2)(x + 1)
Relation between LCM and HCF :
LCM of {f(x) and g(x)} HCF of {f(x) and g(x)} = f(x).g(x) = f(x).g(x)
Let us denote the two polynomials by f(x) and g(x).
Let us denote the HCF by h(x) and LCM by (x) . Then we have h(x) (x) = f(x) g(x)
Illustration-17 : The LCM and HCF of two polynomials, p(x) and q(x) are 2(x4 1) and (x + 1)(x2 + 1) respectively..
If p(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1, find q(x).
Solution : p(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1
x2(x + 1) + (x + 1)
(x + 1)(x2 + 1)
p(x) q(x) = ±LCM HCF
LCM HCF
q(x)
p(x)
2 x 4 1 x 1 x 2 1
x 1 x 1
2
= 2(x 4 1) = (2x 4 2)
Do Yourself - 4
1. Find the GCD and LCM of a(x) and b(x) in the following set.
(i) a(x) = (x 2 + 2)(x + 9)(x 5 1), b(x) = (x 2 +2)(x 1)(x 4 + 2)
(ii) a(x) = (12x 2 5x 2) (9x2 + 5x 4) ; b(x) = (4x 2 + 5x + 1)(x 3 12x 2 + 47x 60)
(iii) a(x) = x 4 1, b(x) = x 3 x2 x 1
2. Find a pair of polynomials (x) and b(x) when the GCD and LCM are given by
(i) GCD {a(x), b(x)} = x + 1
LCM {a(x), b(x)} = x4 + 4x3 + 5x2 + 8x + 6
(ii) GCD {a(x), b(x)} = (x + 1)2
LCM {a(x), b(x)} = (x2 1) (x2 + 3x + 2)
Complete and Incomplete Polynomials :
A polynomial of degree n, which contains all powers of the variable from 0 to n, is called a complete polynomial.
Otherwise it is said to be incomplete polynomial.
For example, the incomplete polynomial 2x5 + 7x3 5 can be made complete by writing it as
2x5 + 0x4 + 7x3 + 0x2 + 0x 5.
Note :
(1) If (atleast) one of the two polynomials f(x) and g(x) is the zero polynomial, then the product f(x).g(x) is also the zero
polynomial.
(2) Let f(x), g(x) be two non-zero polynomials, then,
(i) f(x). g(x) is a non-zero polynomial.
(ii) deg {f(x).g(x)} = degf(x) + deg g(x).
Polynomial Equation :
A polynomial equation is obtained by equating a polynomial to zero.
f(x) = a 0 x n + a1 x n 1 + a2 xn 2 +....+a n 1 x + a n = 0
The highest power of x in the equation is called the degree of the equation.
If be a complex number such that f( ) = 0, then is called a root or zero of the polynomial f.
For example : 3x3 + 4x2 7 is a polynomial of degree with real coefficients; 1 is a zero of this polynomial.
x3 + 2x i is a polynomial of degree 3 with complex coefficients; ‘i’ is a zero of this polynomial.
Illustration-18 : If x = 1 and x = 2 are roots of the equation x3 + ax2 + bx + c = 0 and a + b = 1 then find the value of b.
Solution : a+b+c= 1
c = –2
and 8 + 4a + 2b + c = 0
4a + 2b = –6
2a + b = –3
a = –4, b = 5
a = –4, b = 5, c = –2
Remainder Theorem :
If f(x) is a polynomial in x, and ‘ ’ is a real number, then the remainder after dividing f(x) by (x – ) is f( ).
Proof : Let Q(x) be the quotient, R the remainder.
When f(x) is divided by x –
f(x) = (x – ) Q(x) + R
Putting, x =
f( ) = R
Factor Theorem :
If ‘ ’ is a root of equation f(x) = 0, then (x – ) is a factor of f(x) and conversely.
Proof : Let Q(x) be the Quotient and R, the remainder
when f(x) is divided by x – .
f(x) = (x – ) Q(x) + R
Putting, x =
f( ) = R
But f( ) = 0
is a root of f(x) = 0
R=0
f(x) = (x – ) Q(x)
which shows that x – is a factor of f(x).
Illustration-19 : Let f(x) be a polynomial, having integer coefficients and let f(0) =1989 and f(1) = 9891.
Prove that f(x) has no integer roots.
Solution : Let be the integer root of f(x) thus ( – 0) divides f(0).
i.e. |1989 must be odd.
Also, ( – 1) divides f(1)
1|9891 must be even
( – 1) must be odd which is a contradiction.
is not an integer
f(x) has no integer roots.
Illustration-20 : Find the sum of all the coefficients in f(x) = (x 2)(x + 3)(x 4)(x 5)(x + 6) .
Solution : The sum of all the coefficients is given by f(1).
f(1) = (1 – 2) (1 + 3) (1 – 4) (1 – 5) (1 + 6)
= –336
Illustration-21 : Find the remainder, when f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 2x – 4 is divided by g(x) = 1 – 2x
Solution : f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 2x – 4
1
Let 1 2x = 0 2x = 1 x =
2
1
Remainder = f
2
3 2
1 1 1 1 1 3 35
f 6 2 4 1 4
2 2 2 2 8 2 8
Illustration-22 : Show that x + 1 and 2x – 3 are factors of 2x3 – 9x2 + x + 12.
Solution : To prove (x + 1) and (2x – 3) are factors of 2x3 – 9x2 + x + 12, we just need to show
f(–1) and f (3/2) = 0
f(–1) = 2(–1)3 – 9(–1)2 +(–1) + 12
= – 2 – 9 – 1 + 12 = 0
and f(3/2) = 2(3/2)3 – 9(3/2)2 + (3/2) + 12
27 81 3
12 0
4 4 2
Hence, (x + 1) and (2x – 3) are the factors of 2x3 – 9x2 + x + 12.
Note :
(1) If sum of all the coefficients of a polynomial is zero, then (x – 1) is one of its factors.
(2) If sum of the coefficients of odd powers of x is equal to the sum of the coefficients of even powers of x, then
one of the factors of the polynomial is (x + 1).
Do Yourself - 5
1. Find the remainder when 3x3 + 4x2 + x + 1 is divided by x – 2.
2. Find the remainder when x100 + x + 2 is divided by x2 – 1.
3. If the expression mx4 + nx3 – x2 + 2x + 3 has remainder 4x + 3 when divided by x2 + x – 2, find the value m and n.
4. Find the linear polynomial in x which when divided by (x – 3) leaves 6 as remainder and is exactly divisible by (x + 3).
5. Find a common factor of the quadratic polynomials 3x2 – x – 10 and 2x2 – x – 6.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra :
Every polynomial function of degree 1 has atleast one zero in the complex number.
_
Proof : Let f(x) = anxn + an–1xn 1+...+ a1x + a0 with n 1, then there exists atleast one C such that
a n n an 1n 1 ... a1 a0 0
From this, it is easy to deduce that a polynomial function of degree 'n' has exactly n zeroes.
i.e., f(x) a x r1 x r2 ..... x rn
Note :
(1) Some of the zeroes of a polynomial may repeat.
(2) If a root is repeated m times, then m is called multiplicity of the root ' ' or is called m fold root.
For example :
f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 and the zeroes of f(x) are –1 and –1. Here it can be said that f(x) has a zero –1 with
multiplicity two.
Similarly, f(x) = (x + 2)3 (x – 1) has zeroes –2, –2, –2, 1 i.e., the zeroes of f(x) are –2 with multiplicity 3 and 1.
(3) The real numbers of the form 3, 5, 12, 27,......., 5 3 , etc. are called quadratic surds. In general, a, b
and a b , etc. are quadratic surds , if a, b are not perfect squares.
In a polynomial with integral coefficients (or rational coefficients), if one of the zeroes in a quadratic surd, then it
has the conjugate of the quadratic surd also as a zero.
Illustration-23 : Find the polynomial function of lowest degree with integral coefficients with 5 as one of its zeroes.
Solution : Since the order of the surd 5 is 2, you may expect that the polynomial of the lowest degree to be a
polynomial of degree 2.
Let, P(x) ax2 bx c; a, b, c Q
P 5 5a 5b c 0
(5a c) 5b 0 .
But, 5 is irrational.
So, 5a + c = 0 and b=0
c = –5a and b=0
So, the required polynomial function is
P(x) = ax2 – 5a
You can find the other zero of this polynomial to be 5 .
Aliter : We know, any polynomial function having, say, n zeroes 1 , 2 ,......., n can be written as
P(x) = x 1 x 2 ....... x n
If the zero of a polynomial is 5 , then
P0 (x) x 5 or a x 5 .
But we want a polynomial with rational coefficients.
So, here we multiply x 5 by the conjugate of x 5 , i.e. x 5 .
Thus, we get the polynomial
P(x) x 5 x 5 , where the other zero of P(x) is 5 .
Illustration-24 : P(x) is a monic polynomial of degree four such that P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = 0, then find P(0) + P(4).
Solution : P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = 0
x = 1, 2, 3 are the roots of P(x).
Thus by Fundamental Theorem of Algebra,
P(x) = (x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 3)(x – )
P(0) = 6 and P(4) = 6(4 – )
P(0) + P(4) = 6 + 6(4 – )
6 + 24 – 6 = 24
Do Yourself - 6
1. Obtain a polynomial of lowest degree with integral coefficient, whose one of the zeroes is 5 2.
2. Solve the equation x4 – 2x2 – 22x2 + 62x – 15 = 0, having given that one root is 2 3 .
c
3. Form a fourth degree polynomial equation whose roots are 0, a,
b
4. Let P(x) be a monic cubic equation such that P(1) = 1, P(2) = 2, P(3) = 3, then find P(4).
Common Divisor :
Let f(x), g(x) be two polynomials over any number system F such that atleast one of them is non-zero.
A non-zero polynomial h(x) said to be a common divisor of f(x), g(x), if h(x)|f(x) and h(x)|g(x).
Theorem :
Let f(x), g(x) be any two non-zero polynomials over k. Then their gcd exists and is unique.
if d(x) = (f(x),g(x)) then, d(x) = a(x) f(x) + b(x)g(x) for some polynomials a(x) and b(x) over k.
Note : Two non-zero polynomials f(x), g(x) over k are said to be relatively prime or coprime, if
(f(x), g(x)) = 1 or (f(x), g(x)) = c
where c 0 over k.
Cyclic or Symmetric Polynomial and It’s factorization :
• A polynomial of multi variable is called symmetric, if the polynomial does not change by any permutation of it’s variable.
For example x + y + z, x2 + y2 + z2, xyz etc. A symmetric expression containing two variables x and y can be always
factorized as a product of factor expressed in terms of the basic symmetric expression (x + y), xy. Similarly a symmetric
expression containing three variables x,y,z can be always factorized as a product of factors expressed in terms of the basic
symmetric expressions (x + y + z), (xy + yz + zx), xyz.
• A polynomial of multi-variables called cyclic, if after changing all it’s variable cyclically, the resulting polynomial does not
change. For Example (xy + yz + zx) x2y + y2z + z2x, etc.
Note : A symmetric Polynomial must be cyclic, but the converse is not true.
Theorem (Factorization of Cyclic Polynomial) :
If P(x, y, z) is cyclic Polynomial and (x – y) is a factor of P(x, y, z) then (y – z) and (z – x) are also the factors of P(x, y, z).
Similarly, If (x + y) is the factor of P(x, y, z), then (y + z) and (z + x) also the factor of P(x, y, z).
Note s :
1. If P(x, y, z) is a multivariable polynomial in x,y,z , then If P(x, y, z) = P(y, z, x) = P(z, x, y), then P(x, y, z) must be a cyclic
polynomial.
2. If for the cyclic polynomial P(x, y, z); we have P(x, y, z) = 0, then (x – y) must be the factor of polynomial P(x, y, z) and
hence (y – z) and (z – x) are also the factors of P(x, y, z).
Illustration-25 : Factorize the polynomial P x, y,z 2xyz x2 y y 2 z z 2 x xy 2 yz 2 zx 2 .
Solution : Given P x, y,z 2xyz x2 y y 2 z z 2 x xy 2 yz 2 zx 2
P x, y,z P y,z, x 2yzx y 2 z z 2 x x2 y yz 2 zx 2 xy 2
P(x, y, z) is cyclic.
For x = –y
y, y,z 2y 2 z y 3 y 2 z z2 y y 3 yz 2 zy 2 0
(x + y) is a factor of P(x, y, z).
(y + z) and (z + x) are also the factors of P(x, y, z).
P x,y,z x y y z z x .E x, y,z
P(x, y, z) is of degree 3, thus (x + y) (y + z) (z + x) must also of degree 3, thus E(x, y, z) must be constant.
P(x, y, z) = A(x + y) (y + z) (z + x) …(i)
For finding A, put x = 0, y = 1, z = 1 in (i)
P 0,1,1 A 0 11 11 0
P(0, 1, 1) = 2A
2A 2.0.1.1 02.1 12.1 12.0 0.12 1.12 1.02
2A = 2
A=1
So, P(x, y, z) = (x + y) (y + z) (z + x)
Some Impor tant cyclic expression and their factorizat ion :
1. x2 y z y 2 z x z 2 x y (x y)(y z)(z x)
2. xy x y yz y z zx z x x y y z z x
3.
x y 2 z 2 y z 2 x 2 z x 2 y 2 x y y z z x
4. x3 y z y 3 z x z 3 x y x y y z z x x y z
5.
x y 2 z 2 y z 2 x 2 z x 2 y 2 3xyz x y z xy yz zx
6.
x3 y 3 z3 3xyz x y z x2 y 2 z 2 xy yz zx
7.
x y 2 z 2 y z2 x2 z x2 y 2 2xyz x y y z z x
8. x 4 y 4 z 4 2x2 y 2 2y 2 z 2 2z 2 x2 x y z x y z y z x z x y
Budan’s Theorem :
Given a single variable polynomial P(x) with real coefficients
Let us denote Vh(P) the number of sign variations in the sequence of the coefficients of the Polynomial Ph (x) P(x h) .
Then Budan’s theorem states that for an semi-open interval (a, b] or open interval (a, b), the difference of Va(P) and Vb(P)
i.e. Va P Vb P is the maximum number of real root of P(x) in interval (a, b] or in open interval (a, b).
For Example : Given the polynomial P(x) = x3 – 7x + 7, and the open interval (0, 2), one has
P0 (x) P x 0 x 3 7x 7
V0(P) = 2
P2 x P x 2 x 2 7 x 2 7 x3 6x2 5x 1
3
V2(P) = 0
Thus, V0(P) – V2(P) = 2 – 0, and Budan’s theorem asserts that the polynomial P(x) has either two or zero real roots in the
open interval (0, 2).
Complex Number :
Consider a complex number z = x + iy, where x, y are real. Then the real number r x2 y 2 is called Modulus of z
denoted by z .
Clearly, r z 0 and r = 0 if and only if z = 0.
Let z 0 and Let be any angle such that
x y
cos , sin …(i)
r r
Then is called amplitude or argument of z.
Clearly, the angles 2 , 4 , ..... also satisfy (i) but there is a unique angle which satisfy (i) and lies in interval
, , 0 is called Principal argument of z.
2 2 x y
Thus z can be represented as z x y i
2 2
x y x y2
2
y
z = (x + iy)
x
O
z r cos i sin …(ii)
This form of equation (ii) is called polar form of complex number.
2 2 2
For Example, if z 1 i 3, then r = 2 and 0 , and so z 2 cos i sin .
3 3 3
De Moivre Theorem :
If n Interger then cos i sin cos n i sin n
n
Illustration-26 : If z = (1 + i) then z5 is _________.
Solution : z = (1 + i)
1 1
2 i
2 2
2 cos i sin
4 4
5
5
z5 2 cos 4 i sin 4
5 5
4 2 cos i sin
4 4
4 2 cos i sin
4 4
1 1
4 2 i
2 2
= 4(–1 – i)
= –4(1 + i)
Theorem (Extension of De Moivre) :
p p
If p, q are integers and q > 0, then cos q i sin q is one of the values of cos i sin .
p /q
p 1
Proof : cos i sin q cos p i sin p p
1
cos 2n p i sin 2n p q
2n p 2n p
cos i sin
q q
where n = {0, 1, 2, ..... q – 1}
p
Thus cos i sin q has q values.
Theorem (Roots of Unity) :
Let n be the positive integer. Then the n – roots of the equation zn = 1 are
2r 2r
r cos i sin for r = {0, 1, 2, ....., n – 1}
n n
and are called nth roots of unity.
• These all are non - real except the roots 1, –1 when n is even.
• All If is easy to see that the sum of all the roots of the unity is 0.
Cube Roots of Unity :
The roots of the equation z3 = 1 is called cube roots of unity.
z3 = 1
(z3 – 1) = 0
(z – 1) (z2 + z + 1) = 0
1 i 3 1 i 3
z 1, ,
2 2
1 i 3
or z 1, , 2 where
2
Therefore 1, , 2 are called cube roots of unity..
Properties of Cube Roots of Unity :
(a) Sum of cube roots of unity (i.e. 1 2 ) is always zero.
(b) 3n 1; n Integer
(c) 3n 3n 1 3n 2 0; n Integer..
(d) 3n 1 and 3n 2 2 ; n Integer..
(e) and are conjugate of each other.
Polynomial x 3 + px + q :
We have the decomposition xn 1 x 1 x x 2 ...... x n1
where , 2 ,...., n 1 ,1 are the n - roots of unity..
In particular, the roots of x3 – 1 = 0 or x 1 x x 1 0 are the third roots / cube roots of unity those aree
2
1, , 2 .
1 i 3 1 i 3
where and 2
2 2
We can solve the general cubic polynomial equation with third roots of unity.
We starts with the following factorization.
x3 a3 b3 3xab x a b x2 a 2 b2 ax bx ab
The second factor has the zeros
x2 a b2 ; x3 a2 b .
3 3 3
Thus, x a b 3abx x a b x a b
2
x a2 b
Hence, the cubic polynomial equation x3 3abx a 3 b 3 0 has the solution.
x1 a b ; x 2 a b2 ; x3 a2 b
Comparing this with x3 + px + q = 0, get
p = –3ab
q = a3 + b3
3 3 p 3
Thus; a b
27
a3 + b3 = q
3 p3
Thus; a3 and b3 are roots of the quadratic equation x qx 0.
27
q q 2 p3
Thus, a 3
2 4 27
q q2 p3
b3
2 4 27
Thus we have the three zeros of the polynomial x3 + px + q, those are
x1 a b
x2 a b2
x3 a2 b
where a, b are given above.
Theorem (Binomial) :
(ax + b)n where n is +ve integer can be expanded as
n 1
c 0 ax b 0 n c1 ax b1 ....... n c n 1 ax b n 1 n c n ax .b n
n n 1 0
n n!
where cr
r! n r !
Thus ax b n n c 0 a n b 0 x n n c1 a n 1 b1 x n 1 ......... n c n 1 a1 b n 1 x n c n a 0 bn x 0
a n x n an 1 x n 1 ....... a1 x a 0
General Term :
a n n c 0 .a n b0 an
a n 1 n c1 .an 1 .b1 n.a n 1b
a1 n c n 1 .a1 .bn 1 na.b n 1
a 0 n c n .a 0 bn bn
General term of ax b ; n N
n
nr
Tr 1 n c r ax .b r
Newton’s Sum :
Consider a polynomial p(x) of degree n.
p x a n x n a n 1 x n 1 ...... a1 x a 0
Let p(x) = 0 have roots x1, x2, ......., xn define the sum :
pk x1k x2k ...... xnk
Newton’s sums tell us that,
a n p1 a n 1 0
a n p2 a n 1 p 2a n 2 0
a n p3 a n 1 p2 a n 2 p1 3a n 3 0
and so on.
Illustration-26 : Consider the polynomial p(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 4x – 8. Let the roots of p(x) = 0 are
then find .
Solution : By Newton’s sum
p1 + 3 = 0
p2 + 3p1 + 8 = 0
p3 3p2 4p1 24 0
p 4 3p3 4p2 8p1 0
Solving, first for p1 and then for other variables we get;
p1 3
p2 2 2 2 1
p3 3 3 3 33
p 4 4 4 4 127
4 4 4 127
Solved Examples
Example-1 : Find the roots of x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6.
Solution : Let f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6
Sum of coefficient = 1 – 6 + 11 – 6 = 0
f(1) = 0
x = 1 is one of its roots. To obtain other roots we will rearrange the expression so that x – 1 factor is
extracted out as below.
f(x) = x3 – x2 – 5x2 + 5x + 6x – 6
= x2(x – 1) – 5x(x – 1) + 6(x – 1)
= (x – 1)(x2 – 5x + 6)
= (x – 1)(x2 – 2x – 3x + 6)
= (x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 3)
So roots are x = 1, 2 and 3.
Example-2 : Factorise the polynomial f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 5x + 12 and get its roots.
Solution : Since
Sum of coefficients of even power terms = Sum of coefficients of odd power terms.
(–6 + 12) – (1 + 5) = 0
x = –1 is a root.
(x + 1) is a factor.
x3 – 6x2 + 5x + 12 = x3 + x2 – 7x2 – 7x + 12x + 12
= x2(x + 1) – 7x(x + 1) + 12(x + 1)
= (x + 1)(x2 – 7x + 12)
= (x + 1)(x2 – 4x – 3x + 12)
= (x + 1)[x(x – 4) – 3(x – 4)]
= (x + 1)(x – 4)(x – 3)
Hence, the roots of the polynomial are – 1, 4, 3.
Example-3 : If a + b + c = 0 and a2 + b2 + c2 = 1, then find the value of 16(a4 + b4 + c4) is ...............
Solution : a + b + c = 0, a2 + b2 + c2 = 1
a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca) = 0
1 + 2(ab + bc + ca) = 0
ab + bc + ca = – 1/2 …(i)
Also, a + b + c = 1
2 2 2
Squaring both sides, we get
a4 + b4 + c4 + 2(a2b2 + b2c2 + c2a2) = 1
Squaring eq.(i), we get
a2b2 + b2c2 + c2a2 + 2(ab2c + bc2a + a2bc) = 1/4
= a2b2 + b2c2 + c2a2 + 2{abc(b + c) + a2bc} = 1/4
= a2b2 + b2c2 + c2a2 + 2 ( – a2bc + a2bc) = 1/4
= a2b2 + c2b2 + c2a2 = 1/4
Putting this we get;
= a4 + b4 + c4 + 2(1/4) = 1
= a4 + b4 + c4 = 1/2
= 16(a4 + b4 + c4) = 8
Example-4 : If (a2 – 1)x2 + (a – 1)x + a2 – 4a + 3 = 0 is an identity in x, then find all possible values of a.
Solution : (a2 – 1)x2 + (a – 1)x + a2 – 4a + 3 = 0 to be identity in x.
a2 – 1 = 0, a – 1 = 0 and a2 – 4a + 3 = 0
= a = 1
Example-5 : An unknown polynomial yields remainder 2 and 1 when divided by x – 1 and x – 2 respectively.
Find the remainder when it is divided by (x – 1)(x – 2).
Solution : Let the unknown polynomial be P(x) where deg P(x) 2.
From the condition,
P(x) 2 P(x) 1
Q(x) and S(x)
x 1 x 1 x2 x2
On Subtracting, we get
P(x) 3x
S(x) Q(x)
x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2
P(x) = (S(x) – Q(x)) (x – 1)(x – 2) + 3 – x
Remainder = 3 – x.
Example-6 : Find the factorization of polynomial P(x) = (x2 + 5x + 6)(x2 + 5x + 7) – 12.
Solution : P(x) = (x2 + 5x + 6)[(x2 + 5x + 7) – 12
P(x) = (x2 + 5x + 6)[(x2 + 5x + 6) + 1] – 12
Let x2 + 5x + 6 = y
P(x) = y(y + 1) – 12 = y2 + y – 12 = (y + 4)(y – 3)
Passing from y to x, we get
(x2 + 5x + 10)(x2 + 5x + 3).
Example-7 : The value of the parametre k for which x + 4 is a factor of the polynomial expression
(x + 3)9 + (3x + k)3.
Solution : f(x) = (x + 3)9 + (3x + k)3 has x + 4 as factor.
f(–4) = 0 –1 + (k – 12)3 = 0
(k – 12) = (1)1/3 k – 12 = 1, , 2
k = 13, 12 + , 12 +
k = 13, k = 12 + or k = 11 + (1 + ) = 11 –
1 + + = 0 1 + = – [Cube rootof unity]
Example-8 : Express the polynomial f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + x + 80 as a polynomial in x + 5.
Solution : 5 1 2 1 80
5 15 80
1 3 16 0
5 40
1 8 56
5
1 13
x3 + 2x2 + x + 80 = (x + 5)3 – 13(x + 5)2 + 56(x + 5).
Example-9 : Express f(x) = 4x4 + 3x3 + x – 1 in the form a(x2 – 2x + 3)2 + (bx + c)(x2 – 2x + 3) + dx + e, where a,b, ....,e
are independent of x.
Solution : (2 3) 4 3 0 1 1
12 33 30
8 22 20
4 11 10 12 31
12
8
4 19 2
4x4 + 3x3 + x – 1 = 4(x2 – 2x + 3)2 + (19x – 2)(x2 – 2x + 3) – 12x – 31.
Example-10 : If the polynomial x3 + ax2 – bx – 30 is exactly divisible by x2 – 2x + 15. Find a and b and also the third
factor.
Solution : Let p(x) x3 ax 2 bx 30
Given p(x) is exactly divisible by x2 – 2x – 15
i.e. (x – 5) (x + 3)
p(x) is divisible by (x + 3) and (x – 5)
p(–3) = 0 and p(5) = 0
Consider p(–3) = 0 3 a 3 b 3 30 0
3 2
3a + b – 19 = 0 …(i)
Now, Consider p(5) = 0
53 a 5 b 5 30 0
2
i.e.
5a – b + 19 = 0 …(ii)
Adding (i) and (ii) , we get
8a = 0 a 0 , b 19
p(x) x 3 0 x 2 19x 30 x 3 19x 30
Thus, the third factor is x + 2.
Example-11 : Find a common factor of the quadratic polynomial 3x2 – x – 10 and 2x2 – x – 6.
Solution : Consider p x 3x2 x 10 and q(x) 2x 2 x 6
Let (x – k) be a common factor of p(x) and q(x)
p(k) = q(k) = 0
3k 2 k 10 2k 2 k 6
k4 – 4 = 0 k2
The required common factor is (x – 2) or (x + 2).
Example-12 : Find the remainder when x5 is divided by x3 – 4x.
Solution : Let q(x) be the quotient and x2 mx n be the remainder when x5 is divided by x3 – 4x.
i.e. x(x – 2) (x + 2)
x 5 x3 4x q x x2 mx n
Put x = 0
0 0 q x 0 m 0 n
n=0
Put x = 2
25 8 8 q x 2 m 2 n
2
2 m 16 …(i)
Put x = –2
2 5 8 8 q x 2 2 m 2 n
2 m 16 …(ii)
Adding (i) and (ii),
4 0 0
Substituting in (i) , we get
2(0) + m = 16 m = 16
The required remainder is 16x .
Example-13 : What must be subtracted from x3 6x2 15x 80 ?
So that the result is exactly divisible by x2 x 12 .
Solution : Let ax + b be subtracted from p(x) x 3 6x 2 15x 80
So that it is exactly divisible by x2 + x – 12
s x x3 6x 2 15x 80 ax b
= x3 6x2 15 a x 80 b
But remainder will be zero
s(x) x2 x 12 Quotient
s(x) x3 6x 2 15 a x 80 b
x7
2 3 2
x x 12 x 6x x(15 a) (80 b)
x3 x 2 12x
7x2 12x (15 a)x (80 b)
7x2 7x 84
x(4 a) ( 4 b) 0
Hence, x 4 a 4 b 0
4 – a = 0 & –4 – b = 0
a4 b 4
Hence, if in p(x) we subtract 4x – 4 then it is exactly divisble by x2 + x – 12.
Example-14 : Let p(x) be a polynomial such that x.p x 1 x 4 p x x R . Find all such p(x).
Solution : Put x = 0, 0 = –4p(0)
p(0) = 0
Put x = 1, 1.p(0) = –3p(1)
p(1) = 0
Put x = 2, 2.p(1) = –2p(2)
p(2) = 0
Put x = 3, 3.p(2) = –p(3)
p(3) = 0
Let us assume p(x) x x 1 x 2 x 3 Q x .
x x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 Q x 1 x x 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 Q x
Q x 1 Q x x R 0,1,2,3,4
Q x 1 Q x xR
Q(x) is periodic
Q(x) = c
p(x) = cx (x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3)
Example-15 : Given 3x2 + x = 1, find the value of 6x3 – x2 – 3x + 2010.
Solution : We have, 3x2 + x – 1 = 0, then
6x 3 x 2 3x 2010 2x 3x 2 x 1 3x 2 x 1 2009
= 2009
6x 3 x 2 3x 2010 2009
Use Application of Synthetic Division to solve the second step of the solution.
Example-16 : When f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 2 is divided by g(x) which is a polynomial with integer coefficient the quotient
and remainder are both h(x). Given that h is not constant, find g and h.
Solution : The given conditions gives that
f x x3 2x 2 3x 2 g(x).h(x) h(x) h x g x 1
By adding the odd and even coefficients,
we know that f(–1) = 0
f(x) has the factor x + 1
x3 2x2 3x 2 x 1 x 2 x 2
x 1 x 2 x 1 1
x 1 x2 x 1 x 1
h is not a constant and its degree is less than of g, so it must be a linear polynomial.
g x x 2 x 1, h x x 1
Example-17 : Let f(x) be a monic polynomial with integral coefficients. If there are four different integers a, b, c, d so that
f a f b f c f d 5 , then there is no integer k, so that f(k) = 8.
Solution : Let g x f x 5 . Then x a, x b, x c, x d are factors of g(x)
g x x a x b x c x d h x
If r is an integer such that f(r) = 8
then g r f r 5 3
or r a r b r c r d h r 3 .
The left side is a product of five integers of which at least four are distinct But the right side has at most
three distinct factors 1, –1, –3.
Example-18 : Factor the polynomial x8 + 98x4 + 1 into two factors with integral coefficients.
2
Solution : x 8 98x 4 1 x 4 1 96x 4
2
x4 1 16x2 x 4 1 64x 4 16x2 x 4 1 32x 4
2
x 4 8x2 1 16x2 x 4 2x 2 1
4x3 4x
2 2
x 4 8x2 1
x 4 4x3 8x2 4x 1 x 4 4x3 8x 2 4x 1
Example-19 :
2 4 2
Let p(x) be a polynomial such that p x 1 x 4x find p(x2 – 1).
Solution :
2
4
Since, p x 1 x 4x
2
The polynomial p(x) has to be of degree 2 and it is monic, that is
p x x 2 bx c , then
x 2 1
2
b x2 1 C x 4 4x2
x 4 2x 2 1 bx2 b c x 4 4x2
Hence, 2 + b = 4 and 1 + b + c = 0
then b = 2, c = –3
p(x) = x2 + 2x – 3
2
p x 2 1 x2 1 2 x2 1 3
x 4 2x 2 1 2x2 2 3
= x4 – 4
p(x2 1) x 4 4
Example-20 : Find the positive integers n for which x2 + x + 1 divides x2n + xn + 1.
Solution : The roots of x2 + x + 1 are e i 2 /3 and .
Using the relations
3 1 and 1 2 0 , we obtain
n = 3k 6k 3k 1 1 1 1 3
n = 3k + 1 6k 2 3k 1 1 2 1 0
n = 3k + 2 6k 4 3k 2 1 4 2 1
2 1 0
Therefore the answer is for all ‘n’ that are not multiples of 3.
2
Example-21 : Multiply the polynomials p(x) 4x 3 2x 2 7x 1 and Q(x) 2x x 8 . Evaluate the two polynomials
and their product at x = 2.
Solution : The product of the coefficients of the polynomials is
4 2 7 1
2 1 8
32 16 56 8
4 2 7 1
8 4 14 2
8 8 48 25 57 8
Therefore, the product of the polynomials is
R x 8x 5 8x 4 48x3 25x 2 57x 8
So, x = 2
R 2 8.25 8.2 4 48.23 25.22 57.2 8 990
Example-22 : Find the GCD of the polynomials x 4 2x3 x2 x 1 and x 3 1.
Solution : We perform the following divisions of polynomials
x2 x x 1
1st – x3 1 x 4 2x3 x 2 x 1 2nd – x2 1 x3 1 3trd : x 1 x2 x
x4 x x3 x x2 x
2x3 x2 1 x 1 x 1
x 1
2x3 2
0
x 1
Hence, GCD = x + 1
Example-23 : Construct a real polynomial equation of degree 4 having 2 + 3i as a root with multiplicity 2.
Solution : Since, 2 + 3i is a root of multiplicity 2 of a real polynomial equation
2 – 3i is also a root of multiplicity 2.
The required equation is
x 2 3i 2 x 2 3i 2 0
[(x 2)2 9i 2 ]2 0
(x 2 4x 4 9) 2 0
(x 2 4x 13) 2 0
i.e. x 4 16x2 169 8x 3 26x2 104x 0
x 4 8x3 42x2 104x 169 0
Example-24 : Solve : x(y z) 44, y(z x) 50; z(x y) 54
Solution : On adding the given equations
2(xy yz zx) 148
xy yz zx 74 …(i)
On subtracting the given equations one by one from (i), we get
yz 30,zx 24, xy 20
On multiplying the three, given above together.
x2 y 2 z 2 30 24 20 xyz 120 …(ii)
On dividing eq. (ii) by the values of xy, yz, zx respectively, we get
x 4, y 5, z 6
Example-25 : Find the remainder when (x + 1)n is divided by (x – 1)3.
Solution : Let x – 1 = y
We find that (x 1)n (y 2) n
n(n 1) 2 n 2
2n ny2n 1 y .2 .........
2
The remainder when RHS is divided by y3
n(n 1) 2 n 2
2n ny2n 1 y .2
2
n(n 1)
2n n(x 1)2n 1 (x 1)2 .2n 2
2
n(n 1).2 n 3 x 2 x[ n(n 1).2n 2 n.2n 1 ] n(n 1).2n 3 n.2 n 1 2n
n(n 1).2 n 3 x 2 2 n 2 x[n 2 3n] 2n 3 [n 2 5n 8]
Example-26 : The polynomial P(x) x 4 ax 3 bx 2 cx d has real coefficients, and P(2i) P(2 i) 0.
What is a b c d ?
Solution : A 4th degree polynomial has four roots. Since the coefficients are real, the remaining two roots must be
complex conjugate of the two given roots.
By the factor theorem,
Our roots are 2 – i, –2i
Now, we work backwards for the polynomial :
[x (2 i)][x (2 i)][x 2i][x 2i] 0
(x 2 4x 5)(x 2 4) 0
x 4 4x 3 9x2 16x 20 0
P(x) x 4 4x 3 9x 2 16x 20
P(1) 1 4 9 16 20 10
1 a b c d 10 a b c d 9
Example-27 : For what values of a and b is the polynomial f(x) x 2 (a 2 b)x b 9 negative of the polynomial
g(x) x2 5ax b 3 .
Solution : f(x) g(x)
x2 (a 2 b)x b 9 ( x2 5ax b 3).
x2 (a 2 b)x b 9 x 2 5ax b 3
On comparing coefficients of like powers of x on both sides.
a2 b 5a …(i)
and b 9 b 3 …(ii)
2b 12 b 6
Putting in eq. (i), we get
a 2 6 5a
a 2 5a 6 0
a = 2, 3
Hence, a = 2 or 3 and b = 6.\
Example-28 : Find the remainder when (x + 1)n is divided by (x – 1)3.
Solution : Let the remainder is Ax2 + Bx + C
Thus by division algorithm ;
x 1n f(x) x 13 Ax2 Bx c
Substitute (x – 1) = t (or) x = t + 1;
Hence t 2 f t 1 t 3 A t 1 B t 1 C
n 2
Using Binomial theorem, we get
n n 1
t n ..... 2n 2.t 2 n.2 n 1 t 2n
2
f t 1 t 3 At 2 2A B t A B C …(i)
Now compare coefficients of t0, t1, t2 we get
A n n 1 .2n 3
2A B n.2n 1
…(ii)
A B C 2n
Solving these equation(s), we get
A n n 1 2 n 3
B n 3 n 2n 2
C n 3 5n 8 .2n 3
n 3 2 n 2 2
Hence, remainder is n n 1 2 x n 3 n 2 x n 5n B 2 .
n 3
Aliter : Using derivatives
x 1n f x x 13 Ax2 Bx C …(i)
Put x = 1; we get
A + B + C = 2n …(ii)
Differentiate equation (i) w.r.t. x we get;
n 1
n x 1 3 x 1 g(x) 2ax B
2
…(iii)
Put x = 1, we get
n.2n 1 2A B …(iv)
Again differentiate equation(s) w.r.t. x we get;
n 2
n n 1 x 1 6 x 1 h(x) 2A …(v)
Put x = 1; we get
n n 1 2n 2 2A
or A n n 1 .2n 3 …(vi)
Solve (ii), (iv) and (vi) to get A, B, C
A A n 1 2n 3
B n 3 n 2n 2
C n 2 5n 8 2n 3
n 2 2
Remainder is n n 1 2 .x n 3 n 2 x n 5n 8 2 .
n 3 2 n 3
Example-29 : Let p(x) a n x n a n 1 x n 1 ......... a 0 be a polynomial of degree n with real coefficients a 0 ,a1 ,......,a n
such that an = 1 and a2i 1 for i = 0, 1, ....., n – 1. Suppose that all the roots c1, c2, ....., cn of the equation
p(x) = 0 are integers. Find c12 c22 ....... c 2n . Hence find all such polynomials p(x).
Solution : Note that p(x) is a monic polynomial having integer coefficient and a0 = ±1.
We have that each root ci = ±1.
Therefore c 2i n for n = 1, p(x) = x + 1
(or) p(x) = x – 1 are required polynomials
so, let n 2, now
ci c 2i 2 c i c i
2
i j
2
a n 1 a n 2
n 2
an an
1 n2
n=1±2
So that n = 3 as n 2.
Therefore p(x) x3 ax 2 bx c, where a 2 b2 c 2 1 as a c1 c 2 c 3 1,
and each ci = ±1,
it follows that p x x 1 x 1 x 1 x3 x 2 x 1
(or) p(x) x 1 x 1 x 1 x3 x2 x 1
We also note that in these polynomials all coefficients are ±1.
Hence these are the required polynomials.
Example-30 : Find Remainder when p(x) is divided by (x2 – 3x + 2) Given that the remainders when p(x) is divided by
(x – 1) and (x – 2) are 5 and 7 respectively. Also p(x) is a polynomial of degree n 2.
p(x) p(x)
Solution : Given Re m 5 and Re m 7.
x 1 x 2
Thus by Remainder theorem, p(1) = 5 and p(2) = 7.
Let R(x) be the remainder when p(x) is divided by (x2 – 3x + 2).
Therfore, p(x) x 3x 2 Q x R x
2
p x x2 3x 2 Q(x) Ax B
Put x = 1, 2 we get
p(1) = A + B = 5 …(1)
p(2) = 2A + B = 7 …(2)
From (1) and (2); we get
A = 2, B = 3 Remainder R(x) = (2x + 3)
Example-31 : Let p(x) x 5 x 4 x3 x2 x 1 . Find Remainder when p(x12) is divided by p(x).
Solution : p x x 5 x 4 x3 x2 x 1
x 1
6
x 1
x6 1 p(x) x 1 …(1)
x12
5 4 1
Also p x12 x12 ....... x12 1
x12
1 x12
1 ..... x12 1 6
5 4 1
p x12 x12 1 g(x) 6
an – bn is always divisible by (a – b)
Thus (x12)n – (1)n divisible by (x12 – 1) for n = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
p x12 x12 1 g(x) 6 …(2)
p x12 x 6 1 x 6 1 g x 6
x 1 p(x) x 6 1 g(x) 6
p x12 x 1 x 6 1 .g(x) p(x) 6 h x p x 6
Remainder when p(x12) is divided by p(x) is 6.
Example-32 : Suppose that p(x, y, z) is homogeneous degree 4 polynomial in three variables such that p(a, b, c) = p(b, c, a)
and p(a, a, b) = 0 for all real a, b and c. If p(1, 2, 3) = 1 then compute p(2, 4, 8).
Solution : Since p a,a,b 0
(x – y) is a factor of p, which means (y – z) and (z – x) are also factors by the symmetry of the polynomial.
p x, y,z
So,
x y y z z x is a symmetric homogeneous degree 1 polynomial, so it must be k(x + y + z) for
some real k.so the answer is
p 2,4,8 2 4 8 2 4 4 8 8 2
56
p 1,2,3 1 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 1
p(2, 4, 8) = 56; p(1, 2, 3) = 56
Example-33 : Let p x a 0 a1 x a 2 x 2 ....... a n x n a polynomial with integer coefficients and a i 0,1
for all i = 0, 1, 2, ....., n. Given p 2 13 19 2 , then p(1) is
Solution : p(x) a 0 a1 x a 2 x2 ...... an x n
2 a0 a1 2 2
2 n
p 2 a2 .... a n
2
n
a 0 a1 2 2a2 2 2 a3 ...... an
a 0 2a2 4a 4 ...... 2 a1 2a 3 4a 5 ......
a0, a1, a2, ....., an all are integers thus
a 0 2a 2 4a 4 ..... 13 …(i)
and a1 2a3 4a 5 ..... 19 …(ii)
From (i) and (ii) we get (by trial)
a0 a 4 a6 1
a a a ..... 0 from (i)
2 8 10
a1 a3 a 9 1
a a a ..... 0 from (ii)
5 7 11
p(x) 1 x x 3 x 4 x 6 x 9
p(1) = 6
1 1
Example-34 : Find all polynomial p(x) satisfying the condition p(x).p p(x) p for x R 0 and p(0) = 1.
x x
1 1
Solution : Given p(x).p p x p
x x
1
1 p(x) 1 p = 1 …(i)
x
Let 1 – p(x) = g(x) where g(x) is some other polynomial.
1 1
g 1 p
x x
Thus equation (1) can be rewritten as
1
g(x).g 1
x
g(x) must be in form of ± xn; n N
1 p(x) xn ; n N
p(x) 1 x n ; n N
4 3 2
Example-35 : If (1 3 ) is a root of the polynomial p(x) x 7x 14x 2x 12 , find other roots of p(x).
Solution : Coefficient of p(x) are rational thus irrational roots of p(x) must be in pair.
i.e. if (1 3 ) is the root of p(x) thus (1 3 ) also be root of p(x).
Therefore x 1 3 x 1 3 must divides x 4 7x3 14x2 2x 12 .
Thus x 7x 14x 2x 12 x 1 3 x 1 3 g(x)
4 3 2
= (x2 – 2x – 2) g(x)
2
By long division, g(x) x 5x 6
x 4 7x3 14x 2 2x 12 x2 2x 2 x2 5x 6
Thus other two roots of p(x) are those of x2 – 5x + 6.
i.e. x = 2 and x = 3.
Roots of p(x) are 1 3 ,1 3 ,2,3
Example-36 : Find all the cubic polymonial P(x) such that (x – 1)2 is factor of p(x) + 2 and
(x + 1)2 is a factor of P(x) – 2.
Soluton : Let P(x) ax3 bx 2 cx d
(x 1)|P(x) 2
P(1) + 2 = 0 (By remainder theorem)
a+b+c+d+2=0 …(i)
P(x) can be rewritten as,
P(x) ax 3 bx 2 cx ( a b c 2)
P( x) 2 a( x 3 1) b( x 2 1) c( x 1)
(x 1) a(x2 x 1) b(x 1) C
(x 1)| a(x2 x 1) b(x 1) C
2
(x 1) |P(x) 2
a(3) b(2) c 0 …(ii)
Similaly if (x 1)2 |P(x) 2
P(–1) – 2 = 0
–a + b – c +d = 2 …(iii)
P(x) (ax 3 bx 2 cx 2 a b c)
a(x3 1) b x2 1 c(x 1) 2
P(x) 2 (x 1) a(x2 x 1) b(x 1) c
(x 1)| a(x 2 x 1) b(x 1) c
(x 1)2 | P(x) 2
Thus we have 3a – 2b + c = 0 …(iv)
Solving equations (i), (ii), (iii ) and (iv), we obtained
a = 1; b = 0; c = 3 ; d = 0
Thus there is only one Polynomial satisfying the given condition :
P(x) = x3 – 3x
Example-37 : Prove that the polynomial f(x) x 4 26x3 32x 2 78x 1989 can not be expressed
as product f(x) p(x).q(x) where p(x), q(x) are both Polynomials with integral
coefficients and with degree not more than 3.
Solution : Assume, if possible, f(x) (x a)(x3 bx2 cx d)
Compare the coefficents of like power of x, we get
a + b = 26
ac + d = 78
ab + c = 52
ad = 1989
But 1989 = 32.13.17 Thus 13 divides ad hence 13 divides a or d but not both
If 13 | a
13 | d
13 | 78 ac which is not possible
Suppose 13 divides d
Then 13 | ac
But since 13 | divides a, 13 divides c 13 | ab
or 13 | 52 – c and so be is divisible by 13.
13 | a
(or) 13 | (26 – b) a contradiction.
Example-38 : If a0, a1, ...... a50 are the coefficients of the Polynomial (1 + x + x2)25.
Prove that the sum a0 + a2 + ..... + a50 is even.
Solution : (1 x x2 )25 a 50 x50 a 49 x 49 .... a1 x a 0 …(i)
Put x = 1 in (i); we get
a 50 a 49 a 48 ..... a1 a 0 325 …(ii)
Put x = –1 in (i); we get
a 50 a 49 a 48 ..... a1 a 0 1 …(iii)
Add (ii) and (iii); we get
2 a 50 a 48 ........ a 2 a 0 1 325
1 325 1 (2 1)25
a 50 a 48 ...... a2 a 0
2 2
25
1 25 C r 225 r
r 0
2
1 25 C0 225 25 C1 224 ... 25 C24 21 1
2
25
C 0 225 25
C 4 224 ...... 25
C23 22 52
2
22 25 C0 223 25 C1 222 ..... 25 C23 52
2
2 25 C0 223 25 C1 222 .... 25 C23 26
= Even integer
Thus a0 + a2 + a4 + .... + a50 is an even integer.
EXERCISE - 1
1. If x2 + 2x + 5 is a factor of x4 + ax2 + b, find the value of a + b.
2. Given that a polynomial f(x) has remainders 1, 2, 3 when divided by (x – 1), (x – 2), (x – 3), respectively. Find the
remainder of f(x) when it is divided by (x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3).
3. Find the remainder on dividing x1959 – 1 by (x2 + 1) (x2 + x + 1)
4. Find all polynomial ‘p’ satisfying p(x + 1) = p (x) + 2x + 1
5. Let f (x) be a monic polymoial of degree 4 such that f (1) = 1; f (2) = 4, f (3) = 9 and f (4) = 16. than find the value of f (0).
6. Does polynomial p(x) = x4 + 2x3 – 2x2 – 6x + 5 has any integer roots?
x x2 xn
7. Prove that polynomial 1 ..... has no multiple roots.
1! 2! n!
8. The polynomial ax 4 bx 3 cx2 dx e with integral coefficient is divisible by 7 for every integer x. Show that 7
divides a, b, c, d and e.
Find least possible value of the polynomial x x 1 x 2 x 3
3 3 3 3
9.
10. If a polynomial of degree 4 with real roots x1, x2, x3 and x4 can be factored as
p(x) x 4 ax 3 bx 2 cx d (x px q) x rx s
2 2
than the value of x1 1 x 2 1 x 3 1 x 4 1 in terms of p,q,r, and s.
2 2 2 2
11. Find the remainder when x23 is divided by (x – 1) (x – 2).
12. Let p(x) x 4 x 3 x2 x 1 . Find remainder when p(x5) is divided by p(x).
Find remainder when x 1 is divided by x 1 .
200 2
13.
1 1
If f x x 2 , find the remainder when f(x) is divided by (x – 3).
2
14.
x x
15. A polynomial f(x) of degree greater than 3, when devided by (x – 1)2 and ( x – 3) leave remainder (2x + 1) and 15
respectively and the remainder when f(x) is divided by (x – 1)2 ( x – 3) is ax2 + bx + c,then find the remainder when x2 +
bx + c is divided by (x – 2).
16. Let f(x) be a 5-degree polynomial with leading coefficient 2009 which follows :
f(1) = 1, f(2) = 4, f(3) = 5, f(4) = 7 and f(5) = 9 then the value of f(0) and f(6).
1
17. Let p(x) be a polynomial whose degree is 1996. If p(n) n 1,2,3,.....,1997 , then find the value of p(1998).
n
Prove that the polynomial x x 500 x100 x 1 have no rational roots.
1000
18.
19. Show that the polynomial f(x) = x3 + px + q has a repeated zero, if 4p3 + 27q2 = 0.
20. If the roots of the polynomial x3 – px2 + qx – r may be in arithmatic progression then prove that 2p3 – 9pq + 27r = 0.
21. The quadratic polynomial x2 + mx + n has roots twice those of x2 + px + m, and none of m, n and p is zero. What is
the value of n/p .
22. The sum of the zeros, the product of the zeros, and the sum of coefficients of the polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c are equal.
Their common value must be which of the following?
(a) The coefficient of x2
(b) The coefficient of x.
(c) The y-intercept of the graph y = p(x)
(d) One of the x-intercepts of the graph of y = p(x)
(e) The mean of the x-intercepts of the graph y = p(x).
23. The polynomial x3 – ax2 + bx – 2010 has three positive integer roots. What is the smallest possible value of a?
24. Let r,s, and t be the three roots of the equation 8x3 + 1001x +m 2008= 0. Find (r + s)3 + (s + t)3 + (t + r)3.
25. Given that
= 14
= 84
= 584
find )
A real-valued function f satisfies the relation f(x x) 2f x 3x 2 9x 15xx R , find f(5).
2 2 2
26.
2
27. Given that f(x) is a polynomial of degree 2012, and that f(k) for k = 1, 2, 3, ....., 2013, find the value of 2014 • f(2014).
k
28. For any non -negative integers m,n,p, Prove that the polynomial x 3 m x 3n 1 x 3 p 2 has the factor x2 + x + 1.
29. Let g(x) x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 . What is the remainder when the polynomial g(x6) is divided by the polynomial g(x).
Find the remainder when x 1 x 2 is divided by x 2 3x 2 .
100 200
30.
EXERCISE - 2
1. If a,b,c and d are any four real numbers not all equal to zero, Prove that the roots of thee equation x6 + ax3 + bx2 + d = 0
can not all be real.
2. Let f(x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients. Suppose for five distinct integers a1, a2, a3, a4 and a5 one has f a i 2
for 1 i 5 . Show that there is no integer b such that f(b) = 9.
3. Let p(x) x 2 ax b be a quadratic polynomial in which ‘a’ and ‘b’ are integers. Given anyinteger n, show that there
is an integer m such that p n .p n 1 p m .
4. Prove that a polynomial f(x), with integral coefficients has no integral roots if f(0) and f(1) are both odd integers.
Find real numbers a,b if x x 1 is a factor of 2x x ax x bx 4x 3 .
2 6 5 4 3 2
5.
6. Let f (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients. If a, b, c are distinct integers such that f(a) = f(b) = f(c) = –1. Show that
the equation f(x) = 0 has no integral roots.
7. For what integer a, does x2 – x + a divide x13 + x + 90?
8. Prove that if f(x) is a polynomial such that f(xn) is divisible by (x – 1), then f(xn) is divisible by (xn – 1).
Let f(x), g(x) be polynomials with real coefficients. If f(x)g(x) f x x 1 x R then show that f(x) is of even degree.
2
9.
10. Let the polynomial f(x) x n a1 x n 1 a 2 x n 2 ..... a n 1 x a n having integral coefficients. If there exist four distinct
integers a, b, c and d such that f(a) = f(b) = f(c) = f(d) = 5, show that there isno integer k such that f(k ) = 8.
11. If are three numbers satisfying the condition and then find ().
12. Prove that the polynomial x 2n 2x 2n 1 3x 2 n 2 .......... 2nx 2n 1 has no real roots.
13. Find the common solution of the following system of equations:
x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
x1990 + x200 + 1 = 0
Let f(x) and g(x) be polynomials having real coefficients such that F x f x x.g x and F(x) is divisible by x2 + x + 1.
3 3
14.
Prove that (x) and g(x) are divisible by (x – 1).
If P(x),Q(x),R(x) and S(x) are polynomials so that P x x Q(x ) x R x x x x x 1 S x , then
5 5 2 5 4 3 2
15.
show that (x – 1) is a factor of P(x).
16. Let p(x) be a polynomial of degree n, so that p(k) = k/(k + 1) for k = 0, 1, ....., n find p (n + 1).
17. Let a, b, c be three distinct integers, and let p be a polynomial with integer coefficients Show that in this case p(a) = b, p(b) = c,
p(c) = a can not be satisfied simultaneously.
18. If x1, x2 are the two zeroes of polynomial x2 – 6x + 1, then for every non negative integer n, x1n x 2n is an integer and
not divisible by 5.
19. A polynomial f(x, y) is anti-symmetric, if f(x,y) f y,x . Prove that every anti-symmetric polynomial f(x, y) has thee
form f(x, y) = (x – y) g(x, y), where g(x, y) is symmetric.
20. If p(x, y) is a symmetric polynomial and (x – y) divides p(x, y) then (x – y)2 also divides p(x, y).
21. Determine a,b, so that x 1
2
ax 4
bx 3 1
x x2 x 2n
22. Prove that the polynomial 1 .......... has no real roots.
1! 2! 2n !
23. Prove that x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 divides x44 + x33 + x22 + x11 + 1
24. The polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d has integral coefficients a,b,c,d with (ad) odd and (bc) even. Show that atleast one zero
of the polynomial is irrational.
25. Let f(x) = ax2 + bx + c. Suppose f(x) = x has no real roots. Show that the equation f f x x has no real solution .
Find all polynomial solutions of the functional equation f(x).f x 1 f x x 1 .
2
26.
27. Find all polynomials p(x) with property x p (x – 1) = (x – 26) p(x) satisfying for all x.
28. Does there exist a polynomial f(x), for which x f (x – 1) = (x + 1) f(x) ?
29. Find all polynomials F over C satisfying f(x)•f(x) = f(x2).
30. Find all pairs of polynomials P(x) and Q(x) such that for all x that are not roots of Q(x).
P(x) P x 1 1
.
Q(x) Q x 1 x x 2
ANSWER KEY
Do Yourself - 1
1. 6 5x 7 35x 6 18x 5 ( 15 3 7 24)x 4 (4 7 12)x 3 (3 3 2 7)x2 4 3x 2 3
2. (a) Sum = x7 x 5 9x 3 6x 2 7x 1
Product x12 6x 9 13x8 3x 6 55x5 36x 4 18x3 18x2 4x
(b) Sum 10x3 10x2 3x 4
Product = 10x 6 19x 5 31x 4 41x3 23x 2 6x 2
(c) Sum = 2 2x2
Product 3x 6 (2 2 3 )x 4 x 2
Do Yourself - 2
1. (a) q(x) x 5 x 1 ; r(x) x 3 x 2 x 2 (b) q(x) 4x 2 6x ; r(x) 11x 9
(c) q(x) 20x 2 7x 13 ; r(x) 6x 6
2. (a) q(x) 2x2 11x 15, r(x) 0 (b) q(x) x 4 2x2 3, r(x) 14
(c) q(x) 4x2 4x, r(x) 3x 2 4x 2
Do Yourself - 3
1 4 1 3 1 2 1 1 33
1. (a) q(x) x x x x ,r(x)
2 4 8 16 32 32
(b) q(x) 3x 2 x 3 ;r(x) 3x 7
3 2
1 1 2156
2. (a) (x 1)3 (x 1) 80 (b) x x
3 3 27
3.
Do Yourself - 4
1. (i) GCD = (x + 2)(x – 1)
2
LCM = (x2 + 2) (x + 9) (x5 – 1) (x4 + 2)
1
(ii) GCD = (x + 1) 4x
x
2 5 1 5 4
LCM = (x3 – 12x2 + 47x – 60) x x x2 x
12 6 9 9
(iii) GCD = x3 – x2 + x – 1; LCM = x4 – 1
2. (i) a(x) = (x + 1)(x + 3); b(x) = (x + 1)(x2 + 2)
(ii) a(x) = (x + 1)2(x 1); b(x) = (x + 1)2 (x + 2)
Do Yourself - 5
1. 43 2. x+3 3. m = 1, n = 2 4. x+3 5. (x – 2) or (x + 2)
Do Yourself - 6
1. P(x) = ax4 – 14ax2 + 9a, where a Q, a 0. 2. Roots are 2 3, 5,3 .
3. bx4 – cx3 – a2bx2 + a2cx = 0. 4. P(4) = 10.
EXERCISE - 1 EXERCISE - 2
1. 31 5. a = 23, b = 20
2. Remainder = x 7. a=2
11. 169/3
3. x3 – 1
1 i 3
4. p(x) = x2 + c 13. x
2
5. 24
1 ; odd n
6. x 1 is the integer root of multiplicity 2.
16. p n 1 n
9. –1 n 2 ; even n
A q 1 p 2 s 1 r 2
2 2
10.
x 1
2 m
26.
11. R x 223 1 x 2 223
27. p(x) ax x 1 ..... x 25
12. 4 28. f(x) = 0
13. 2
f x x 1 x x 2 x 1 ; p,q,r z
p q r
29.
14. 11
15. 7 30. Q x 2 x 1 x R x ,
16. 2009 5! 11 P x 2x 1 .2cx x 1 R x .
1
17.
999
21. 8
22. a
23. 78
24. 753
25. 33824
26. 11
27. (4)
29. 6
30. 1
THEORY OF EQUATIONS
Let us denote the equation by
xn + p1xn–1 + p2xn–2 + .... + pn–1 x + pn = 0,
and the roots by a, b, c, .....k; when we have identically
xn + p1xn–1 + p2xn–2 + ..... + pn–1 x + pn = (x – a) (x – b) (x – c) .... (x – k);
Hence, with the notation, we have
xn + p1xn–1 + p2xn–2 + .... + pn–1 x + pn = xn – S1xn–1 + S2xn–2 – ..... + (–1)n–1 Sn–1 x + (–1)n Sn.
Equating coefficients of like powers of x in this identity,
–p1 = S1 = sum of the roots,
p2 = S2 = sum of the products of the roots taken two at a time.
–p3 = S3 = sum of the products of the roots taken three at a time;
.......................................................................................................................
(–1)n pn = Sn = product of the roots.
If the coefficient of xn is p0, then on dividing each term by p0, the equation becomes
p1 n 1 p2 n 2 p p
xn x x .... n 1 x n 0,
p0 p0 p0 p0
and, with the notation, we have
p1 p p p
a , ab 2 , abc 3 ,.....,abc,....k ( 1) n n
p0 p0 p0 p0
• Every equation of the n th degree has n roots, and no more :
Denote the given equation by f(x) = 0, where
f(x) = p0xn + p1xn–1 + p2xn–2 + .... + pn.
The equation f(x) = 0 has a root, real or imaginary; let this be denoted by a1; then f(x) is divisible by x – a1 so that
f(x) = (x – a1) 1 (x)
where 1 (x) is a rational integral function of n – 1 dimensions. Again, the equation 1 (x) = 0 has a root, real or
imaginary; let this be denoted by a2; then 1 (x) is divisible by x – a2, so that
1 (x) = (x – a2) 2 (x),
where 2 (x) is a rational integral function of n – 2 dimensions.
Thus, f(x) = (x – a1) (x – a2) 2(x).
Proceeding in this way, we obtain,
f(x) = p0 (x – a1) (x – a2) ... (x – an)
Hence the equation f(x) = 0 has n roots, since f(x) vanishes when x has any of the values a1, a2, a3, ...., an.
Also the equation cannot have more than n roots; for if x has any value different from any of the quantities a1, a2, a3, ....,
an, all the factors on the right are different from zero, and therefore f(x) cannot vanish for that value of x.
Some of the quantities a1, a2, a3, ...., an may be equal; in this case, however, we shall suppose that the equation has still
n roots, although these are not all different.
• In an equation with real coefficients imaginary roots occur in pairs :
Suppose that f(x) = 0 is an equation with real coefficients, and suppose that it has an imaginary root a + ib; we shall shew
that a – ib is also a root.
The factor of f(x) corresponding to these two roots is
(x – a – ib) (x – a + ib), or (x – a)2 + b2.
Let f(x) be divided by (x – a)2 + b2; denote the quotient by Q, and the remainder, if any, by Rx + R’; then
f(x) = Q {(x – a)2 + b2} + Rx + R'.
In this identity put x = a + ib, then f(x) = 0 by hypothesis; also (x – a)2 + b2 = 0; hence R(a + ib) + R' = 0.
Equating to zero the real and imaginary parts,
Ra + R' = 0, Rb = 0;
and b by hypothesis is not zero,
R = 0 and R' = 0.
Hence f(x) is exactly divisible by (x – a)2 + b2, that is, by
(x – a – ib) (x – a + ib);
Hence x = a – ib is also a root.
• If the equation f(x) = 0 has a pair of imaginary roots a ± ib, then (x – a) 2 + b2 is a factor of
the expression f(x).
Suppose that a ± ib, c ± id, e ± ig, .... are the imaginary roots of the equation f(x) = 0, and that (x) is the product of the
quadratic factors corresponding to these imaginary roots; then
(x) = {(x – a)2 + b2} {(x – c)2 + d2} {(x – e)2 + g2}
Now each of these factors is positive for every real value of x; hence (x) is always positive for real values of x.
• In an equation with rational coefficients, surd roots enter in pairs; that is, if a b is a
root then a b is also a root.
Illustration-1 : Solve the equation 6x4 – 13x3 – 35x2 – x + 3 = 0, having given that one root is 2 3 .
Solution : Since 2 3 is a root, we now that 2 3 is also a root, and corresponding to this pair of rootss
we have the quadratic factor x2 – 4x + 1.
Also 6x4 – 13x3 – 35x2 – x + 3 = (x2 – 4x + 1) (6x2 + 11x + 3);
Hence the other roots are obtained from
6x2 + 11x + 3 = 0, or (3x + 1) (2x + 3) = 0;
1 3
Thus the roots are , , 2 3, 2 3 .
3 2
Illustration-2 : From the equation of the fourth degree with rational coefficients, one of whose roots is 2 3 .
Solution : Here we must have 2 3, 2 3 as one pair of roots, and 2 3, 2 3 as
another pair.
Corresponding to the first pair we have the quadratic factor x2 2 2x 5 and corresponding to thee
second pair we have the quadratic factor x2 2 2x 5 .
Thus the required equation is
(x 2 2 2x 5) (x2 2 2x 5) 0 ,
or (x2 + 5)2 – 8x2 = 0
or x4 + 2x2 + 25 = 0
Do Yourself - 1
1. 6x4 – 13x3 – 35x2 – x + 3 = 0, one root being 2 3 .
2. Form the equation whose roots are 4 3, 5 2 1 .
If a, b, c are the roots of the equation x3 – px2 + qx – r = 0, find the value of
3. a2b2
4. (b + c) (c + a) (a + b)
b c
5. c b
6. a2b
If a, b, c, d are the roots of x4 + px3 + qx2 + rx + s = 0, find the value of
7. a2bc
8. a4
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
A quadratic equation in the variable x is an equation of the form ax2 + bx +c = 0, where a, b, c are real numbers, a0.
e.g., 2x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, 4x – 3x2 = 0, 1 – x2 = 0 etc.
When we write the terms of a quadratic equation in descending order of their degrees, then we get the standard form of
the equation. i.e. ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are real numbers and a 0 is called the standard form of a quadratic
equation.
Types of Quadratic Equations :
A quadratic equation can be of the following types :
(i) b = 0, c0 i.e. of the type ax2 + c = 0 (Pure quadratic equation)
(ii) b0, c = 0 i.e. of the type ax + bx = 0
2
(iii) b = 0, c = 0 i.e. of the type ax2 = 0
(iv) b0, c 0 i.e. of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0 (Mixed or complete quadratic equation)
Root of Quadratic Equation :
x = is said to be root of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 0, if x = satisfies the quadratic equation, i.e. in
other words, the value of a2 + b + c is zero.
Sum & product of the roots
Let a and b be the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a0.
b b 2 4ac b b2 4ac
Then and
2a 2a
b coefficient of x
The sum of roots
a coefficient of x 2
c constant term
and product of roots
a coefficient of x 2
Formation of quadratic equation
Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 0.
Let and be the roots of the quadratic equation
b c
and
a a
Hence the quadratic equation whose roots are and is given by
x2 – ( + )x + = 0
i.e. x2 – (sum of the roots)x + product of the roots = 0
Illustration-3 : Form the quadratic equation whose roots are 2 5 and 2 5 .
Solution : Here roots are 2 5 and 2 5
Sum of roots 2 5 2 5
= 4
and product of the roots 2 5 2 5 4 5 1
= –1
Required equation is
x2 – (sum of the roots)x + product of the roots = 0
or x2 – ()x + = 0
or x2 – (4)x + (–1) = 0
x2 – 4x – 1 = 0
Illustration-4 : If the sum of the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is equal to sum of the square of their reciprocals,
then show that 2ca2 = ab2 + bc|2.
Solution : If and are the roots of given equation then
1 1 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
22
b2 2c
b a 2 a
or a c2
a2
b c b 2 2ca
2
or 2
a a a2
or –bc2 = ab2 – 2ca2
or 2ca2 = ab2 + bc2.
1
Illustration-5 : Solve x ,x 2
1
2
1
2
2x
Solution : We have,
1
x ,x 2
1
2
1
2
2x
1
x
1
2
2 2 x 1
2
2x
1
x
2x
2
4 2x x
1
x
2x
2
3 2x
3 2x
x
2(3 2x) (2 x)
3 2x
x
4 3x
x(4 – 3x) = (3 – 2x)
4x – 3x2 = 3 – 2x
3x2 – 6x + 3 = 0 x2 – 2x +1 = 0 (x – 1)2 = 0 x = 1, 1
Illustration-6 : Solve the following quadratic equation by factorization method 9x2 – 9(a + b)x + (2a2 + 5ab + 2b2) = 0
Solution : We have,
9x2 – 9(a + b)x + (2a2 + 5ab + 2b2) = 0
Here Constant term = 2a2 + 5ab + 2b2
= 2a2 + 4ab + ab + 2b2
= 2a(a + 2b) + b(a + 2b) = (2a + b)(a + 2b)
and, Coefficient middle term = –9(a + b) = –3{(2a + b) + (a + 2b)}
9x2 – 9(a + b)x + (2a2 + 5ab + 2b2) = 0
9x2 – 3{(2a + b) + (a + 2b)}x + (2a + b)(a + 2b) = 0
9x2 – 3(2a + b)x – 3(a + 2b)x + (2a + b)(a + 2b) = 0
3x{3x – (2a + b)} – (a + 2b){3x – (2a + b)} = 0
{3x – (2a + b)} {3x – (a + 2b)}= 0
2a b a 2b
{3x – (2a + b)} = 0 or, {3x – (a + 2b)}= 0 x or, x
3 3
x 2 bx k 1
Illustration-7 : If the sum of the roots of equation is zero then find the value of k.
ax c k 1
x 2 bx k 1
Solution :
ax c k 1
(x2 – bx)(k + 1) = (k – 1)(ax + c)
kx2 + x2 – bkx – bx = akx – ck – ax + c
kx + x2 – bkx – bx – akx + ax + ck - c = 0
x2 (k + 1) – x(bk + b + ak – a) + cK – c = 0
sum of roots is zero
b=0
bk + b ak -a = 0
k(a + k) = a – b
ab
k
ab
Do Yourself - 2
1. Find the roots of following equations :
(a) x2 + 3x + 2 = 0 (b) x2 – 8x + 16 = 0 (c) x2 – 2x – 1 = 0
2. Find the roots of the equation a(x2 + 1) – (a2 + 1)x = 0, where a 0.
6x x
3. Solve : 2
2
x 4 x2
4. If the roots of 4x2 + 5k = (5k + 1)x differ by unity, then find the values of k.
2 2
5. If and are roots of the equation x2 + bx + c = 0, prove that a b b 0 .
r 1
2
b2
6. If the ratio of the roots of equation x2 + bx + c = 0 is r, show that .
r ac
7. If the sum of the roots is 2 and sum of the cube of the roots is 98. Find the equations.
1
If and are the roots of x 1 n x 1 n2 n 4 0 , prove that 2 + 2 = n2.
2 2
8.
2
9. If and are roots of the equation x2 + bx + c, then find the values of
2 1/ 3 1/3
1 1 2 2 3 3
(a) (b) a b – a b
7 7 7 4
(c) (d) (e)
2 2
NATURE OF THE ROOTS
For a quadratic equation ax + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c R and a0 and D = b2 – 4ac
2
D = b2 - 4ac
D<0 D0
roots are imaginary Roots are real
or complex with
non-zero imaginary part
D=0 D>0
roots are roots are
equal and rational unequal
D is a perfect D is not a
square perfect square
Roots are Roots are
rational if a, b, c irrational and
are rational conjugate pair
if a, b, c are rational
If a, b, c R and p + iq is one root of quadratic equation (where q0) then the other root must be conjugate p
– iq and vice versa. (p, q R and i 1 )
If a, b, c Q and p q is one root of quadratic equation, then the other root must be the conjugate p q
and vice-versa (where p is a rational and q is a surd).
If a = 1 and b, c 1 and the roots of quadratic equation are rational numbers, then these roots must be integers.
Illustration-8 : Find the values of k for which the equation 5x2 – kx + 4 = 0 has real roots.
Solution : The given equation is 5x2 – kx + 4 = 0
D = k2 – 4 5 4 = k2 – 80
For real roots, we must have, D 0
Now, D 0
k 2 80 0 k 2 80
k 80 or k 80
k 4 5 or k 4 5
Illustration-9 : If 2 3 is a root of the equation x2 + px + q = 0, then write the values of p and q.
Solution : Since, a root of the equation x2 + px + q = 0 ......(i) If 2 3 in one of the solution (root) of (i) in 2 3
will be other roots
b
Now, sum of roots =
a
2 3 2 3 p
4 = –p
c
and product of root
a
2 3 2 3 2
4–3=q
q=1
Thus, = –4, q = 1
Illustration-10 : If the roots of equation (1 + n)x2 – 2(1 + 3x)x + (1 + 8n)m = 0 are equal, then find the value of n.
Solution : Here a = 1 + n, b = –2(1 + 3n), c = 1 + 8n
If roots are equal then
Discriminant = 0 b2 – 4ac = 0
2(1 3n) 2 4(1 n)(1 8n) 0
4(1 + 3n)2 – 4(1 + n)(1 + 8n) = 0
(1 + 3n)2 – (1 + n) (1 + 8n) = 0
1 + 9n2 + 6n – 1 – 8n – n – 8n2 = 0
n2 – 3n = 0
n(n – 3) = 0
n = 0, n = 3
Illustration-11 : If the roots of the equation x2 + 2cx + ab = 0 are real unequal, prove that the equation
x2 –2(a + b)x + a2 + b2 + 2c2 =0 has no real roots.
Solution : The two equations are
x2 + 2cx + ab = 0
and x2 – 2(a + b)x + a2 + b2 + 2c2 = 0
Let D1 and D2 be the discriminants of equations (i) and (ii) respectively. Then,
D1 = (2c)2 – 4 1 ab = 4c2 – 4ab = 4(c2 – ab)
and D2 = {–2(a + b)}2 – 4 1 (a2 + b2 + 2c2)
D2 = 4(a + b)2 – 4(a2 + b2 + 2c2)
D2 = 4{a2 + b2 + 2ab – a2 – b2 – 2c2}
D2 = 4(2ab – 2c2) = –8(c2 – ab)
Since the roots of equation (i) are real unequal. Therefore,
D1 > 0
4(c2 – ab) > 0
c2 – ab > 0
–8 (c2 – ab) < 0
D2 < 0
Roots of equations (ii) are not real.
Illustration-12 : Prove that the equation x2(a2 + b2) + 2x(ac + bd) + (c2 + d2) = 0 has no real roots, if ad bc.
Solution : The discriminant of the given equation is given by
D = 4(ac + bd)2 – 4(a2 + b2)(c2 + d2)
D = 4[(ac + bd)2 – (a2 + b2)(c2 + d2)
D = 4[a2c2 + b2d2 + 2ac. bd – a2c2 – a2d2 – b2c2 + b2d2]
D = 4[2ac bd – a2d2 – b2c2]
D = –4[a2d2 + b2c2 – 2ad bc] = – 4(ad + bc)2
We have, adbc
ad – bc0 (ad – bc)2 > 0 –4(ad – bc)2 < 0 D < 0
Hence, the given equation has no real roots.
Do Yourself - 3
If the roots of the equation (1 + m2)x2 + 2cmx + c2 – a2 = 0 be same then prove that c a 1 m .
2
1.
2. If the roots of the equation ax2 + 2bx + c = 0 be real and distinct then prove that the roots of the equation
x2 + 2(a + c)x + a2 + 2b2 + c2 = 0 will be imaginary.
3. If a, b, c are rational numbers such that a + b + c = 0, show that the roots of (b + c – a)x2 + (c + a – b)x + (a + b – c)=0
will be rational.
1 1 2
4. If the roots of equation p(q – r)x2 + q(r – p)x + r(p – q) = 0 are equal, prove that .
p r q
5. Show that the roots of equation 2(a2 + b2)x2 + 2(a + b)x + 1 = 0 are imaginary if ab.
CONDITION FOR COMMON ROOT
• To find the condition that the equations ax 2 + bx + c = 0 and a’x 2b’x + c’ = 0 may have a
common root.
Let the common root be
then a2 + b + c = 0 .....(i)
and a’ + b’ + c’ = 0
2
.....(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) we have
2 1
.....(iii)
bc ' b' c ca ' a ' c ab' a ' b
from relation (i) and (iii)
bc ' b' c
2
ab ' c ' b
from relation (ii) and (iii)
ac ' a ' c
a ' b ab '
by eliminating , from (iv) and (v)
2
ac ' a ' c bc ' b ' c
a ' b ab ' ab ' a ' b
ac ' a ' c bc ' b 'c a ' b ab '
2
This is the required condition for the equations ax2 + bx + c = 0 an a’x2 + b’x + c’ = 0 having one root common.
Find the condtion when both the roots are common in two quadratic equation :
Let two quadratic equations
a1x2 + b1x + c1 = 0 … (1)
and a2x + b2x + c2 = 0
2
… (2)
have common roots &
b1 b2
Then a a … (3)
1 2
c1 c 2
and . … (4)
a1 a 2
b1 b2
from eqn. (iii), a a
1 2
b1 b2
a1 a 2
a1 b1
… (5)
a2 b2
c1 c 2
and from eqn. (iv), a a
1 2
a1 c1
… (6)
a2 c 2
a 1 b1 c 1
from eqn. (5) & (6). a b c
2 2 2
This is the required condition
Illustration-13 : If equations ax2 + bx + c = 0 and cx2 + bx + a = 0 have one root common, show that either
a + b + c = = 0 or a – b + c = 0.
Solution : Let the common root be , then a2 + b + c = 0 c + b+ a = 0 solving by cross multiplication
2 1
2
ab bc c a 2
ab bc
c2 a2
= 1 and
b(a c)
c2 a2
Hence 1
b(a c)
or (c + a)2 = b2
or (c + a)2 – b2 = 0
or (c + a + b) (c + a – b) = 0
c + a + b = 0 or c + a – b = 0.
Illustration-14 : If both the roots are common in the equation 3x2 + ax – 4 = 0 and bx2 – 2x – 8 = 0 then find the value of
a and b.
Solution : 3x2 + ax – 4 = 0 … (i)
bx – 2x – 8 = 0
2
… (ii)
For both roots common,
a1 b1 c1
a 2 b2 c 2
3 a 4
b 2 8
3 4
b 6 Ans
b 8
a 4
also, a 1 Ans.
2 8
Illustration-15 : If x2 + ax + bc = 0 and x2 + bx + ca = 0 have a common root, prove that their other roots satisfy the
equation x2 + cx + ab = 0.
Solution : Let be the common root. Then
2 + a + bc = 0 …(i)
and + b + ca = 0
2
…(ii)
Subtracting (ii) from (i)
(a – b)c + (b – a)c = 0
or (a – b) ( – c) = 0
Since a – b 0, a – c = 0
or =c
For the first equation, product of roots = bc
The other root is b.
For the second equation, product of roots = ca
The other root is a
The equation having roots a and b is
x2 – (a + b)x + ab = 0
Now one root of x2 + ax + bc = 0 is b,
b2 + ab + bc = 0
or b(b + a + c) = 0
b+a+c=0
a + b = –c
From equation (iii) and (iv), we have
x2 + cx + ab = 0
Illustration-16 : Find the possible value(s) of a for which the equations x2 + ax + 1 = 0 and x2 + x + a = 0 have atleast
one common root.
Solution : Let is a common root
then 2 a 1 0
& 2 a 0
By Cramer's rule
2 1
a 1 1 a 1 a
2
(1 – a)2 = (a2 – 1)(1 – a)
a = 1, –2
Illustration-17 : Find the conditions on a, b, c and d such that equations
2ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 and 2ax2 + 3bx + 4c = 0 have a common root.
Solution : Let ‘’ be a common root of the gien equations,
then 2a3 b 2 c d 0 …(1)
and 2a2 3b 4c 0 …(2)
Multiply (2) by and then subrtract (1) from It, to get
2b2 3c d 0
Now (2) and (3) are quadratic having a common root , so
2 1 bd 4c 2 4bc ad
, 2 ,
3bd 12c 2
8bc 2ad 6ac 6b 2 2b2 2ac 3ac 3b2
Eliminating from these two equations, we get
9
(4bc + ad)2 = (bd + 4c2)(b2 – ac), which is the required condition.
2
Illustration-18 : The values of ‘a’ for which the equations x3 – 6x2 + (6 + a)x – 6 = 0 and x2 – ax + 4 = 0 have a
common root.
Solution : Let ‘’ is the common root.
3 6 2 (6 a) 6 0
2 a 4 0
Adding
3 5 2 6 2 0
= 1 is one solution of above equation.
2 4 2
1 3 5 2 6 2
3 2
4 2 6 2
4 2 6
2 2
2 2
0
( 1)( 2 4 2) 0
( 1) 2 2 2 2 0
1, 2 2 or 2 2
This common root can be 1, 2 2, 2 2
We can obtain values of ‘a’.
For =1, 1 – a + 4 = 0 a = 5
For 2 2, 6 4 2 a 2 2 4 0
a 2 2 10 4 2
10 4 2 10 4 2 2 2
a
2 2 (4 2)
a 5 2 2 2 2
a 10 5 2 4 2 4
a 6 2
For 2 2 6 4 2 a 2 2 4 0
10 4 2 10 4 2 2 2
a
2 2 2
a 5 2 2 2 2
a 10 5 2 4 2 4
a 6 2
Thus possible values of ‘a’ are 5, 6 + 2.
Do Yourself - 4
1. If both roots of the equations k(6x + 3) + rx + 2x2 – 1 = 0 and 6k(2x2 + 1) + px + 4x2 – 2 = 0 are common,
2
then 2r – p is equal to
(1) 1 (2) –1 (3) 2 (4) 0
2. If x2 – ax – 21 = 0 and x2 – 3ax + 35 = 0, a > 0 have a common root, then a is equal to
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 4 (4) 5
3. If the quadratic equation 2x2 + ax + b = 0 and 2x2 + bx + a = 0 (a b) have a common root, then the value of a + b is
(1) –3 (2) –2 (3) –1 (4) 0
4. If the equation x + bx + ca = 0 and x + cx + ab = 0 have a common root and b c, then their other roots will satisfy
2 2
the equation
(1) x2 – (b + c)x + bc = 0 (2) x2 – ax + bc = 0
(3) x2 + ax + bc = 0 (4) None of these
5. If both the roots of the equations x2 + mx + 1 = 0 and (b – c)x2 + (c – a)x + (a – b) = 0 are common, then
(1) m = –2 (2) m = –1 (3) m = 0 (4) m = 1
SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS
The algebraic expressions in and which remain unchaged when and are are interchanged are known as symmetric
functions in and .
1 1
For example : (2 + 2), (3 + 3), (2 + + 2), , (2 + 2) etc.
An important property of such functions is that they can always be expressed in terms of ( + ) and . So, they can
be evaluated for a given quadratic equation.
The following relations serve the purpose of useful tools for the same :
(i) () = [()2 – 2]
(ii) (–)2 = [()2 – 4]
() = () (–) ( ) 4
2
(iii)
(iv) () = ()3 – 3( + )
(v) (–) = (–)3 – 3( – )
(vi) () = ()2 – 3 = [()2 – 2]2 – 2()2
(– ) = (–)(+) (2 + 2) 2 4
2 2
(vii)
Illustration-19 : If and are the roots of 2x2 – 5x + 7 = 0, find out the equation whose roots are 2 + 3 and 3 + 2.
5 7
Solution : Here and
2 2
Sum of the roots = (2 + 3) + (3 + 2)
5 25
5 5
2 2
Products of roots = (2 + 3) + (3 + 2)
= 6( + ) + 13
= 6[( + )2 – 2] + 13
25 7
6 7 13
4 2
= 41
The required equation is
x2 – (sum of the roots)x + product of roots = 0
25
x2 x 41 0
2
2x2 – 25x + 82 = 0
1
Illustration-20 : If and be roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 then, form the equation whose roots are and
1
.
b c
Solution : Here and
a a
Sum of the roots of the required equation
1 1
b b a b b
.
a a c a c
b(a c)
ac
Product of the roots of the required equation
1 1
1
2
c a (c a)2
2
a c ac
Required equation is x2 – (sum of the roots)x + product of roots = 0.
b(c a) (c a)2
x2 x 0
ac ac
acx + b(c + a)x + (c + a) = 0
2 2
1 1
Illustration-21 : If and are the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, find the equation whose roots are , .
a b a b
Solution : Since and are roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0
a2 + b + c = 0
or a2 + b = –c
c
or a b
and 2 b c 0
c
or b
b c
Also ,
a a
1 1
Sum of roots
a b a b
1
( )
c c c
1 b b
c a ac
1 1
Product of roots
a b a b
1
2
c c c ac
Required equation is x2 – (sum of the roots)x + product of roots = 0.
b 1
or x2 x 0
ac ac
or acx – bx + 1 = 0.
2
Illustration-22 : Calculate the values of the following symmetric functions for the cubic x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0, whose roots
are .
(i) 2 (ii) 2 (iii) 3 (iv) 2
(v) 2 2 (vi) 2 (vii) 4 (viii) 3 2
Solution : (i) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 [Number of terms 6]
Now ( ) [Number of terms 9]
2 3
2 3 ( p)(q) 3( r) 3r pq
(ii) 2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
Now, [Number of terms 9]
2 2 p2 2q
2
Note : Above relations is true for eqations of all degrees and will be used frequently.
(iii) 3 3 3 3
Now 2 2 2 2
3 2
3 2 2
The values of 2 and 2 have already been calculated in relations (i) and (ii)
3 ( p)(p2 2q) (3r pq) 3pq p2 3r
(iv) 2 2 2 2 .
Hence, 2 pr
(v) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
22 2 2
2 2
Now,
22 2 2 q 2 2pr
2
(vi) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Now,
2 2 2 2
3 2
3 2 .
= q(p2 – 2q) – pr
= p2q – 2q2 – pr
4 2 2 2 2
2
(vii)
= (p2 – 2q)2 – 2(q2 – 2pr)
= p4 – 4p2q + 2q2 + 4pr
(viii) 3 2
Now, 22 32 2 2
3 2 2 2
= –p [q2 – 2pr] – (–r)q
= –pq2 + 2p2r + qr
Illustration-23 : Find the equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0
and if and are the roots, find the value of
(i) 2 (ii) 2 2 (iii) 2 2 2
Solution : (a) x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 …(i)
If y be a root of the transformed equation, then
y = x2 …(ii)
We have to now eliminate x between Eqs. (i) and (ii).
From Eq. (i) x4 + bx2 + d = –(ax3 + cx)
On squaring both sides, we get
x8 + b2x4 + d2 + 2bx6 + 2bdx2 + 2dx4 = a2x6 + c2x2 + 2acx4
On putting x2 = y, we get
y4 + b2y2 + d2 + 2by3 + 2bdy + 2dy2 = a2y3 + c2y + 2acy2
y4 + (2b – a2)y3 + (b2 + 2d – 2ac)y2 + (2bd – c2)y – d2 = 0 …(iii)
which is required equation.
(b) If and are the roots of Eq. (i), then the roots of Eq. (iii) are
(i) 2 (2b a 2 ) a 2 2b
(ii) 2 2 b 2 2d 2ac
(iii) 2 2 2 2bd c 2 c 2 2bd
Do Yourself - 5
1 1 1
1. If are the roots of z3 + 3Hz + G = 0, find the equation whose roots are , , .
2. If are the roots of the equation x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0 for the equation whose roots are
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) , , (b) (c) , ,
3. If are the roots of the equation x3 + x2 + 2x + 3 = 0, form the equation whose roots are
––.
4. If are the roots of the equation x3 – ax2 + bx – c = 0, find an equation whose roots are
2––, 2 – – , 2 – – . Hence, evaluate (2 – – )(2 – – )(2 – – ).
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS
Let ax + bx + c = 0 be a quadratic equation with two roots a and b. If we have to find an equation whose roots are f()
2
and f(), i.e. some expression in & , then this equation can be found by finding in terms of y. Now as satisfies given
equation, put this in terms of y directly in the equation.
y = f()
By transformation , = g(y)
a(g(y))2 + b(g(y)) + c = 0
This is the required equation in y.
Illustration-24 : If the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are and , then find the equation whose roots are:
2 2
(a) , (b) , (c) 2, 2
1 1
2 2
Solution : (a) ,
2 2
Put, y
y
2
y y
a b c 0 cy2 – 2by + 4a = 0
1 y 1 y
Required equation is cx2 – 2bx + 4a = 0
(b) ,
1 1
y
Put, y
1 1 y
2
y y
y a b c 0
1 y 1 y
(a + c – b)y2 + (–2c + b)y + c = 0
Required equation is (a + c – b)x2 + (b – 2c)x + c = 0
(c) 2, 2
Put y = 2 y
ay b y c 0
b2y = a2y2 + c2 + 2acy
a2y2 + (2ac – b2)y + c2 = 0
Required equation is a2x2 + (2ac – b2)x + c = 0
1 1 1
Illustration-25 : If the roots of ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are then find equation whose roots are , , .
1 a d
Solution : Put y
d a
dy
Put x
a
3 2
dy dy dy
a b ca d 0
a a a
Required equation is d2x3 – bdx2 + acx – a2 = 0
Illustration-26 : Form an equation whose roots are square of the roots of the equation : x3 – 2x2 + 3x + 1 = 0
Solution : Replace x by x in the gien equation, we get
(x)3 – 2x + 3x + 1 = 0
or, xx – 2x + 3x + 1 = 0
or, x(x + 3)2 = (2x – 1)2
or, x(x + 3)2 = (2x – 1)2
or, x(x2 + 6x + 9) = (4x2 + 1 – 4x)
or, x3 + 6x2 + 9x = 4x2 + 1 – 4x
or, x3 + 6x2 + 9x – 4x2 – 1 + 4x = 0
or, x3 + 2x2 + 13x – 1 = 0
Illustration-27 : Form an equation whose roots are cubes of the roots of equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0
Solution : Replacing x by x1/3 in the given equation, we get
a(x1/3)3 + b(x1/3)2 + c(x1/3) + d = 0
or, ax + d = –(bx2/3 + cx1/3)
or, (ax + d)3 = –(bx2/3 + cx1/3)3
or, a3x3 + 3a2dx2 + 3ad2x + d3 = –(b3x2 + c3x – 3bcx(ax + d))
or, a3x3 + x2(3a2d – 3abc + b3) + x(3ad2 – 3bcd + c3) + d3 = 0
This is the required equation.
Illustration-28 : x3 – 3x2 – 8x + 11 = 0. The roots of the above cubic equation are and . Find a cubic equation with
integer coefficients, whose roots are + 1, + 1, + 1.
Solution : Let y = x + 1 x = y – 1
Substitute into the cubic
x3 – 2x2 – 8x + 11 = 0
(y – 1)3 – 2(y – 1)2 – 8(y – 1) + 11 = 0
y3 – 3y2 + 3y – 1 – 2(y2 – 2y + 1) – 8y + 8 + 11 = 0
y3 – 3y2 + 3y – 1 – 2y2 + 4y – 2 – 8y + 19 = 0
y2 – 5y – y + 16 = 0
Do Yourself - 6
1 1
1. Let are the roots of the equation x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, then the equation with roots , will be
2 2
(a) x2 – x – 1= 0 (b) x2 + x – 1 = 0 (c) x2 + x + 2 = 0 (d) none of these
2 2
2. A quadratic equation whose roots are and , where are the roots of x3 + 27 = 0, is :-
(a) x2 – x + 1 = 0 (b) x2 + 3x + 9 = 0 (c) x2 + x + 1 = 0 (d) x2 – 3x + 9 = 0
3. The roots of the equation x3 – 2x2 + 3x – 4 = 0, are denoted in the usual notation by and . Find a cubic equation
with integers coefficients whose roots are 2, 2 and 2.
4. 2x3 – 4x + 1 = 0. The cubic equation shown above has three roots, denoted by and . Determine, as an exact
1 1 1
simplified fraction the value of .
2 2 2
5. Find the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of x4 – 3x3 + 7x2 + 5x – 2 = 0.
6. Find the equation whose roots are the roots of 4x5 – 2x3 + 7x – 3 = 0, each increased by 2. The multiplier in this
operation is, of course, –2.
7. Increase by 7 the roots of the equation 3x4 + 7x3 – 15x2 + x – 2 = 0.
MA XIMUM & MINIMUM VALUES OF R ATIONAL ALGEBR AIC EXPRESSIONS :
a 1 x 2 + b1 x + c 1 1 a 1 x + b1 a 1 x 2 + b1 x + c 1
y = , , , :
a 2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 ax 2 + bx + c a 2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 a2x + b2
a1 x 2 b1 x c 1
Sometime we have to find range of expression of form .
a 2 x 2 b2 x c2
The following procedure is used :
a1 x 2 b1 x c 1
Step 1 : Equate the given expression to y i.e. y
a 2 x2 b2 x c 2
Step 2 : By cross multiplying and simplifying, obtain a quadratic equation in x.
(a1 – a2y)x2 + (b1 – b2y)x + (c1 – c2y) = 0
Step 3 : Put Discriminant 0 and solve the inequality for possible set of values of y.
Illustration-29 : If x [–2, 3], find all possible values (Range) of
1 x2 2x
(i) (ii) (iii)
x 1 x4 x 1
Solution : Let (i) 2 x 3 1 x 1 4
1
(For x + 1 = 0, is undefined)
x 1
so, 1 x 1 0 or 0 x 1 4
1 1
1 or x 1
x 1 4
1 1
So range of is , 1 ,
x 1 4
x2 2
(ii) 1
x4 x4
Given 2 x 3
1 1 1
2 x4 7
2 x4 7
2 2 2 2 2
1
2 x4 7 x4 7
2 5 5
0 1 Range 0,
x4 7 7
2x 2
(iii) 2
x 1 x 1
for 2 x 3 3 x 1 2
3 x 1 0 or 0 x 1 2
2 2 2 2
or
3 x 1 x 1 2
4 2 2
2 or 2 3
3 x 1 x 1
so range , 3,
4
3
x 2 3x 4
Illustration-30 : For x R, find the set of values attainable by .
x 2 3x 4
x 2 3x 4
Solution : Let y
x 2 3x 4
x (y – 1) + 3x(y + 1) + 4(y – 1) = 0
2
Case- I : y 1
For y 1 above equation is a quadratic equation.
So for x R, D 0
9(y + 1)2 – 16(y – 1)2 0 7y2 – 50y + 7 0
1
(7y – 1)(y – 7) 0 y ,7 {1}
7
Case II : When y = 1
x2 3x 4
1
x 2 3x 4
x2 + 3x + 4 = x2 – 3x+ 4
x=0
Hence y = 1 for real value of x.
1
so range of y is ,7
7
ax 2 3x 4
Illustration-31 : Find the values of a for which the expression assumes all real values for real values of x.
3x 4x 2 a
ax 2 3x 4
Solution : Let y =
3x 4x 2 a
x2(a + 4y) + 3(1 – y)x – (4 + ay) = 0
If x R, D > 0
9(1 – y)2 + 4(a + 4y)(4 + ay) 0
(9 + 16a)y2 + (4a2 + 46)y + (9 + 16a) 0
for all y R, (9 + 16a) > 0 & D 0
(4a2 + 46)2 – 4(9 + 16a)(9 + 16a) 0
4(a2 – 8a + 7)(a2 + 8a + 16) 0
a2 – 8a + 7 0
1 a 7
9 + 16a > 0 & 1 a7
Taking intersection, a [1, 7]
Now, checking the boundary values of a
For a=1
x 2 3x 4 (x 1)(x 4)
y
3x 4x 1
2
(x 1)(4x 1)
x 1 y –1
a = 1 is not possible.
if a=7
7x 2 3x 4 (7x 4)(x 1)
y
3x 4x 2 7 (7 4x)(x 1)
x –1 y –1
So y will assume all real values for some real values of x.
So a (1,7)
x 2 mx 1
Illustration-32 : Find the values of m so that the inequality : 3 holds for all x R.
x2 x 1
Solution : We know that
}a}< b –b < a < b (for b > 0)
x 2 mx 1 x 2 mx 1
Hence 3. 3 3
x2 x 1 x2 x 1
x 2 mx 1
Case I : 3
x2 x 1
x 2
mx 1 3 x 2 x 1
0
2x 2 m 3 x 2
x2 x 1 1 3
2
x
2 4
Multiplying both sides by denominator, we get:
–2x2 + (m – 3)x – 2 < 0 (because denominator is always positive)
2x2 – (m – 3)x + 2 > 0
A quadratic expression in x is always positive if coefficient of x2 > 0 and D < 0.
(m – 3)2 – 4(2)(2) < 0 (m – 3)2 – 42 < 0 (m – 7)(m + 1) < 0 m (–1, 7) …(i)
x 2 mx 1
Case II : 3
x2 x 1
x 2
mx 1 3 x 2 x 1
0
x2 x 1
4x2 + (m + 3)x + 4 > 0
For this to be true for all x , coefficient of x2 > 0 and D < 0
(m + 3)2 – 4(4)(4) < 0
(m + 3 – 8)(m + 3 + 8) < 0
(m – 5) (m + 11) < 0
m (–11, 5) …(ii)
We will combine (i) and (ii) because both must be satisfied.
The common solution is m (–1, 5).
2x 2 5x 3 m
Illustration-33 : Find the value of m for which the expression : can take all real values for x R .
4x m 4
2x 2 5x 3
Solution : Let y 2x 2 (4y 5)x 3 my 0
4x m
As x R, discriminant 0
(4y + 5)2 – 8(3 + my) 0
16y2 + (40 – 8m)y + 1 0
A quadratic in y is non–negative for all values of y if coefficient of y2 is positive and discriminant 0.
(40 – 8m)2 – 4(16)(1) 0 (5 – m)2 – 1 0
(m – 5 – 1)(m – 5 + 1) 0 (m – 6)(m – 4) 0
m [4, 6] but m = 4, 6 will be rejected as shown in Illustration 28.
So for the given expression to take all real values, m should take values : m (4, 6).
Do Yourself - 7
8x 4
1. Prove that the expression cannot have values between 2 and 4, in its domain.
x 2x 1
2
x 2 2x 1
2. Find the range of , where x is real
x 2 2x 7
x2 x 1 1
3. If x is real, then prove that lies from to 3.
x x 1
2
3
x 1
4. If x be real, prove that 2 must lie between 1 and (both inclusive).
x 5x 9 11
x 2 34x 71
5. If x be real, prove that can have no value between 5 and 9.
x 2 2x 7
x2
6. Find the greatest value of for real values of x.
2x 3x 6
2
DESCARTE'S RULE OF SIGN
By Descartes’ rule of signs, if a polynomial in one variable, f(x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + an–2xn–2 + .... + a1x + a0 is arranged in
the descending order of the exponents of the variable, then :
• The number of positive real zeroes of f(x) is either equal to the number of sign changes in f(x) or less than the number of
sign changes by an even number.
• The same rule applies to find the number of negative real zeroes as well, but then we count the sign changes of f(–
x).
Note that while counting the sign changes, we have to avoid the terms with coefficients to be O.
Descartes’ Rule of Signs do not determine actual number of real positive or real negative roots of an algebraic equation,
but it indicates only the maximum limit of the number of real positive or negative roots of an equation. This rule can also
indicate the existence and minimum number of imaginary roots for equations with real coefficients. If the degree of an
equation f(x) = 0 be n and f(x) has p changes of sigh while f(–x) has q changes of sign, the number of positive real roots
of f(x) = 0 is either equal to p or less than p by an even number. The number of negative real roots of f(x) = 0 is either equal
to q or less than q by an even number.
And the number of imaginary roots of the equation f(x) = 0 is either equal to (n – p – q) or greater than (n – p – q) by an
even number.
For Example :
Let the given equation be
f(x) = x4 + x2 + x – 1 = 0
i.e. f(x) = x4 + x2 + x – 1
And f(–x) = x4 + x2 – x – 1
The pattern in sign of the coefficients of f(x) and f(–x) are respectively.
+ + + –
and + + – –
Since the number of changes of sign of f(x) is only one, the number of real positive root is 1.
Again, since f(0) = –1 and f( ) , there must be at least one real positive root of the equation. So the number of real
positive root is 1.
Combining these two, we find that the number of positive real root is exactly 1.
Also, there is only one change of sign in f(–x). By similar arguments as above, number of negative real root is exactly 1.
Now, the degree of the equation is 4: so it has four roots of which one is positive real, one is negative real and the
remaining two are imaginary.
Illustration-34 : Using Descartes’ Rule of Signs, determine the number of real solutions to :
4x7 + 3x6 + x5 + 2x4 – x3 + 9x2 + x + 1 = 0.
Solution : I look first at the associated polynomial f(x); using “+x”, this is the positive-root case :
f(x) = +4x7 + 3x6 + x5 + 2x4 – x3 + 9x2 + x + 1
There are two sign changes, so there are two or, counting down in pairs, zero positive solutions.
Now I look at the polynomial f(–x); using “–x”, this is the negative-root case :
f(–x) = 4(–x)7 + 3(–x)6 + (–x)5 + 2(–x)4 – (–x)3 + 9(–x)2 + (–x) + 1
= –4x7 + 3x6 – x5 + 2x4 + x3 + 9x2 – x + 1
There are five sign changes, so there are five or, counting down in pairs, three or one negative solutions.
Then my answer is :
There are two or zero positive solutions, and five, three, or one negative solutions.
Illustration-35 : Use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to find the number of real roots of :
f(x) = x5 + x4 + 4x3 + 3x2 + x + 1
Solution : I look first at f(x) :
f(x) = +x5 + x4 + 4x3 + 3x2 + x + 1
There are no sign changes, so there are zero positive roots. Now I look at f(–x) :
f(–x) = (–x)5 + (–x)4 + 4(–x)3 + 3(–x)2 + (–x) + 1
= –x5 + x4 – 4x3 + 3x2 – x + 1
There are five sign changes, so there are as many as five negative roots. Then my answer is :
There are no positive roots, and there are five, three or one negative roots.
Illustration-36 : Use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to determine the possible number of solutions to the equation :
x3 + x 2 – x – 1 = 0
Solution : I’ll start with the positive-root case, evaluating the associated functional statement:
f(x) = +x3 + x2 – x – 1
The signs change once, so this has exactly one positive root. Now I’ll check the negative-root case:
f(–x) = (–x)3 + (–x)2 – (–x) – 1
= –x3 + x2 + x – 1
The signs switch twice, so there are two negative roots, or else none at all. Then my answer is :
There is exactly one positive root; there are two negative roots, or else there are none.
Illustration-37 : Use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to determine the possible number of solutions to the equation :
2x4 – x3 + 4x2 – 5x + 3 = 0
Solution : I look first a f(x) :
f(x) = +2x4 – x3 + 4x2 – 5x + 3
There are four sign changes, so there are 4, 2 or 0 positive roots. Now I look at f(–x) :
f(–x) = 2(–x)4 – (–x)3 + 4(–x)2 – 5(–x) + 3
= +2x4 + x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 3
There are no sign changes, so there are no negative roots. Then my answer is :
There are four, two or zero positive roots, and zero negative roots.
Illustration-38 : Use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to find the number of real roots of :
f(x) = x 5 + 4x 4 – 3x 2 + x – 6
Solution : First, I look at the positive-root case, which is looking at f(x) :
f(x) = +x5 + 4x4 – 3x2 + x – 6
The signs flip three times, so there are three positive roots, or one positive root. Either way, I definitely
have at least one positive real root.
Now I look at the negative-root case, which is looking at f(–x).
f(–x) = (–x)5 + 4(–x)4 – 3(–x)2 + (–x) – 6
= –x5 + 4x4 – 3x2 – x – 6
The signs flip twice, so I have two negative roots, or none at all. Then my answer is :
There are three positive roots, or one; there are t wo negative roots, or none.
Do Yourself - 8
Use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to find the number of real roots of :
1. f(x) = 4x3 – 12x2 – 5x + 1
2. f(x) = 2x4 + 3x2 – 5x
3. f(x) = 9x6 – 3x5 + 33x4 – 11x3 + 18x2 – 6x
4. f(x) = 2x5 + 4x4 + 9x3 + 18x2 – 35x – 70
5. f(x) = 6x5 – 4x4 – 63x3 + 42x2 + 147x – 98
LINEAR EQUATIONS
A linear equation is an equation in which the highest power of the variable is always 1. It is also known as a one-degree
equation. The standard form of a linear equation in one variable is of the form Ax + B = O. Here, x is a variable, A is a
coefficient and B is constant. The standard form of a linear equation in two variables is of the form Ax + By = C. Here,
x and y are variables, A and B are coefficients and C is a constant.
• Linear Equations in One Variable :
A linear equation which has only one variable is called a linear equation in one variable.
The standard form of a linear equation in one variable is ax + b = c, where a, b and c are numbers and x is a variable.
3
e.g. 3x = 8, x 5 125
2
• Linear Equation in Two Variables :
At equation of the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b, c are real number and
a2 + b2 0 is called a linear equation.
• The graph of a linear equation ax + by + c = 0 is a straight line.
3x + 2y = 18, is an example of a linear equation in two variables.
• The values of the variables that satisfy the equation is called the solution (or solution set) of the equation.
• Pair of Linear Equations in two variables :
Two or more linear equations in two variables form a system of linear simultaneous equations.
e.g. a1x + b1y = c1 and a2x + b2y = c2.
where a1, a2, b1, b2, c1, c2 are real number, such that a12 b12 0, a22 b22 0 .
Clearly a pair of linear equation in two variables is said to form a system of simultaneous linear equations.
e.g., x + y – 3 = 0 and 2x + 3y – 7 = 0
• Algebraic methods of solving a pair of linear equation in two variables :
Some times, graphical method does not give an accurate answer. While reading the co-ordiante of a point on a graph
paper we are likely to make an error. So we require some precise method to obtain accurate result. The algebraic methods
are given below :
(i) Method of elimination by substitution.
(ii) Method of elimination by equating the coefficients.
(iii) Method of cross multiplication.
(i) Algebraic Solution by Substitution Method :
To solve a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y by substitution method. We follow the following steps :
Step-1 : Write the given equations
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 …(1)
and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 …(2)
Step-2 : Choose one of the two equations and express y in terms of x (or x in terms of y), i.e., express one variable
in terms of the other.
Step-3 : Substitute this value of y obtained in step-II, in the other equation to get a linear equation in x.
Step-4 : Solve the linear equation obtained in step-III and get the value of x.
Step-5 : Substitute this value of x in the relation obtained in step-II and find the value of y.
Illustration-39 : Solve for x and y : 4x + 3y = 24, 3y – 2x = 6
Solution : 4x + 3y = 24 …(1)
3y – 2x = 6 …(2)
From equation (1), we get
24 4x
y
3
Substituting in equation (2), we get
24 4x
3 2x 6
3
24 – 4x – 2x = 6
–6x = –24 + 6
6x = 18
x=3
Substituting x = 3 in (3), we get
24 12
y
3
12
4
3
Hence, x = 3, y = 4
Illustration-40 : 0.2x + 0.3y = 1.3
0.4x + 0.5y = 2.3
Solve by substitution method :
Solution : 0.2x + 0.3y = 1.3 …(1)
0.4x + 0.5y = 2.3 …(2)
1.3 0.2x
From (1) y = …(3)
0.3
Substituting y from (3) in (2), we get
1.3 0.2x
0.4x 0.5 2.3
0.3
13 x
0.4x 2.3
6 3
2 x 13
x 2.3
5 3 6
x 4
15 30
x=2
Substituting x = 2 in (3)
y=3 2–3
Hence, y = 3
Do Yourself - 9
Solve by using Substitution Method :
1. 11x – 8y = 27, 3x + 5y = –7
2. 0.04x + 0.02y = 5, 0.5x – 0.4y = 30
1 5x
3. (9x + 10y) = 23, – 2y = 3
2 4
(ii) Algebraic Solution by Elimination Method :
To solve a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y by elimination method, we follow the following steps:
Step-1 : Write the given equations
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 …(1)
and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 …(2)
Step-2 : Multiply the given equations by suitable numbers so that the coefficient of one of the variables are numerically
equal.
Step-3 : If the numerically equal coefficients are opposite in sign, then add the new equations otherwise subtract.
Step-4 : Solve the linear equations in one variable obtained in step-III and get the value of one variable.
Step-5 : Substitute this value of the variable obtained in step-IV in any of the two equations and find the value of
the other variable.
Illustration-41 : Solve the following pair of linear equations by elimination method 3x + 4y = 10 and 2x – 2y = 2.
Solution : We have, 3x + 4y = 10 …(1)
and 2x – 2y = 2 …(2)
Multiplying (2) by 2, we get 4x – 4y = 4 …(3)
Adding (1) and (3), we get 7x = 14 x = 2
Putting x = 2 in equation (2), we get
2 2 – 2y = 2
2y = 4 – 2
y=1
Hence, the solution is x = 2 and y = 1.
Illustration-42 : 3x – 5y = 4
9x = 2y + 7
Solve by Elimination Method.
Solution : 3x – 5y = 4 …(1)
9x = 2y + 7 …(2)
Multiplying (1) equation by 3, we get
9x – 15y = 12 …(3)
Subtracting (3) from (2), we get
9x – 9x + 15y = 2y + 7 – 12
15y – 2y = 7 – 12
13y = –5
5
y
13
5
From (1) substituting value of y
13
5
3x 5 4
13
25
3x 4
13
25 52
3x
13
27
3x
13
9
x
13
5 9
Hence, y , x
13 13
• Equations of the form ax + by = c and bx + ay = d, where a b.
To solve the equations of the form :
ax + by = c …(1)
and bx + ay = d …(2)
where a b, we follow the following steps :
Step-1 : Add (1) and (2) and obtain (a + b)x + (b + a)y = c + d,
cd
i.e., x+y= …(3)
ab
Step-2 : Subtract (2) from (1) and obtain (a – b) x – (a – b) y = c – d, i.e.,
cd
xy …(4)
ab
Step-3 : Solve (3) and (4) to get x and y.
Illustration-43 : Solve for x and y : 47x + 31y = 63, 31x + 47y = 15.
Solution : We have, 47x + 31y = 63 …(1)
and 31x + 47y = 15 …(2)
Adding (1) and (2),
we get : 78x + 78y = 78
x+y=1 …(3)
Subtracting (2) from (1),
we get : 16x – 16y = 48
x–y=3 …(4)
Now, adding (3) and (4),
We get : 2x = 4 x=2
Putting x = 2 in (3),
We get : 2+y=1 y = –1
Hence, the solution is x = 2 and y = –1
Do Yourself - 10
Solve using elimination method :
1. 2(ax – by) + (a + 4b) = 0 and 2(bx + ay) + (b – 4a) = 0
2. 47x + 31y = 63 and 31x + 47y = 15
3. (a + 2b)x + (2a – b)y = 2 and (a – 2b)x + (2a + b)y = 3
4. 7x 11y 0 and 3x 5y 0
(iii) Algebraic Solution by Cross-Multiplication Method :
Consider the system of linear equations.
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 …(1)
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 …(2)
To solve it by cross multiplication method, we follow the following steps :
Step-1 : Write the coefficients as follows :
x y 1 x y 1
= = or
b1 c1 c1 a1 a1 b1 b1 c1 a1 b1
b2 c2 c2 a2 a2 b2 b2 c2 a2 b2
The arrows between the two numbers indicate that they are to be multiplied. The products with upward arrows are to be
subtracted from the products with downward arrows. To apply above formula, all the terms must be in left to the equal
sign in the system of equations –
Now, by above mentioned rule, equation (1) reduces to
x y 1
b1c 2 b2 c1 c1 a2 c 2 a1 a1 b2 a2 b1
b1c 2 b2 c1 c1 a2 c2 a1
x and y
a1 b2 a 2 b1 a1 b2 a2 b1
Case-1 : If a1b2 – a2b1 0 x and y have some finite values, with unique solution for the system of equations.
a1 b1
Case-2 : If a1b2 – a2b1 = 0
a 2 b2
Here two cases arise :
a1 b1 c1
(a) If a b c ( 0) . Then a1 = a2, b1 = b2, c1 = c2.
2 2 2
Put these values in equation a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 …(i)
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
(a 2 x b2 y c 2 ) 0 but 0
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 …(ii)
So (i) and (ii) are dependent, so there are infinite number of solutions.
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1
(b) If a b c a b ( 0) . Then a1 a 2 , b1 b2
2 2 2 2 2
Put these values in equation a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 …(i)
a 2 x b 2 y c1 0
(a1 x b 2 y) c1 0 but 0
a 2 x b 2 y c 2 …(ii)
Put this values in equation (a 2 x b2 y) c1 0, we get
c1 c c
( c 2 ) c1 0 as 1 and we are getting 1
c2 c2 c2
So system of equations is inconsistent.
Illustration-44 : Solve by cross-multiplication method : x + 2y + 1 = 0 and 2x – 3y – 12 = 0.
Solution : We have, x + 2y + 1 = 0 and 2x – 3y – 12 = 0
By cross-multiplication method, we have
x y 1
2 2 1 2
–3 –12 2 –3
x y 1
2 ( 12) ( 3) 1 1 2 ( 12) 1 1 ( 3) 2 2
x y 1
24 3 2 12 3 4
x y 1
21 14 7
21 14
x 3 and y 2
7 7
Hence the solution is x = 3 and y = –2.
Illustration-45 : Solve by using cross multiplication method.
8x + 5y = 9
3x + 2y = 4
Solution : 8x + 5y = 9 …(i)
3x + 2y = 4 …(ii)
x y 1
5 ( 4) 2( 9) 3 ( 9) 8( 4) 8 2 3 5
20 18
x 2
1
27 32
y 5
1
Hence, x = –2, y = 5
Do Yourself - 11
Solve using cross multiplication method :
1. 2x + 3y = 46, 3x + 5y = 74
2. x + y = a + b, ax – by = a2 – b2
3. ax + by + a = 0, bx + ay + b = 0
• Equations reducible to linear equations in two variables :
Equations which contain the variables, only in the denominators, are called reciprocal equations. These equations can be
of the following types and can be solved by the under mentioned method :
a b a' b'
Type-I : c and c ' a, b, c, a ', b', c ' R
u v u v
1 1
Put x and y and find the value of x and y by any method described earlier..
u v
1 1
Then u and v
x y
Type-II : au + bv = cuv and a’u + b’v = c’uv a, b, c, a’, b’, c’, c’ R
Divide both equations by uv and equations can be converted in the form explained in (I).
a b a' b'
Type-III : k, k ' a, b,k, a ',b ',k ' R.
lx my cx dy lx my cx dy
1 1
Put u and v
lx my cx dy
Then equations are au + bv = k and a’u + b’v = k’
1 1
Find the values off u and v and put in lx + my = and cx dy
u v
Again solve for x and y, by any method explained earlier.
3a 2b a 3b
Illustration-46 : Solve for x and y : 5 0 and 2 0 (x 0, y 0)
x y x y
3a 2b a 3b
Solution : We have, 5 0 and 2 0
x y x y
1 1
Let u and v . Then, the given equations can be written as
x y
3au – 2bv = –5 …(1)
and au + 3bv = 2 …(2)
Multiplying (1) by 3 and (2) by 2, we get
9au – 6bv = –15 …(3)
and 2au + 6bv = 4 …(4)
Adding (3) and (4), we get 11au = –11
1
u
a
1 1 1
Put u in equation (2), we get a 3bv 2 3bv 3 v
a a b
1 1
But u and v
x y
1 1 1 1 1 1
Therefore, x a and y b [ u , v ]
x a y b a b
Hence the solution is x = –a and y = b.
Illustration-47 : Solve for x and y : 7x – 2y = 5xy and 8x + 7y = 15xy
7 2
Solution : 7x 2y 5xy 5 …(1)
y x
8 7
8x 7y 15xy 15 …(2)
y x
1 1
Putting u and v, we get
y x
7u – 2v = 5 …(3)
8u + 7v = 15 …(4)
Multiplying (3) by 7 and (4) by 2 and adding, we get
49u – 14v = 35
and 16u + 14v = 30
–––––––––––––––
1
65u = 65 u 1 1 or y 1
y
1
Substituting u = 1 in (3) we get : 7 – 2v = 5 v = 1 1 or x 1
x
Hence, x = 1, y = 1
57 6 38 21
Illustration-48 : Solve 5 and 9
xy xy xy xy
57 6 57 6
Solution : We have 5 5 0
xy xy xy xy
38 1 38 21
and 9 9 0
xy xy xy xy
1 1
Let p and q
xy xy
Then, the given equations can be written as
57p + 6q – 5 = 0 and 38p + 21q – 9 = 0
p q 1
By cross-multiplication method, we have 6 –5 57 6
21 –9 38 21
p q 1
6 ( 9) 21 ( 5) ( 5) 38 ( 9) 57 57 21 38 6
p q 1
54 105 190 513 1197 228
p q 1
51 323 969
51 1 323 1
p and q
969 19 969 3
1 1
But p and q. Therefore,
xy xy
1 1
x y 19 …(1)
x y 19
1 1
and xy 3 …(2)
xy 3
Adding (1) and (2), we get
2x 22 x 11
Put x = 11 in (1), we get
11 y 19 y 8
Hence, the solution is x = 11 and y = 8.
Do Yourself - 12
24 13 26 8
1. 2; 3
2x y 3x 2y 3x 2y 2x y
2. 9 + 25xy = 53x; 27 – 4xy = x
11 9 23 3 7 23
3. ;
2x 2y 2 4x 15y 6
• Linear Equation in Three Variables :
An equation in which three variables x, y and z is of the first degree, then the equation is said to be a linear equation in
three variables.
The general form of linear equation in three variables can be written as:
ax + by + cz + d = 0
where a, b, c, d are real and x, y are variables.
• Simultaneous Equations of Three Variables :
Here we shall deal with three unknowns, hence the simultaneous equation will consist of three equations.
The general form of a system of linear equations in three variables is given by:
a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0
a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0
a3x + b3y + c3z + d1 = 0
Illustration-49 : Solve the system x(x + y + z) = a2; y(x + y + z) = b2; z(x + y + z) = c2.
Solution : On adding the given equations termwise, we get
(x + y + z)2 = a2 + b 2 + c 2
x + y + z = ± a 2 b2 c 2
Consequently,
a2 b2 c2
x , y , z
a2 b2 c 2 a 2 b2 c 2 a2 b2 c 2
Illustration-50 : Solve the system x(x + y + z) = a – yz, y = (x + y + z) = b – xz, z(x + y + z) = c – xy.
Solution : Given system can be rewritten as (x + z)(x + y) = a;
(y + z)(y + x) = b; (z + x) (z + y) = c
Multiplying these equations and extracting a square root from both members of the obtained equality,
we have (x z)(x y)(y z) abc
abc abc abc
Hence, yz ; xz ; xy
a b c
On adding these equalities termwise, we get
abc 1 1 1
xyz
2 a b c
abc 1 1 1 abc 1 1 1 abc 1 1 1
x ; y ; z
2 b c a 2 a c b 2 b a c
Illustration-51 : Solve the system x + y + z = a; x + y + v = b; x + z + v = c; y + z + v = d.
abcd
Solution : Adding all the given equations, we get x + y +z + v = consequently,
3
v = (x + y + z + v) – (x + y + z)
abcd b c d 2a
a
3 3
On likewise, we get
a c d 2b a b d 2c
z , y
3 3
a b c 2d
x
3
Illustration-52 : Solve the system ay + bx; cx + az = b and bz + cy = a.
Solution : Dividing the first equation by ab, the second by ac, and third by bc (assuming abc 0), we get
y x c x z b z y a
; ;
b a ab a c ac c b bc
Adding all these equations terrmwise, we find
x y z 1 c b a
a b c 2 ab ac bc
z x y z x y 1 c b a c
Hence,
c a b c a b 2 ab ac bc ab
z a2 b2 c2
c 2abc
a 2 b2 c 2
z
2ab
a 2 c 2 b2 b2 c 2 a 2
Similarly, y , x
2ac 2bc
xy xz yz
Illustration-53 : Solve the system c; b; a.
ay bx az cx bz cy
Solution : Rewrite the system in the following way
ay bx 1 az cx 1 bz cy 1
; ;
xy c xz b yz a
a b 1 a c 1 b c 1
Hence, ; ;
x y c x z b y z a
Proceeding in the same way
2a2 bc 2ab2 c 2abc 2
x ; y ; z
ac ab bc bc ab ac bc ac ab
Do Yourself - 13
1. x + 2y + 3z = 6 2. x+y=2 3. 15x = 10y = 6z
2x + 4y + z = 7 2x – z = 1 7x + 8y + 9z = 332
3x + 2y + 9z = 14 2y – 3z = 1
4. (x + y) (y + z) = 30 5. x (x + y + z) = 48 6. x + y + xy = 14
(y + z) (z + x) = 15 y (x + y + z) = 12 y + z + yz = 29
(z + x) (x + y) = 12 z (x + y + z) = 84 x + z + xz = 17
7. xy + x + y = 7
xz + x + z = –5
xy + y + z = –3
1 1
8. 5
x y
1 1
7
y z
1 1
6
z x
xy yz zx
9. 1, 2, 3
xy yz zx
10. xy = a(x + y), yz = c(y + z), zx = b(z + x)
Equations involving three or more unknown quantities can be solved in special cases :
• Case-I : When all the three equations are linear.
Illustration-54 : Solve : x + y + z = 7
x + 2y + 3z = 16
x + 3y + 4z = 22
Solution : The given equations are
x+y+z=7 …(1)
x + 2y + 3z = 16 …(2)
x + 3y + 4z = 22 …(2)
The eliminate z between (1) and (2), multiplying (1) by 3 we get,
3x + 3y + 3z = 21 …(4)
Subtracting (2) from (4),
2x + y = 5 …(5)
To eliminate z between (1) and (3), multiplying (1) by 4, we get,
4x + 4y + 4z = 28 …(6)
Subtracting (3) from (6), we get
3x + y = 6 …(7)
Now eq. (5) and (7) are simultaneous in x and y.
To eliminate y, subtracting (5) from (7) we get
x=1
Putting the value of x in (5),
y=3
Now substituting the values of x and y in (1), we get
1+3+z=7
z=3
Hence the required solution is
x = 1, y = 3, z = 3
• Case-2 : When two of the equations are linear with constant term zero :
Illustration-55 : Solve the equations :
2x + y – 2z = 0
7x + 6y – 9z = 0
x3 + y3 + z3 = 1728
Solution : First two equations are
2x + y – 2z = 0
7x + 6y – 9z = 0
Applying cross multiplication method, we have
x y z
9 12 14 18 12 7
x y z
k (Suppose)
3 4 5
x = 3k, y = 4k, z = 5k
Substituting these values in the third equation, we have
(3k)3 + (4k)3 + (5k)3 = 1728
or k3 (27 + 64 + 125) = 1728
or 216k3 = 1728
or k3 = 8
k=2
Hence x = 3 2 = 6, y = 4 2 = 8, z = 5 2 = 10
x = 6, y = 8, z = 10
• Case-3 : When two of the equations are linear but with non-zero constant terms.
Illustration-56 : Solve : x – y + z = 2
2x + 3y + z = 11
x2 + yz + zx = 10
Solution : x–y+z=2
2x + 3y + z = 11
x2 + yz + zx = 10
Subtracting (1) from (2) we get
x + 4y = 9
or x = 9 - 4y
by (1), 9 – 4y – y + z = 2
or z = 5y – 7
Putting these values of x and z in eq. (3), we get
(9 – 4y)2 + y(5y – 7) + (5y – 7) (9 – 4y) = 10
or 81 – 72y + 16y2 + 5y2 – 7y + 45y – 20y 2 – 63 + 28y = 10
or y2 – 6y + 8 = 0
or (y – 4) (y – 2) = 0
y = 2 or 4
Putting these values of y in the values of x and z, we get
x = 1, –7 z = 3, 13
x = 1, y = 2, z = 3; x = –7, y = 4, z = 13
• Symmetric and Homogeneous Equations :
Illustration-57 : Solve simultaneous equations :
x+y=3
y+z=5
z+x=4
Solution : Given equations
x+y=3 …(1)
y+z=5 …(2)
z+x=4 …(3)
On adding above 3 equations
2(x + y + z) = 12
x+y+z=6 …(4)
Now on substracting (1), (2), (3) respectively from eqn. (4) we get
z = 3, x = 1, y = 2
Solution x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
Illustration-58 : Solve the equations :
xy + yz = 8
yz + zx = 9
zx + xy = 5
Solution : The given equations are
xy + yz = 8 …(1)
yz + zx = 9 …(2)
zx + xy = 5 …(3)
Adding these three equations
2(xy + yz + zx) = 22
or xy + yz + zx = 11 …(4)
Substracting eq. (1), (2) and (3) from (4), one by one, we get
zx = 3 …(5)
xy = 2 …(6)
yz = 6 …(7)
Multiplying together eq. (5), (6) and (7)
x2 y2 z2 = 36
or xyz = ±6 …(8)
Dividing eq. (8) by eq. (5), (6) and (7), one by one, we get
y = ±2, z = ±3, x = ±1
The required solution is
x = ±1, y = ±2, z = ±3
Illustrati on-59 Solve : (x + y) (y + z) = 35 …(1)
(y + z) (z + x) = 56 …(2)
(z + x) (x + y) = 40 …(3)
Solution : Multiplying the given equations, we get
(x + y)2 (y + z)2 (z + x)2 = 35 56 40
or (x + y) (y + z) (z + x) = ±5 …(4)
Dividing (4) by (1), (2) and (3) one by one, we get
z + x = ±8 …(5)
x + y = ±5 …(6)
y + z = ±7 …(7)
Adding these equations and then dividing by 2, we get
x + y + z = ±10 …(8)
Subtracting from (8) eq. (5), (6) and (7), one by one
y = ±2, z = ±5, x = ±3
x = ±3, y = ±2, z = ±5
Illustration-60 : Solve the equations
xy + x + y = 23
xz + x + z = 41
yz + y + z = 27
Solution : Adding 1 to each of the equations, we get
xy + x + y + 1 = 24
xz + x + z + 1 = 42
yz + y + z + 1 = 28
Factorising each of the above,
(x + 1) (y + 1) = 24 …(1)
(z + 1) (x + 1) = 42 …(2)
(y + 1) (z + 1) = 28 …(3)
Multiplying together (1), (2) and (3), we get
(x + 1)2 (y + 1)2 (z + 1)2 = 24 42 28
or (x + 1) (y + 1) (z + 1) = ±4 6 7 …(4)
Dividing eq. (4) by (1), (2) and (3) in order, we get,
z + 1 = ±7
y + 1 = ±4
z + 1 = ±6
From these equations, clearly we have
x = 5, –7; y = 3, –5; z = 6, –8
x = 5, y = 3, z = 6
or x –7, y = –5, z = –8
Do Yourself - 14
Solve the following equations:
1. x+y+z=1
x + 2y + 3z = 2
x + 4y + 9z = 4
2. xy + yz = 9
yz + zx = 14
zx + xy = 11
3. x2 + xy + xz = 45
y2 + zy + xy = 75
z2 + zx + zy = 105
4. x+y+z=6
x2 + y2 + z2 = 14
x3 + y3 + z3 = 36.
5. x3y2z = 12
x2yz3 = 54
yx3z2 = 72
6. (y + z)(x + y + z) = 1
(z + x)(x + y + z) = 3
(x + y)(x + y + z) = 4
7. x + ay + a2z + a3 = 0
x + by + b2z + b3 = 0
x + cy + c2z + c3 = 0
8. x + y + z = 12
xy + yz + zx = 44
x3 + y3 + z3 = 495
xyz = 105
DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS
A diophantine equation is a polynomial equation that contains two or more unknowns. Only integer solutions are
acceptable by the diophantine equation. An integer solution means taht all the unknown variables should take integer
values.
Diophantine equations fall into three classes: those with no solutions, those with only finitely many solutions, and those
with infinitely many solutions. For example, the equation 6x – 9y = 29 has no solutions, but the equation 6x – 9y = 30,
which upon division by 3 reduces to 2x – 3y = 10 is a solution, and so is x = 20 + 3t, y = 10 + 2t for every integer t,
positive, negative, or zero. This is called a one–parameter family of solutions, with t being the arbitrary parameter.
Factoring method for solving Diophantine equations
Given the equation f(x1,x2,……,xn) = 0, we write it in the equivalent form
f1(x1,x2,……,xn) f2(x1,x2,……,xn)…fk(x1,x2,……,xn) = a,
where f1, f2,…,fk X1 ,X 2 ,, X n and a . Given the prime factorization of a, we obtain finitely many decompostiions
into k integer factors a1, a2,…,ak. Each such factorization yields a system of equations
f1 (x1 , x 2 ,, x n ) a1 ,
f (x , x ,, x ) a ,
2 1 2 n 2
fk (x1 , x 2 ,, x n ) a k .
Solving all such systems gives the complete set of solutions.
Illustration-61 : Find all integral solutions to the equation (x2 + 1)(y2 + 1) + 2(x – y)(1 – xy) = 4(1 + xy) .
Solution : Write the equation in the form
x2y2 – 2xy + 1 + x2 + y2 – 2xy + 2(x – y)(1 – xy) = 4,
or (xy – 1)2 + (x – y)2 – 2(x – y) (xy – 1) = 4
This is equivalent to
[xy – 1 – (x – y)]2 = 4,
or (x 1)(y 1) 2 .
if (x + 1)(y – 1) = 2, we obtain the systems of equations
x 1 2, x 1 2,
y 1 1, y 1 1,
x 1 1, x 1 1,
y 1 2, y 1 2,
yielding the solutions (1, 2), (–3, 0), (0, 3), (–2, –1).
If (x + 1)(y – 1) = –2, we obtain the systems
x 1 2, x 1 2,
y 1 1, y 1 1,
x 1 1, x 1 1,
y 1 2, y 1 2,
whose solutions are (1, 2), (–3, 2), (0, –1), (–2, 3).
All eight pairs that we have found satisfy the given equation.
1 1
Illustration-62 : Let p and q be two primes. Solve in positive integers the equation .
x y pq
Solution : The equation is equivalent to the algebraic Diophantine equation (x – pq)(y – pq) = p2q2.
1 1
Observe that hence we have x > pq.
x pq
Considering all positive divisors of p2q2 we obtain the following systems:
x pq 1, x pq p, x pq q,
y pq p q , y pq pq , y pq p q,
2 2 2 2
x pq p ,
2
x pq pq, x pq pq 2 ,
y pq q , y pq pq, y pq p,
2
x pq p2 q, x pq q 2 , x pq p2 q 2 ,
y pq q, y pq p , y pq 1,
2
yielding the solutions
(1+pq, pq(1 + pq)), (p(1 + q),pq(1 + q)), (q(1 + p), pq(1 + p)),
(p(p + q), q(p + q)), (2pq, 2pq), (pq(1 + q), p(1 + q)),
(pq(1 + p), q(1 + p)), (q(p + q), p(p + q)), (pq(1 + pq), 1 + pq).
Illustration-63 : Determine all nonnegative integral pairs (x, y) for which (xy – 7)2 = x2 + y2,
Solution : The equation is equivalent to
(xy – 6)2 + 13 = (x + y)2,
or (xy – 6)2 – (x – y)2 = –13,
yielding the systems
xy 6 (x y) 1, xy 6 (x y) 13,
xy 6 (x y) 13, xy 6 (x y) 1,
These systems are equivalent to
x y 7, x y 7,
xy 12, xy 0,
The solutions to the equation are (3, 4), (4, 3), (0, 7), (7, 0).
Illustration-64 : Solve the following equation in integers x, y : x2(y – 1) + y2(x – 1) = 1.
Solution : Setting x = u + 1, y = v + 1, the equation becomes (u + 1)2v + (v + 1)2u = 1,
which is equivalent to uv(u + v) + 4uv + (u + v) = 1.
The last equation could be written as
uv(u + v + 4) + (u + v + 4) = 5.
or (u + v + 4)(uv + 1) = 5.
One of the factors must be equal to 5 or –5 and the other to 1 or –1. This means that the sum u + v and
the product uv have to satisfy one of the four systems of equations:
u v 1, u v 9,
uv 0, uv 2,
u v 3, u v 5,
uv 4, uv 6,
Only the first and the last of these systems have integral solutions. They are (0, 1), (1, 0), (–6, 1), (1, –6).
Hence the final outcome (x,y) = (u + 1, v + 1) must be one of the pairs (1, 2), (–5, 2), (2, 1), (2, _5).
Do Yourself - 15
1. Solve the following equation in integers x, y: x2 + 6xy + 8y2 + 3x + 6y = 2.
2. Find the positive integer solutions to the equation x3 – y3 = xy + 61
3. Solve the Diophantine equation x – y4 = 4, where x is a prime.
4. Find all pairs (x, y) of integers such that x6 + 3x3 + 1 = y4.
x3 y 3
5. Find all pairs (x, y) of integers such that xy 2007 .
3
LINEAR DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS
An equation of the form
a1x2+…+anxn = c, (2.1.1)
where a1, a2,…,an,b are fixed integers, is called a linear Diophantine equation. We assume that n 1 and that coefficients
a1,…,an are all different from zero.
We begin with the case n = 2. The main result concerning linear Diophantine equations is the following
Theorem 2.1.1. Let a, b, c be integers, a and b nonzero. Consider the linear Diophantine equation
ax + by = c (2.1.2)
1. The equation (2,1,2) is solvable in integers if and only if d = gcd(a, b) divides c.
2. If (x, y) = (x0, y0) is a particular solution to (2,1.2), then every integer soltuion is of the form
b a
x x0 t, y y 0 t,
d d
where t is an integer.
3. If c = gcd(a, b) and |a| or |b| is different from 1, then a particular solution (x, y) = (x0, y0) to (2,1,3) can be found
such that |x0| < |b| and |y0| < |a|
Illustration-65 : Solve the linear Diophantine equation 7x – 9y = 3.
Solution : We find a particular solution of the given equation. Such a solution exists because gcd(7, 9) = 1 and 3 is
divisible by 1. One solution, found by inspection, of the given equation is x = 3, y = 2.
We obtain all integer solutions of the given equation: x = 3 + 9k, y = 2 + 7k, for k an integer.
Note: We can use any variable name for k here, such as t.
Illustration-66 : Solve the linear Diophantine Equations: 2x + 4y = 21, x, y .
Solution : Since gcd (2, 4) = 2 and 2 does not divide 21, 2x + 4y = 21 has no solution.
Illustration-67 : Find all integers x and y such that 2173x + 2491y = 159.
Solution : Since gcd(2173, 2491) = 53 and 53 divides 159, we know that there is a solution to this linear Diophantine
equation.
We note that gcd(2173; 2491) = 53 from the previous exercise. Multiplying both sides by 3 we obtain 159.
We know from excercise 2 that
53 = 7(2491) – 8(2173)
So one solution of 2173x + 2791y = 159 is x = –24, y = 21. The general solution is therefore
x = –24 + (2491/53)k = –24 + 47k,
y = 21 –(2173/53)k = 21 – 41k, where k is any integer.
Illustration-68 : Show there is no integer solution to: 2173x + 2491y = 210.
Solution : In Exercise 2, we found that gcd (2173, 2491) = 53, and since 53 does not divide 210, there is no integer
solution.
Illustration-69 : Solve the linear Diophantine equation: 60x + 33y = 9.
Solution : By the Euclidean algorithm we find:
60 = 1.33 + 2733
= 1.27 + 627
= 4.6 + 36
= 2.3 + 0.
We see the last nonzero remainder is 3 so gcd(60, 33) = 3. As 39, the equation has integer solutions.
Reversing the steps, we find:
3 = 27 – 4.6
= 27 – 4(33 – 27)
= 5.27 – 4.33
= 5.(60 – 33) – 4.33
= 5.60 – 9.33.
One solution is then x = 15 and y = 27 (notice we multiplied by 3). All the solutions are given by
x = 15 + (33/3)k = 15 + 11k
y = –27 – (60/3)k = –27 – 20k, where k is an integer.
Do Yourself - 16
Solve the linear diophantine eq n s.
1. 55x + 22y = 400.
2. 57x + 22y = 400.
3. 2173x + 2791y = 53.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1 1 1 x 2
Example-1 : Solve the equation 10 9 5 3 8 16 8 1 .
Solution : By removing the denominators one–by–one, it follows that
1 1 x 2
8 16 2
9 5 3
1x2
8 2
5 3
x2
2
3
x + 2 = 6, i.e. x = 1
x a 2 x b2 x c 2
Example-2 : Solve for x R, 4 a b c
bc ca ab
Solution : Solving this question needs clever algebraic manipulation.
Re–arranging 4(a + b + c) as
(2a + b + c ) + (2b + c + a) + (2c + a + b)
x a2 x b2 x c2
2a b c
2b c a 2c a b 0 ......(1)
bc ca ab
Solving each term separately, we have
x a2 x a 2 2ab b 2 bc 2ac bc c 2
2a b c
bc bc
x a 2 b 2 c 2 2ab 2bc 2ca
bc
x a b c
2
bc
Similarly,
x a b c
2
x b2
2b c a
ca ca
x a b c
2
x c2
2c a b
ab ab
equation (1) reduces to
x a b c x a b c x a b c
2 2 2
0
bc ca ab
x a b c b 1 c c 1 a a 1 b 0
2
x = (a + b + c)2.
Example-3 : Solve for x and y.
2 3 9 4 9 21
, x 0, y 0
x y xy x y xy
Solution : Multiplying each equation throughout by xy, we get
2y + 3x = 9 …(i)
4y + 9x = 21 …(ii)
Multiplying (i) by 3 and subtracting (ii) from the result, we get
(6 – 4)y = (27 – 21)
2y = 6
y=3
Putting y = 3 in (i), we get
(23) + 3x = 9
6 + 3x = 9
3x = 3
x=1
Hence, x = 1 and y = 3.
Example-4 : Solve system of equations for x, y & z.
x+y+z=1 …(i)
2x + 2y + 3z = –2 …(ii)
3x + y – z = 13 …(iii)
Solution : Notice that by adding equation (i) and (iii) we get rid of the variable z.
by (i) + (ii) 4x + 2y = 14
2x + y = 7 …(iv)
by 3 (i) – (ii)
x+y=5 …(v)
Solving equation (iv) & (v), we get
2x y 7
_x y _5
x2y 3
putting x = 2 and y = 3 in equation (i), we get
z = –4
(x, y, z) = (2, 3, –4)
Example-5 : Solve the system of equation
a + 3b – 2c = 18 …(i)
2a – 4b + 2c – d = – 16 …(ii)
–a + 2b – 5c + d = 23 …(iii)
3b – 7c + d = 35 …(iv)
Solution : Idea for solving this question is pretty simple, we will add and subtract equations to reduce variables.
by (ii) + (iii); a – 2b – 3c = 7
by (iv) – (iii); a + b – 2c = 12
Now, we have equations,
a + 3b – 2c = 18 …(v)
a – 2b – 3c = 7 …(vi)
a + b – 2c = 12 …(vii)
by (vii) – (v); 2b = 6
b=3
Substituting value of b in above equations;
a 2c 9
(a,c) (1, 4)
a 3c 13
Substituting value of a = 1, b = 3 and c = –4 in equation (ii), we get d = –2
(a, b, c, d) = (a, 3, –4, –2)
Example-6 : Find all solution (a, b, c) to the system of equations :
a+b+c=6 …(i)
a + 2b + 3c = 14 …(ii)
2a + 5b + 8c = 36 …(iii)
Solution : By (ii) – (i), b + 2c = 8
also by (iii) – 2 (ii); b + 2c = 8 …(iv)
Now, observe that we arrival at same equation even after eliminating in two different ways.
We claim that the given system of equation has infinitely many solution.
Now, from (i); a + b + c = 6
a=6–b–c
a = 6 – (8 – 2c) – c (using (iv))
a=–2+c
b = 8 – 2c (using (iv))
(a, b, c) = (–2 + c, 8 – 2c, c), c R
This shows that the above system of equations has infinitely many solution.
Example-7 : Solve the system of equations :
2a + b + c = 2
5a – b + 3c = 5
7a + 4c = 8
Solution : Adding first two equations, we get
7a + 4c = 7
Now, returning to last equation,
7a + 7c = 8
Solving the above two equations, we have
7=8
which is impossible
Hence no solution exists.
Example-8 : Find all real numbers x, y such that
x 3 3xy 2 2y 3 2011
3 .
2x 3x y y 2012
2 3
Solution : Subtracting the second equation from the first we obtain
(y – x)3 = –1, thus x = 1 + y.
Replacing this value of x in the first equation we obtain
1 + 3y + 3y2 + y3 – 3y2 – 3y3 + 2y3 = 2011
which simplifies to
2010
3y = 2010, hence y 670.
3
Thus x = 671 and we the system has the unique (671, 670). Note that instead of replacing x = 1 + y in the
first equation, we could have also added the equations, arriving at
2011 2012
x3 x 2 y xy 2 y 3 1341.
3
The left hand side factors as
x2(x – y) – y2(x – y) = (x – y)2(x + y) = x + y.
Since, we have already seen that x – y = 1.
Thus x + y = 1341 and x – y = 1, yielding the solution (671, 670).
Example-9 : Solve for x and y
15 22 40 55
5, 13, x y and x y .
xy xy xy xy
1 1
Solution : Putting u and v , the given equations become
xy xy
15u + 22v = 5 …(i)
40u + 55v = 13 …(ii)
Multiplying (ii) by 2 and (i) by 5 and subtracting the results, we get
80u – 75u = 26 – 25
5u = 1
1
u
5
1
Putting u in (i), we get
5
1
15 22v 5
5
3 + 22v = 5
22v = 2
2 1
v
22 11
1
Now, u
5
1 1
xy 5
x–y=5 …(iii)
1
and, v
11
1 1
x y 11
x + y = 11 …(iv)
On adding (iii) and (iv), we get 2x = 16
x = 8.
Example-10 : Solve the system of equations
x y z
2 3 5
x 3y 6z 15 ...(i)
x y z
Solution : Let t , then
2 3 5
x = 2t, y = 3t, z = 5t …(ii)
15
Substituting (ii) into the first equation, we have 2t + 9t + 30t = 15 i.e., t
41
30 45 75
Thus, x ,y ,z
41 11 41
Example-11 : Solve the system of equations
1
x y 1
1 1
y
z 2
1
z x 2
Solution : The idea is quite simple; we express everything in terms of one variable. Namely, from the first equation
1
we can express x in term sof y, obtaining x 1 . The second equation givess
y
2
z
1 2y
Replacing these values in the last equation, we obtain
2 y
2
1 2y 1 y
Clearing denominators and simplifying the resulting equation, we arrive at
y + 2y2 = 0
1 1
Note that, y 0 , since otherwise wouldn’t make sense. We conclude that y . Coming back to
y 2
1 2 1
x 1 and z , we obtain x = z = 1, hence the system has the unique solution 1, ,1 .
2 1 2y 2
Example-12 : Solve the real numbers the system of equations
x y xy 5
y z yz 7
z x zx 11
Solution : The key algebraic identity leading to a short solution is
xy – x = y + 1 = (x – 1)(y – 1)
This allows us to write the system as
(x 1)(y 1) 6
(y 1)(z 1) 8
(z 1)(x 1) 12
This strongly suggests changing the variable to
a = x –1, b = y – 1, c = z – 1
Then, ab = 6, bc = 8, ca = 12
Taking the product of these equations yields
(abc)2 = 48.12 = 4. 122,
Hence abc 24 . If bac = 24, then coming back to the equations ab = 6, bc = 8 and ca = 12 we obtain
abc 24
a 3 and similarly b = 2 and c = 4. If abc = –24, then with the same arguments we obtain
bc 8
a = –3, b = –2 and c = –4. Finally, coming back to the substitution a = x –1, b = y – 1 and c = z – 1, we
obtain the two solutions (x, y, z) = (4, 3, 5) and (x, y, z) = (–2, –1, –3).
Example-13 : Solve over non-zero complex numbers the system
x y 9
y x z
y z 16
z y x
z x 25
x z y
Solution : We notice that the coefficients on the right side, 9, 16 and –25, sum to zero. This is hint to write the
system in a way that allows us to add the equations. Indeed, write the system as
z 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 9xyz
2 2
x y z z 16xyz
2 2
2 2
y z x y 25xyz
2 2
Then, adding the three equations gives 2(x2y2 + y2z2 + z2x2) = 0, reducing the system to
x 2 y 2 9xyz
2 2
y z 16xyz
2 2
z x 25xyz
Since x, y, z are non–zero, the system in equivalent to
xy 9z
yz 16x
zx 25y
Then multiplying pairs of our equations implies y2 = 9 • 16, z2 = 16 •(–25), x2 = 9 •(–25), giving the
solutions.
(x, y, z) Î {(–15i, –12, 20i), (–15i, 12, 20i), (15i, –12, 20i), (15i, 12, –20i)}
M–III. Cross Multiplication Method
Consider the equations
a1x + b1y + c1z = 0
a2x + b2y + c2z = 0
then consider,
x y z
b1 c1 = a1 c1 = a1 b1
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
x y z
b1c 2 b 2 c1 a1 c 2 a 2 c1 a1 b2 a2 c1
when z = 1
both of the above equation reduces to linear equation in two variable.
x y z
i.e.
b1 c 2 b 2 c 1 a 2 c 1 a 1 c 2 a 1 b 2 a 2 c 1
b1 c 2 b2 c1 a c a1 c 2
x &y 2 1
a1 b2 a 2 b1 a1 b2 a 2 b1
observe that for getting solution, we must have denominator as non–zero.
Hence a1b2 – a2b1 0.
a1 b1
a2 b2
Recall that this was condition for unique solution.
Example-14 : Solve the system of equations :
x – 2y + 3z = 0 …(i)
x–y–z=0 …(ii)
2x – 3y + 22 = 0 …(iii)
Solution : Solving equation (i) & (ii) by cross–multiplication, we get
x y z
(let)
2 ( 3) 1 3 1 ( 2)
x y z
5 4 1
x = 5, y = 4, z =
From equation (iii), 10 + 2 – 12 = 0.
0 = 0 (True for R)
This shows that the above system of has infinetly many solution and complete solution set is given by
(x, y, z) = (5, 4, ), R
For example, when = –3.
(x, y, z) = (–15, –12, –3)
Example-15 : Find the number of integer solutions of the equations 7x – 4y – 8z = 0 and 12x + 11y – 3z = 0.
Solution : 7x – 4y – 8z = 0
12x + 11y – 3z = 0
Using cross multiplication, we get
x y z
–4 –4 = 7 –8 = 7 –4
11 11 12 –3 12 11
x y z
100 75 125
x y z
say k
4 3 5
(x, y, z) = (4k, –3k, 5k) = 4 if k (–1, 0, 1, 2)
Example-16 : Solve for x R,
2x99 + 3x|98 + 3x96 + ....+ 2x + 3 = 0
Solution : x98(2x + 3) + x96(2x + 3) + ..... + 1(2x + 3) = 0
(2x + 3)(x98 + x96 + .... + x2 + 1) = 0
Either 2x + 3 = 0
3
x
2
or x98 + x96 + .... + x2 + 1 = 0
(x 2 1) x 98 x 96 .... x 2 1
0
x 2
1
x100 –1 = 0
x 1
But none of x = 1 or x = –1 satisfies the original equation.
3
Hence x is the only solution.
2
Alternatively, we know that x 2 0, x R
Example-17 : Solve for x, y, z x(y + z) = 44;
y(z + x) = 50;
z(x + y) = 54.
Solution : On adding the given equations
2(xy + yz + zx) = 148
xy + yz + zx = 74 …(i)
On substracting given equation one by one from (1), we get
yz = 30, zx = 24, xy = 20
On multiplying the three, given above together.
x2y2z2 = 30 24 20 xyz = 120. …(ii)
On dividing equation (ii) by the values of xy, yz and zx repectively, we get
x 4,y 5,z 6
Example-18 : Solve the system x(x + y + z) = a2;
y(x + y + z) = b2;
z(x + y + z) = c2.
Solution : On adding the given equations termwise, we get
(x + y + z)2 = a2 + b2 + c2
x y z a 2 b2 c 2
Consequently,
a2 b2 c2
x ,y ,z
a 2 b2 c 2 a 2 b2 c 2 a2 b2 c2
Example-19 : Solve the system x + y + z = a; x + y + v = b; x + z + v = c; y + z + v = d.
abcd
Solution : Adding all the given equations, we get x y z v consequently,
3
v = (x + y + z + v) – (x + y + z)
abcd b c d 2a
a
3 3
likewise, we get
a c d 2b a b d 2c a b c 2d
z ,y ,x
3 3 3
Example-20 : Solve the system ay + bx = c; cx + az = b and bz + cy = a.
Solution : Dividing the first equation by ab, the second by ac and third by bc (assuming abc 0), we get
y x c x z b z y a
; ;
b a ab a c ac c b bc
Adding all these equations term wise, we find
x y z 1 c b a
a b c 2 ab ac bc
z x y z x y 1 c b a c
Hence,
c a b c a b 2 ab ac bc ab
z a 2 b2 c 2
c 2abc
a 2 b2 c 2
z
2ab
a2 c2 b2 b2 c2 a 2
Similarly, y ,x
2ac 2bc
Remark:- If a, b, c are the sides over triangle then by using projection formula given equations becomes
c = b cos A + a cos B = bx + ay;
b = c cos A + a cos C = cx + az;
a = b cos C + c cos B = bz + cy
b2 c 2 a 2 a 2 c 2 b2 a 2 b2 c 2
x cos A ; y cos B and z cos C
2bc 2ac 2ab
Example-26 : Solve the following equation:
(x2 – x + 1)(x2 – x + 2) = 12.
Solution : Let x2 – x + 1 = y and express the given equation in terms of y:
y(y + 1) = 12,
that is,
y2 + y – 12 = 0
Now, we can solve this quadratic equation, with
y1 = –4
y2 = 3
Rewriting it back in terms of x, we get:
x2 – x + 1 = – 4 x2 – x + 1 = 3
x2 – x + 5 = 0 x2 – x – 2 = 0
no solutions x1 = –1 or x2 = 2
in real numbers
Thus the solution set is {–1, 2}.
2
Example-27 : Solve the following equation: x x 5 x 6 1
Solution : By taking the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation, we get (x2 – 5x + 6) ln |x| = 0.
(Note that in order not to lose any solutions, we must use the absolute value sign. As a rsult, we might gain
some extraneous solutions. Therefore all solutions x such that x < 0, will have to be checked.)
x2 – 5x + 6 = 0 ln |x| = 0
x1 = 2; x2 = 3 x3 = 1; x4 = –1
The check shows that x4 = –1 is a solution of this equation, as well, of course, as x = 1, 2, 3 and x = –1.
Example-28 : Solve in real numbers the equation x y 2 z2 u v x y z u v.
Solution : The equation is equivalent to x xy y z2 z2 u u v v 0
2 2 2 2
1 1
1 1
2
or x y z 2 1 u v 0
2 2 2 2
1
Because x, y, z, u, v, are real numbers, it follows taht x y u v and z2 1.
2
1
Hence x y u v , z = 3.
4
Example-30 : Solve the system x+y+z=9
x2 + y2 + z2 = 29
x3 + y3 + z3 = 99
Solution : We have
x+y+z=9 …(i)
x + y + z = 29
2 2 2
…(ii)
x3 + y3 + z3 = 99 …(iii)
On squaring both sides of Eq. (i),
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2(xy + yz + zx) = 81
or 2(xy + yz + zx) = 52
or xy + yz + zx = 26
Also, x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
99 – 3xyz = 9(29 – 26)
or 3xyz = 72 or xyz = 24
Now, xy + yz + zx = 26
24
or z(x y) 26
z
24
or z(9 z) 26
z
or z3 – 9z2 + 26z – 24 = 0
or z = 2, 3, 4
Since, the equation is symmetrical
Hence, x = 2, 3, 4
y = 3, 4, 2
z = 4, 2, 3
Example-31 : If are the roots of the equation x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1 = 0. Form an equation whose roots are
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
; ;
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Solution : Roots of the equation
x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1 = 0 …(i)
are . Let us form an equation, whose roots are . If y is a root of the transformed equation,
then
y = x3 …(ii)
To eliminate x between Eqs. (i) and (ii)
Eq. (i) can be written as x3 + 1 = –(2x2 + 3x)
On cubing both sides, we get
x9 + 3x6 + 3x3 + 1 = –[8x6 + 27x3 + 18x3(2x2 + 3x)]
x9 + 3x6 + 3x3 + 1 = –[8x6 + 27x3 + 18x3(–x3 + 1)]
Putting x3 = y in this equation
y3 + 3x2 + 3y + 1 = –8y2 – 27y + 18y2 + 18y
or y3 – 7y2 + 12y + 1 = 0
Its roots are
Changing y to 1/y, Eq. (iii) becomes
1 7 12
1 0
y3 y2 y
or y3 + 12y2 – 7y + 1 = 0
1 1 1
Its roots are , , .
3 3 3
Let us denote them by a, b, c.
a + b + c = –12
We have to form an equations whose roots are
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
; ;
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
i.e., whose roots are b + c – a, c + a – b, a + b – c where a, b, c are the roots of Eq. (iv). If the new equation
is in terms of z , then
z = b + c – a = (a + b + c)–2a = –12 – 2y
12 z
y
2
Putting this value of y in Eq. (iv), we have
12 z 3 12 z 2 12 z
12. 7. 11 0
8 4 2
12 z 3 12 z 2 12 z
12. 7. 11 0
8 4 2
(12 + z)3 – 24(12 + z)2 – 28(12 + z) – 88 = 0
or z3 + 12z2 –172z – 2152 = 0
Which is required equation.
Example-32 : If x 1 , x 2 , x 3 are the roots of x 3 – x 2 + 4 = 0, form the equation whose roots are
x1 x 22 x 32 ; x 2 x 23 x12 ; x 3 x12 x22 .
Solution : x1, x2, x3 are the roots of equation
x 3 – x2 + 4 = 0
x1 + x2 + x3 = 1; x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x1 = 0;
x1x2x3 = –4
If the transformed equation is in terms of y, then
y x1 x 22 x 23 x1 x 2 x 3 2x 2 x 3
2
2x1 x 2 x 3 8
x1 1 x1 x1 1 x1
2 2
x1 x1
8 8
y x 1 x
2
x2 x 1
x x
or x3 – x2 + x – xy + 8 = 0
Subtracting Eq. (ii) from Eq. (i), we get
4
xy – x – 4 = 0 x
y 1
Putting this value of x in Eq. (i), we get
64 16
40
y 1 3
y 1 2
(y – 1)3 – 4(y – 1) + 16 = 0
or y3 – 3y2 – y + 19 = 0
1 1 1
Example-33 : If be the roots of x3 + 2x2 – 3x – 1 = 0. Find the value of 3 3 .
3
Solution : Roots of the equation,
x3 + 2x2 – 3x – 1 = 0
and .
Let us first form an equation whose roots are .
If y is a root of the transformed equation, then
y = x3
To eliminate x between Eqs. (i) and (ii), Eq. (i) can be written as
x3 – 1 = –(2x2 – 3x)
On cubing both sides of above equations
x9 – 3x6 + 3x3 – 1 = –[8x6 – 27x3 – 18x3(2x2 – 3x)]
x9 – 3x6 + 3x3 – 1 = –[8x6 – 27x3 – 18x3(1 – x3)]
x9 – 3x6 + 3x3 – 1 = –8x6 + 27x3 + 18x3 – 18x6
x9 + 23x6 – 42x3 – 1 = 0
Putting x3 = y in this equation, we get
y3 + 23y2 – 42y – 1 = 0
Its roots are .
1
Changing y to , Eq. (iii) becomess
y
1 23 42
1 0
y3 y2 y
y3 + 42y2 – 23y – 1 = 0
1 1 1
Its roots are , , .
3 3 3
1 1 1
3 3 =sum of roots of Eq. (iv) = – 42
3
Example-34 : If be the roots of the cubic equation x3 + 3x + 2 = 0, find the equation whose roots are (–)( –
), ( – ) ( – ), ( – )( – ). Hence, show that the above cubic has two imaginary roots.
Solution : Let z = ( – )( – ) = 2 – – +
2
2
or az = a3 – 3a + 2(–2) 3; 2 …(i)
Also, 3 + 3 + 2 = 0, we get
2 – 3 = –6 – 2
On putting this value in Eq. (i)
z = –6 – 6 or (z + 6) = –6
6
z6
But is a root of x3 + 3x + 2 = 0
3
6 6
3 2 0
z 6 z 6
(z + 6)3 – 9(z + 6)2 – 108 = 0
z3 + 9z2 – 216 = 0
Let z1, z2, z3 be the roots of above equation, then
z1z2z3 = ( – )( – )( – ) ( – )( – )
( – ) = 216
or –( – )2( – )2( – )2 = 216
( – )2( – )2( – )2 = 216
Hence, one of the factors in RHS must be –ve say ( – )2 is –ve. i.e., – = pure imaginary, showing that
a and b are conjugate complex.
Hence, the given equation has tow imaginary roots.
Example-35 : Let Z be a root of x5 – 1 = 0 with z 1 . Find the value of z15 + z16 + z17 + …+ z50
Solution : z15 + z16 + …+ z50
z 36 1 z 1
z15 z1 z 35 1 1 1
z 1 z 1
Example-36 : Solve the system of equation for real x and y
1 1
5x 1 2 2
12;5y 1 2 4.
x y x y2
12 2 42
5x 5y
2 2
Solution : 2
2
1 1
1 x2 y 2 1 x2 y 2
1
Put x y
2 2
, we have
t
25 144 16
t 1 t 1 t 2
2
So that 25(1 – t2)2 = 144t(1 – t)2 + 16t(1 + t)2
or 25t4 – 16t3 – 206t2 – 160t + 25 = 0
Dividing by t2, we get
160 25
25t 2 160t 206 2 0
t t
1 1
i.e., 25 t 2 2 160 t 206 0
t t
1
Let t u , we have
t
25(u2 – 2) – 160U + 206 = 0
i.e., 25u2 –160 u + 156 = 0
160 160 2
4.25.156 160 100 6 25
u ,
50 50 5 5
6 1 6
When u , t which does not give any real values of t.
5 t 5
26 1 6 1
If u , t which gives t or 5
5 t 5 5
1 1
so that x y
2 2
t = 5 or or 5
5 5
1
When x y
2 2
, we get
5
5x(1 + 5) = 12, 5y(1 – 5) = 4,
2 1
so that x ,y
5 5
When x2 + y2 = 5, we get
1 1
5x 1 12;5y 1 4
5 5
so that x = 2, y = –1
2 1
Thus, x , y and x = 2, y = –1.
5 5
Example-37 : Solve the R the equation
2x99 + 3x98 + 2x97 + 3x96 + … + 2x + 3 = 0.
Solution : 2x99 + 3x98 + 2x97 + 3x96 + … + 2x + 3
= (2x + 3)(x98 + x96 + x95 +… + 1)
x 98 1
2x 3
x 1
The equation x98 – 1 = 0 has only two real roots i.e., 1 .
3
The given equation has only 2 real roots i.e., and –1.
2
Example-38 : Determine x, y, z R such that
2x2 + y2 + 2z2 – 8x + 2y – 2xy + 2xz – 16z + 35 = 0
Solution : 2x2 + y2 + 2z2 – 8x + 2y – 2xy + 2xz – 16z + 35 = 0
(x – y)2 + (x + z)2 + z2 – 16z – 8x + 2y + 35 = 0
(x – y – 1)2 + (x + z – 3)2 + z2 – 10z + 25 = 0
(x – y – 1)2 + (x + z – 3)2 + (z – 5)2 = 0
Thus, x – y = 1, x + z = 3, z = 5
Hence, x = –2, y = –3
Solution is x = –2, y = –3 and z = 5.
Example-39 : Find all real x, y that satisfying x3 + y3 = 7 and x2 + y2 + x + y + xy = 4.
Solution : Let x + y = , xy = and hence x2 + y2 = 2 – 2
(x3 + y3) = (x + y)(x2 – xy + y2)
2 – 3 = 7
3 – 3 = 7
and x2 + y2 + x + y + xy = 4
2 – 2 + + = 4
2 – + = 4
2 + – 4
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have
3 – 3(2 + – 4) = 7
f() = 23 + 32 – 12 + 7 = 0
f(1) = 2 + 3 – 12 + 7 = 0
Hence, ( – 1) is a factor.
So, f() = 23 + 32 – 12 + 7 = 0
= ( – 1)(22 + 5 – 7) = 0
= ( – 1)( – 1)(2 + 7) = 0
7
So, = 1 or
2
7 19
When = 1, = –2 and when ,
2 4
If we take = 1, = –2, then x and y are roots of
t2 + t – 2 = 0
(t + 2)(t – 1) = 0
t = –2 and 1
i.e., x = –2 and y = 1 or x = 1 and y = –2
7 19
If we take and , then x, y are roots of 4t2 + 14t + 19 = 0
2 4
Here, discriminant 142 – 4 4 19 < 0. There are no real roots.
Real values of x, y satisfying the given equation are (2, –1) or (–1, 2).
Example-40 : Determine the values x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 satisfying x5 + x2 = yx1; x1 + x3 = yx2; x2 + x4 = yx3; x3 + x5 = yx4;
x4 + x1 = yx5 where y is a given parameter.
Solution : x5 + x2 = yx1
x1 + x3 = yx2
x2 + x4 = yx3
x3 + x5 = yx4
x4 + x1 = yx5
Express x5 and x3 from Eqs. (i) and (ii)
x5 = yx1 – x2
x3 = yx2 – x1
Substitute Eq. (vi) into Eq. (v), we get
x4 = (y2 – 1)x1 – yx2
After substituting Eqs. (viii) and (vii) and ordering the equation
(y2 + y – 1)((y – 1)x1 – x2) = 0
If y2 + y – 1 = 0,
1 5
i.e., y , then Eqs. (ix) and (x) is satisfied for arbitrary x1 and x2; sine all our previous transformations
2
are reversible, these values uniquely determine x3, x4, x5. If y2 + y – 1 0,
Then eqs. (ix) and (x) gives x1 – x2 = 0
(y – 1)x1 – x2 = 0
Implying (y – 2)x1 = 0
For y = 2 the value of x1 = x2 can be arbitrary, if x1 = x2 = c, then x3 = x4 = x5 = c
Finally, if y 2, then x1 = 0 from Eq. (xii) and x2 = 0 from Eq. (xi) implying that all unknowns in the original system
are equal to zero.
Example-41 : Eliminate x, y, z, u form the equations :
x = by + cz + du; y = cz + du + ax
z = du + ax + by; u = ax + by + cz
Solution : Now, x + ax = ax + by + cz + du
y + by = ax + by + cz + du
z + cz = ax + by + cz + du
and u + du = ax + by + cz + du
If ax + by + cz + du = k (say)
Then, x + ax = k
k
x
1 a
k
Similarly, y ;
1 b
k k
z and u
1c 1 d
Substituting these values in
ax + by + cz + du = k, we get
ak bk ck dk
k
1 a 1 b 1 c 1 d
a b c d
or 1
1 a 1 b 1c 1 d
Example-42 : Eliminate x, y, z from the equations
x + y + z = 0; x2 + y2 + z2 = a2,
x3 + y3 + z3 = b3 and x5 + y5 + z5 = c5.
Solution : Given, x + y + z = 0 …(i)
x +y +z =a
2 2 2 2
…(ii)
x3 + y3 + z3 = b4 …(iii)
x5 + y5 + z5 = c5 …(iv)
From Eq. (i) we can conclude
x3 + y3 + z3 = 3xyz b3 = 3xyz, [using Eq. (iii)]
Squaring first equation
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2(xy + yz + zx) = 0
or a2 + 2(xy + yz + zx) = 0
a2
xy + yz + zx = –
2
Now, multiplying Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get
(x2 + y2 + z2) (x3 + y3 + z3) = a2b3
x5 + y5 + z5 + x2y3 + x2z3 + y2x3 + z2x3 + z2x3 = a2b3
or c5 + x2y2(x + y) + y2z2(y + z) + z2x2 (z + x) = a2b3
or c5 + x2y2(–z) + y2z2(–x) + z2x2 (–y) = a2b3 [ x + y + z = 0]
or c2 – x2 y2z – xy2z2 – yx2z2 = a2b3
or c5 – xyz(xy + yz + xy) = a2b3
From Eqs. (i) and (ii) it becomes
b3 a 2
c5 2 3
a b
3 2
or 6c5 + a2b2 = 6a2b3 or 6c5 = 5a2b3
x2 (y z) y 2 (z x) z3 (x y) xyz
Example-43 : Eliminate x, y, z from the equations 3
3
1.
a b c3 abc
Solution : Given equations can be written as
x2(y + z) = a3 …(i)
y2(z + x) = b3 …(ii)
z2(x + y) = c3 …(iii)
xyz = abc …(iv)
From Eq. (iv),
abc = (y + z)(z + x)(x + y)
= (yz + yx + z2 + zx)(x + y)
= xyz + x2y + xz2 + x2z + y2z + y2x + yz2 + xyz
= 2xyz + x2(y + z) + y2(z + x) + z2(x + y) = 2abc + a3 + b3 + c3
Hence, a3 + b3 + c3 + abc = 0
Example-44 : The following artifice is sometimes useful.
Solve : 3x2 4x 34 3x 2 4x 11 9
Solution : We have identically (3x2 – 4x + 34) – (3x2 – 4x – 11) = 45
Divide each member of (2) by the corresponding member of (1); thus
3x2 4x 34 3x2 4x 11 5
Now (2) is an identical equation true for all values of x, whereas (1) is an equation which is true only for
certain values of x; hence also equation (3) is only true for these values of x.
From (1) and (3) by addition 3x2 4x 34 7
5
whence x = 3, or .
3
Example-45 : Solve : 12x4 – 56x3 + 89x2 – 56x + 12 = 0.
Solution : Dividing by x2 and rearranging,
1 1
12 x2 2 56 x 89 0
x x
1 2 1 2
Put x z; then x 2 z 2;
x x
12(z2 – 2) – 56z + 89 = 0
5 13
Whence we obtain z or
2 6
1 5 13
x or
x 2 6
1 3 2
By solving these equations we find that x = 2, , , .
2 2 3
EXERCISE - 1 :
1. 9x + y – 8z = 0
4x – 8y + 7z = 0
yz + zx + xy = 47
2. x + 3y + 4z = 27
3x + 2y + z = 16
x2 + xy + z + z2 = 30
3. y2 + yz + z2 = 7
z2 + zx + x 2 = 13
x2 + xy + y2 = 19
4. Given a4 + a3 + a2 + a + 1 = 0. Find the value of a2000 + a2010 + 1.
1
5. It is given that x = . Find the value of
2 3
x6 – 2 3 x 5 – x4 + x3 – 4x2 + 2x – 3 .
6. Given that y = (x – 16) (x – 14) (x + 14) (x + 16), find the maximum value of (–0.1y).
7. Let x1, x2, x3, x4 denote the four roots of the equation x4 + kx2 +90x – 2009 = 0.
If x1x2 = 49, find the value of k.
8. Find the number of real solutions of the equation 1 + x + x2 + x3 = x4 + x5.
9. What is the sum of all the roots of the equation 5| x | 8 x 2 16 .
1 1 1
10. Real numbers a,b,c satisfying the equations a + b + c = 26, = 28.
a b c
a b c a c b
Find the value of
b c a c b a
31
11. Given that (1 – x) (1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4) = and x is a rational number. Then find the value of
32
(1 + x + x2 +x3 + x4 + x5)
12. If the roots of the equation x2 + 3x – 1 = 0 are also the roots of the equation x4 + ax2 + bx+ c = 0,
find the value of (a + b + 4c)2.
13. Suppose the real numbers x and y satisfy the equations x3 – 3x2 + 5x = 1 and y3 – 3y2 + 5y = 5.
Find x + y .
a3 1
14. Given that a is a root of the equation x2 – x – 3 = 0. Evaluate .
a 5 a 4 a3 a2
15. x1 and x2 are roots of the equation x2 + x – 3 = 0. Find the value of x13 4x 22 19.
16. If x, y are positive real numbers satisfying the system of equations x2 + y xy = 336, y2 + x xy = 112,
then x + y equals.
1 1 2
17. Suppose that the two roots of the equation 2 2 0
x 10x 29 x 10x 45 x 10x 69
2
are and . Find the value of (–).
18. If a, b, c, d, satisfy the equations
a + 7b + 3c + 5d = 0, 8a + 4b + 6c + 2d = –16, 2a + 6b + 4c + 8d = 16, 5a + 3b + 7c + d = – 16
then the value of (a + d) (b + c) =
1 2 3
19. Given 0, ...(i)
x y z
1 6 5
0 ...(ii)
x y z
x y z
Find the value of .
y z x
20. Solve the equation 6x4 – 13x3 – 35x2 – x + 3 = 0.
21. The sum of two roots of x4 – 8x3 + 19x2 + 4x + 2 = 0. is equal to the sum of the other two rooots, find . Solve the
equation.
22. Solve 2x3 – x2 – 22x – 24 = 0 two of the roots being in the ratio 3 : 4.
23. Solve the equation x3 – 13x2 + 15x + 189 = 0, having given that one root exceeds the other by 2.
24. Solve the equation 4x3 + 20x2 – 23x + 6 = 0 two of its roots being equal.
25. Find the equation whose roots are the roots of x5 – 4x4 + 3x2 – 4x + 6 = 0 each diminished by 3.
26. Form the equation whose roots are the cubes of the roots of x3 + 3x2 + 2 = 0
27. Solve : x2 + y2 + z2 = 84
x + y + z = 14
xz = y2.
28. If the roots of the equation 2x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 = 0 be . Find the equation whose roots are
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2; 2 2 2; 2 2 2.
2
29. If the roots of the equation x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0 be .
Find the equation whose roots are 2 + 2, 2 + 2, 2 + 2.
30. The roots of the equation x3 – ax2 + bx – c = 0 are form the equation whose roots are + , + , + .
1 1 1
Also, express in terms of a, b, c.
EXERCISE - 2 :
Find the real roots of the equation x 2 2ax
1 1
1. a a2 x .
16 16
2. Find the sum of the fifth powers of the roots of the equation x3 – 7x2 + 4x – 3 = 0
3. Find all ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) for which :
(1 + x) (1 + x2) (1 + x4) = 1 + y7
and (1 + y) (1 + y2) (1 + y4) = 1 + x7.
2
4. Solve the equation 2(2x – 1)x2 + ( 2 x – 2)x = 2x+1 – 2 for real number x.
x y x2 y 2 y x x2 y 2
5. Let a and b be given real numbers. Solve the system of equations a; b
1 x2 y 2 1 x2 y 2
for real numbers x and y.
6. Find a triple of rational numbers (a, b, c) such that 3 3
2 1 3 a 3 b 3 c .
3x y x 3y
7. Solve the system of equations : x 2 2
3; y 2 0.
x y x y2
8. Prove that there exist 10 distinct real numbers a1, a2, ...., a10 such that the equation
(x – a1)(x – a2) ..... (x – a10) = (x + a1)(x + a2) ..... (x + a10) has exactly 5 different real roots.
9. Let a and b be two of the roots of the polynomial x4 + x3 – 1.
Prove that ab is a root of the polynomial x6 + x4 + x3 – x2 – 1.
10. Two different real numbers a and b are such that the equation (x2 + 20ax + 10b) (x2 + 20bx + 10a) = 0 has no real
solutions. Prove that 20(b – a) cannot be an integer number.
x y z 0,
3
x y 3 z 3 18,
11. Solve in real numbers the system .
7 7 7
x y z 2058,
Solve the system of equation for real x and y; 5x 1
1 1
12.
x y2
2 12; 5y 1 x2 y 2 4.
13. Determine all triples (x, y, z) of positive integers which are solutions of
2x2y2 + 2y2z2 + 2z2x2 – x4 – y4 – z4 = 576.
14. Let the roots of the cubic equation x2 + ax2 + bx + c = 0 be real. Show that the difference between the greatest and the
least of them is not less than 2
a 2 3b nor greater than 2 (a 3b) .
15. Find integers x, y, z such that x2y + y2z + 4xy = 40
x2 + y2 + xyz = 20
16. are the roots of the quadratic equation x2 + px + q = 0 and for the equation x2n + pnxn + qn = 0. When n is an even
integer. Prove that , are the roots of xn + 1 + (x + 1)n = 0.
17. Solve the equation 5 x 5 x2 .
ad 2 3bd
18. Show that the roots of the biquadratic ax4 + 4bx3 + 4dx + e = 0, have only two distinct values, if 1.
2
b e bd ae
19. Show that sum of products of the first integers taken three at a time is n2(n + 1)2(n – 2)(n – 1)/48.
20. Let x, y and z be complex numbers such that x + y + z = 2, x2 + y2 + z2 = 3 and xyz = 4.
1 1 1
Evaluate .
xy z 1 yz x 1 zx y 1
3
21. Let a 1. Prove that the equation x3(x + 1) = (x + a) (2x + a) has four distinct real solutions and find these solutions
4
in explicit form.
22. Determine x2 + y2 + z2 + w2 if
x2 y2 z2 w2
1,
22 12 22 32 22 52 22 72
x2 y2 z2 w2
1,
42 12 4 2 32 42 52 42 72
x2 y2 z2 w2
1,
62 12 62 32 62 52 62 72
x2 y2 z2 w2
1.
82 12 82 32 82 52 82 72
3x y
23. Solve the system of equations : x 3
x2 y 2
x 3y
y 2 0
x y2
1 1 1
24. If are the roots of x3 – x – 1 = 0, complete .
1 1 1
25. Find all real solutions to the following system of equations. Carefully justify your answer.
4x 2
2
y
1 4x
4y 2
2
z
1 4y
4z 2
x
1 4z 2
1 1 1
26. Determine the number of real solutions a to the equation a a a a. Here, if x is a real number, then [x]
2 3 5
denotes the greatest integer that is less than or equal to x.
1/2 1/2
1 1
27. Find all real numbers x such that x x 1 .
x x
28. Find all real solutions to the equation 4x2 – 40[x] + 51 = 0.
Here, if x is a real number, then [x] denotes the greatest integer that is less than or equal to x.
29. Find all real positive solutions (if any) to x3 + y3 + z3 = x + y + z, and x2 + y2 + z2 = xyz.
30. Find all ordered triples (x, y, z) of real numbers which satisfy the following system of equations :
xy z x y
xz y x z
yz x y z
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE - 1 : EXERCISE - 2 :
1. x = ±3, y = ±5, z = ±4
2
1 2a 1 2a 1
2. x = 2, y = 3, z = 4 or x = –18, 1. x
y = 47, z = –24 2 2 16
2. 11182
7 1 5
3. (x, y, z) , , 3. (0, 0), (–1, 1)
3 3 3
4. (–1, 0, 1)
and (x, y, z) (±3, ±2, ±1)
4. 3 a b a 2 b2 b a a 2 b2
5. (x, y) ,
2 2
5. 2 1a b 1 a 2 b2
6. 90 whenever 0 < a2 – b2 < 1.
7. 7 4 2 1
6. (a, b, c) = , ,
8. 3 9 9 9
9. 0 7. (2, 1) and (–1, 1)
10. 725 11. (–1, –2, 3)
63 2 1
11. 12. x , y and x = 2, y = –1
32 5 5
12. 49 13. (x, y, z) = (5, 4, 3), (5, 3, 4), (4, 5, 3), (4, 3, 5), (3, 4, 5), (3, 5, 4)
13. 2 15. x 5, y 5, z 2
4 1
14.
9 17. 1 21 and 1 1 17
2 2
15. 0
ad 2
16. 20 18. 1
b2e
17. 39
18. –16 n 2 (n 1)2 (n 1)(n 2)
19. p 3
48
19. ½
2
3 1 20.
20. 2 3, , 9
2 3
22. 36
21. = –3 and x 2 3, 2 2 23. (2, 1) and (1, –1)
22. –3/2, –3, 4 24. 7
23. 7, 9, –3 1
25. x=y=z=
24. ½, ½, –6 2
25. x5 + 11x4 + 42x3, 57x2 – 13x – 26. 30
60 = 0
5 1
26. y5 + 2y4 + 5y3 + 3y2 – 2y – 9 = 0 27.
2
27. x = 8 or 2; y = 4, z = 2 or 8; z = 2
or 1 29 189 229 269
28. The solutions are x , , ,
28. z3 + z2 – 13z + 19 = 0 2 2 2 2
29. z3 – 28z2 + 245z – 650 = 0 29. No real positive solutions.
30. (–2, 0, –2), (–2, –2, 0), (0, 0, 0), (0, –2, –2) and (–1, –1, –1)
30. y3 – 2ay2 + (a2 + b)y + (c – ab) =
0
Do Yourself - 1
3 1
1. , ,2 3 2. x4 – 10x3 – 19x2 + 480x – 1392 = 0 3. q2 – 2pr
2 3
pq
4. pq – r 5. 3 6. pq – 3r
r
7. pr – 4s 8. p4 – 4pq2 + 2q2 + 4pr – 4s
Do Yourself - 2
1 7 1
1. (a) –1, –2; (b) 4; (c) 1 2 2. a, 3. 4. 3, 7. x2 – 2x – 15 = 0
a 3 5
b
3 3ac b b 2 b2 4ac
2
b 2 2ca b 2 3c 2
(b) bc (e)
9. (a)
c2 a
7
(c)
c2 a2
(d) a 2 c 1/3
a
Do Yourself - 4
1. (4) 2. (3) 3. (2) 4. (1) 5. (1)
Do Yourself - 5
1. 8Gy3 + 12(G – H)y2 + 6(G – 2H)y + (G – 3H + 1) = 0
2. (a) r2y3 + pr(r + 1)y2 + q(r + 1)2y + (r + 1)3 = 0
(b) y3 – 2qy2 + (q2 + pr)y + (r2 – pqr) = 0
(c) ry3 + q(1 – r)y2 + p(1 – r)2y
3. y3 + y2 + 74 – 17 = 0
4. y3 + 3(3b – a2)y + (9ab – 2a3 – 27) = 0 and 2a3 + 27c – ab
Do Yourself - 6
20
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. x3 + 2x2 – 7x – 16 = 0 4.
9
5. 2y4 – 5y3 – 7y2 + 2y – 1 = 0 6. 4y5 – 40y4 + 158y3 – 308y2 + 303y – 129 = 0
7. 3y4 – 77y3 + 720y2 – 2876y + 4058 = 0
Do Yourself - 7
1 1
1. ( , 2] [4, ) 2. [0, 1) 3. 3 , 1
4. 11 , 1
1
5. ( , 5] [9, ) 6.
3
Do Yourself - 8
1. Possible positive real zeros : 2 or 0 2. Possible positive real zeros : 1
Possible negative real zeros : 1 Possible negative real zeros : 1
3. Possible positive real zeros : 5, 3 or 1 4. Possible positive real zeros : 1
Possible negative real zeros : 0 Possible negative real zeros : 4, 2 or 0
5. Possible positive real zeros : 3 or 1
Possible negative real zeros : 2 or 0
Do Yourself - 9
1. x = 1, y = –2 2. x = 100, y = 50 3. x = 4, y = 1
Do Yourself - 10
1 1 1 1
1. x = –½, y = 2 2. x = 2, y = –1 3. x= , y=
2a 5b a 10b
4. x = 0, y = 0
Do Yourself - 11
1. x = 8, y = 10 2. x = a, y = b 3. x = –1, y = 0
Do Yourself - 12
1. x = 3, y = 2 2. x = 3, y = 2 3. x = 3, y = 2
Do Yourself - 13
1. x = 1, y = 1, z = 1 2. x = 3/4, y = 5/4, z = 1/2 3. x = 8, y = 12, z = 20
4. x = ±2, y = ±4, z = ±7 5. x = ±4, y = ±1, z = ±7 6. x = 2, y = 4, z = 5
7. x = 3, –5; y = –3, 1; z = 0, –2 8. x = 1/2, y = 1/3, z = 1/4 9. x = 12/5, y = 12/7, z = –12
2abc 2abc 2abc
10 x ; y ; z
bc ca ab ab bc ca ab ac bc
Do Yourself - 14
1. x = 0, y = 1, z = 0 2. x = ±2, y = ±3/2, z = ±4 3. x = ±3, y = ±5, z = ±7
4. x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 or 5. x = ±1, y = ±2, z = ±3 6. x = ±3/2, y = ±1/2, z = 0
x = 1, y = 3, z = 2 7. x = –abc, y = ab + bc + ca, z = –(a + b + c)
8. x = 2, 2, 4, 4, 6, 6; y = 4, 6, 2, 6, 4, 2; z = 6, 4, 6, 2, 2, 4
Do Yourself - 15
1. (x, y) = (6, –2), (3, –1), (0, –1), (3, –2) 2. (6, 5) 3. (5, 1) and (5, –1)
4. x = 0 and y = 1 5. (6, 1) and (1, 6)
Do Yourself - 16
1. No. solution.
2. x = –2000 + 22x, y = 5200 – 57x
3. x = –8 + 47k, y = 7 – 41k [where k is any integer]
SEQUENCE AND SERIES
SEQUENCE
Introduction :
A sequence can be defined as an ordered collection of things (usually numbers) or a set of numbers arranged one after
another. Sometimes, sequence is also referred as progression. The numbers a1, a2, a3 .......an are known as terms or
elements of the sequence. The subscript is the set of positive integers 1, 2, 3.... that indicates the position of the term in
the sequence. Tn is used to denote the nth term.
Some examples of a sequence are as follows:
0, 7, 26 ................., 1, 4, 7, 10 .................., 2, 4, 6, 8 ...................
Note : The minimum number terms in a sequence should be 3.
Finite and Infinite Sequences :
A sequence containing a finite number of terms in called a finite sequence. If the sequence contains a infinite number of
terms, it is known as an infinite sequence. It is infinite in the sense that it never ends. Example of infinite and finite
sequences are as follows:
{1, 2, 3, 4.......} is an infinite sequence
{20, 25, 30, 35.......} is an infinite sequence
{1, 3, 5, 7} is the sequence of the first 4 odd numbers, which is a finite sequence
Notation :
The notation Tn is used to represent the general term of the sequence. Here, the position of the term in the sequence is
represented by n. To mention for the ‘5’th term, just wirte T5.
Thus, the rule for {3, 5, 7, 9....} can be written as the following equation : Tn = 2n + 1.
To calculate the 10th term, we can with T10 = 2n + 1 = 2 10 + 1 = 21
Illustration-1 : Find out the first 4 terms of the sequence, {Tn} = {–1/n}n.
Solution : By substitution n = 1, 2, 3 and 4 in {Tn} = {–1/n}n, we will get the first 4 terms of given sequence.
T1 = (–1/1)1 = –1
T2 = (–1/2)2 = 1/4
T3 = (–1/3)3 = –1/27
T4 = (–1/4)4 = 1/256
{Tn} = {–1, 1/4, –1/27, 1/256……}
Illustration-2 : Write the sequence whose nth term is (i) 2n and (ii) log(nx).
Solution : Substituting n = 1, 2, 3......., we will get the sequence.
(i) nth term = 2n
a1 = 21, a2 = 22…
sequence 21, 22, ……2n
(ii) nth term = an = log(nx)
a1 = log(x)
a2 = log(2x), an = log(nx)
sequence log(x), log(2x), ……… log(nx)
SERIES :
Series is something that we get from a given sequence by adding all the terms. If we have a sequence as T1, T2, …, Tn, then
the series that we get from this sequence is T1 + T2 + …+Tn, Sn is used to represent the sum of n terms. Hence, Sn = T1
+ T2 + … + T n
Sigma and PI Notation s :
Sigma Notation :
The meaning of the symbol (sigma) is summation. To find the sum of any sequence, the symbol (sigma) is used before
its nth term. For example :
9
(i) n 1 2 3 ...... 9
n 1
(ii) r or n
r 1
a a
1a 2 a 3 a ..... n a
5
i 1 11 21 3 1 4 1 5 1
(iii) 2i 4 2 1 4 2 2 4 2 3 4 2 4 4 2 5 4
i 1
Properties of S (Sigma) :
k
(i) a a a a...
i 1
(k times) = ka, where a is a constant.
k k
(ii) ai a i, , where a is a constant.
i 1 i 1
n n n
(iii) a
r 1
r b r a r br
r 1 r 1
in in jn in
(iv) a a a a
i i 0 j j0
i j
j j0 i i0
i j
Pi Notation :
The symbol denotes the product of similar terms. For example
(i) n 1 2 3 4 5 6
n 1
(ii) n
n 1
m
1m 2 m 3 m 4 m ....... k m
(iii) n 1 2 3 4 ....... k k !
n 1
Arithmetic Progression :
The sequence in which the successive terms maintain a constant difference is known as an arithmetic progression (AP).
Consider the following sequences:
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d
T 1 , T 2 , T 3 , T4
T2 – T1 = T3 – T2 = T4 – T3 = constant (common difference)
The given sequence is an example of AP. The set of natural numbers is also an example AP.
General Term :
General term (nth term) of an AP is given by Tn = a + (n – 1)d, where a is the first term of the sequence and d is the common
difference of the sequence.
Note :
(i) General term is also denoted by (last term).
(ii) n (number of terms) always belong to the set of natural numbers.
(iii) Common difference can be zero, +ve or –ve.
If d > 0 increasing AP
If d < 0 decreasing AP
If d = 0 constant AP (all the terms remain same)
(iv) The nth term from end is (m – n + 1) term from the beginning, where m is the total number of terms and is
given by the following expression:
Tm–n+1 = Tm–(n–1)d
*(v) If the mth term is n and the nth term is m, then the (m + n)th term is 0.
*(vi) If m times the mth term is equal to n times the nth term, then the (m + n)th is 0.
Illustration-3 : If the 5th term of an AP is 17 and its 7th term is 15, then find the 22nd term.
Solution : Using the formula Tn = a + (n – 1)d, we can solve above problem.
Given a + 4d = 17 and a + 6d = 15
2d = –2 d = –1, a = 21
T22 = 21 – 21 = 0
Illustration-4 : Prove that the square roots of three unequal prime numbers cannot be three terms of an AP.
Solution : Here by considering p, q, r to be the th, th and vth terms of an AP ans solving them using Tn = a +
(n – 1)d, we prove the problem.
If possible let p, q, r be the three terms of an AP. a, a + d, a + 2d ......., where p q r and they aree
prime numbers.
Let them be the th, th and vth terms, respectively.
p a 1 d
q a 1 d
r a v 1 d
p r d
Also, q r v d
p q p q q r
or
q r v q r q r v
or pq pr q qr (q r) or pq pr qr q (q r) rational number
v v
Since p, q, r are unequal primes, pq, pr and qr are unequal pure irrational numbers. Thus, LHS is
irrational, but irrational rational. Hence proved.
Illustration-5 : If x, y and z are real numbers satisfying the equation 25(9x2 + y2) + 9z2 – 15(5xy + yz + 3zx) = 0, then prove
that x, y and z are in AP.
Solution : By solving the equation 25(9x2 + y2) + 9z2 – 15(5xy + yz + 3zx) = 0, we can prove that x, y and z are in AP.
We have
(15x)2 + (5y)2 + (3z)2 – (15x)(5y) – (5y)(3z) – (3z)(15x) = 0
(15x – 5y)2 + (5y – 3z)2 + (3z – 15x)2 = 0
15x – 5y = 0, 5y – 3z = 0, 3z – 15x = 0
x y y
15x = 5y = 3z k say
1 3 5
x = k, y = 3k, z = 5k
Thus x, y and z are in AP.
Illustration-6 : Let a1, a2, a3,.....,a be in AP, where a1 = 0 and the common difference 0. Show that
a3 a4 a5 a 1 1 1 a n 1 a
...... n a 2 ..... 2
a 2 a3 a 4 a n 1 a2 a3 an 2 a2 a n 1
Solution : Given a1 = 0 and d = a2 – a1 = a2 – 0 = a2
By solving LHS and RHS separately, we can solve the problem.
a3 a 2 a 4 a2 a 5 a 2 a a2 1
LHS .... n 1
a2 a3 a4 a n 2 a n 2
a2 a 3 a 4 a a
.... n 2 n
a2 a 3 a 4 a n 2 a n 1
an a n 1 d n 1
n 3 n 3 1 n 3 a1 0
a n 1 a1 n 2 d n 2
a1 n 2 d a2 1 1 n 1
RHS n 2 (n 3) 1 (n 3)
a2 a1 n 2 d n2 n2 n 2
LHS = RHS
Note :
A sequence obtained by multiplication or division of corresponding terms of two APS may not be in AP
For example, let the first AP be 2, 3, 6, 8, ....... and the second AP be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ......
Multiplying these, two we get 2, 8, 18, 32, ......., which is clearly not an AP.
Do Yourself - 1
1. If 11 times the 11th term of an AP is equal to 9 times the 9th term, then find the 20th term.
2. Check whether the sequences given below are AP or not.
(a) Tn = n2 (b) Tn = an + b
3 1 1
3. The 2nd, 31st and the last term of an AP are given as 7 , and 6 , respectively. Find the first term and the number
4 2 2
of terms.
Series of an AP
Series of an AP can be obtained as
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) ....... [a + (n – 1)d]
Sn = [a + (n – 1)d] + [a + (n – 2)d] ...... + a (writing in the reverse order)
2Sn = n(2a + (n – 1)d)
n n
Sum to n terms, S n
2
2a n 1 d 2 T1 Tn
Illustration-7 : Find the sum of the first 19 terms of an AP when a4 + a8 + a12 + a16 = 224.
19
Solution : We need to find out the sum of the first 19 terms of an AP, i.e. 2a 18d , and we can represent thee
2
given equation as (a + 3d) + (a + 7d) + (a + 11d) + (a + 15d) = 224.
Given (a + 3d) + (a + 7d) + (a + 11d) + (a + 15d) = 224
4a + 36d = 224 a + 9d = 56
19 19
Sum of the first 19 terms S 2a 18d 2 56 1064
2 2
7n 1
Illustration-8 : The sum of n terms of two arithemetic progression is in the ratio of . Find ratio of the 11thh terms?
4n 27
n
Solution : Since we know the sum of n terms, i.e. S n 2a n 1 d , we can write the equation as
2
n
7n 1 2
2a1 n 1 d1
. Hence, by putting n = 11 in this equation, we can obtain the ratio of thee
4n 27 n 2a n 1 d
2
2 2
11 terms.
th
n 1
a1 d1
7n 1 2
4n 27 n 1
a1 d2
2
a1 10d1 n 1
We want the ratio of . Hence, 10 n 21
a 2 10d 2 2
a1 10d 2 148
a 2 10d 2 111
1 1 1 n 1
Illustration-9 : If a1, a2, a3,......an is an AP of non–zero terms, then prove that ....
a1 a 2 a 2 a 3 a n 1 a n a1 a n
Solution : By considering a as the first term and d as the common difference, we can write an as a + (n – 1)d, where
n =1, 2, 3,...n.
1 1 1 1 1 1
.... .....
a1 a 2 a 2 a 3 a n 1 a n a a d a d a 2d [a (n 2)d][a (n 1)d]
11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
....
d a a d d a d a 2d d a (n 2)d a (n 1)d
11 1 a (n 1)d a (n 1)d n 1 n 1
d a a (n 1)d ad a (n 1)d ad a (n 1)d a a (n 1)d a1 a n
Note s :
(1) If each term of an AP is increased, decreased, multiplied, multiplied or divided by the same non–zero number, the resulting
sequence is also an AP.
(2) The sum of the two terms of an AP equidistant from the beginning and end is constant and is equal to the sum of the first
and last terms.
a1 + an = a2 + an–1 = a3 + an–2 = ..... = ar + an + 1 – r = ……
bc ca ab 1 1 1
Illustration-10 : If a + b + c0 and , , are in AP, then prove that , , are also in AP..
a b c a b c
bc ca ab
Solution : Here , , are in AP; therefore, by adding 1 to each term and then by dividing each term by
a b c
bc ca ab
a + b + c, we will get the required result , , are in AP
a b c
bc ca ab
Adding 1 to each term, find that 1, 1, 1 are in AP
a b c
ab ac bc c a b a b c
i.e. , , are in AP
bc b c
1 1 1
Dividing each term by a + b + c, we find that , , are in AP
a b c
If a ,b ,c are in AP, then prove that a, b, c are in AP..
1 1 1 1 1 1
Illustration-11 :
b c a c a b
abc
Solution : By adding 1 and then multiplying by to each term, we will get the result.
ab bc ac
1 1 1 1 1 1 bc ac ba
a ,b ,c are in AP a ,b ,c are in AP
b c a c a b bc ac ab
ab ac ab bc bc ac
Adding 1, we find that 1, 1, 1 are in AP
bc ac ab
ab ac bc ab bc ac bc ac ab
, , are in AP
bc ac ab
abc
Multiplying by to all the terms, we find that a, b, c are in AP..
ab bc ac
Do Yourself - 2
1. In an AP of n terms, prove that the sum of the kth term from the beginning and the kth term from the end is independent
of k and equal to the sum of the first and last terms.
2. Split 69 into three parts such that they are in AP and the product of the two smaller parts is 483.
3. Divide 32 into four parts that are in AP such that the ratio of the product of extremes to the product of mean is 7 : 15.
Arithmetic Mean :
The arithmetic mean (AM) A of any two numbers a and b is given by the equation (a + b)/2. Please note that the sequence
a, A, b is in AP
1
A a1 a 2 a n
n
Inserting ‘n’ AMs between ‘a’ and ‘b’
Suppose A1, A2, A3,.....,An be the n means between a and b. Thus, a, A1, A2,....An, b is an AP and b is the (n + 2)th term.
ba
Thus, b = a + (n + 1)d d
n 1
n
n(n 1) n(n 1) b a
A
i 1
i na 1 2 3 .... n d na
2
d na
2 n 1
n ab
[2a b a] nA where, A
2 2
Note : The sum of the n AMs inserted between a and b is equal to n times A.M. between them.
a b n n
Illustration-12 : If is the A.M. between a and b, find the value of n.
a b n 1
n 1
ab a n bn
Solution : Since the A.M. between a and b , we can obtain the value of an by equating this to n 1 .
2 a b n 1
an bn ab
n 1
n 1
[Given] 2an + 2bn = an + abn+1 + an–1b + bn
a b 2
an – an–1b = abn–1–bn an–1(a – b) = bn–1(a – b)
a
n 1
a
0
a 0
a n 1
b n 1
a b 1 1
b b b
n–1=0 n=1
Illustration-13 : Gate receipts at the show of “Baghbaan” amounted to `9500 on the first night and showed a drop of
`250 every succeeding night. If the operational expenses of the show are `2000 a day, find out on which
night the show ceases to be profitable?
Solution : Here, a = 9500 and d = –250.
The show ceases to be profitable on the night when the receipts are just `2000.
Thus, by considering that it will happen at nth night and using Tn = a + (n + 1)d, we can solve this problem.
We have the cost of gate receipt on the first night (a) = 9500
Common difference (d) = –250
Suppose, it happens on the nth night, then
2000 = 9500 + (n – 1)(–250) 2000 – 9500 = –250n + 250
7750
–7500 – 250 = –250n –7750 = –250n n 31
250
(a) If the sum of n terms Sn is given, then the general term Tn = Sn – Sn–1, where Sn–1 is sum of (n – 1) terms of AP.
(b) In a series, if Sn is a quadratic function of n or Tn is a linear function of n, the series is an AP.
(i) If Tn = an + b, the series so formed is an AP and its common difference is a.
(ii) if Sn = an2 + bn + c, the series so formed is an AP and its common difference is 2a.
(c) If in a finite AP, the number of terms is odd, then its middle term is the A.M. between the first term and last term
and its sum is equal to the product of the middle term and number of terms.
(d) It is found that the sum of infinite terms of an AP is , if d > 0 and –, if d < 0.
(e) If for an AP, the pth term is q and the qth term is p, then the mth term is = p + q – m.
(f) If for an AP, the sum of p term is q and sum of q terms is p, then the sum of (p + q) terms is –(p + q).
(g) if for an AP, then sum of p terms is equal to the sum of q terms, then the sum of (p + q) terms is zero.
Sn f T f(2n 1)
(h) If for different APs, n , then n' .
S 'n n Tn 2n 1
n 1
T An B S
A B
(i) If for two APs, n' , then we find that 'n 2 .
Tn Cn D Sn n 1
C D
2
Geometric Progression
A sequence of non–zero numbers is called a geometric progression (GP) if the ratio of successive terms is constant.
In general, G.P. is written in the following form: a, ar, ar3,.....,arn–1,....
where a is the first term and r is the common ratio
General Term :
If a is the first term and r is the common ratio, then Tn = arn–1.
Series of GP :
Let us suppose Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ....+ arn–1 ......(i)
Multiplying ‘r’ on both the sides of (i) and shifting the RHS terms by one place, we get
Snr = 0 + ar + ar2 + .....+ arn
By subtracting (ii) from (i), we get
Sn(1 – r) = a – arn = a(1 – rn)
a(1 r n ) , where
Sn r 1
1r
a r n 1 T a
Thus, the sum of the first n terms of a G.P. is given by S n n 1
r 1 r 1
And Sn = na, when r = 1
Note : If r = 1, then the sequence is of both AP and GP, and its sum is equal to na, i.e. Sn = na.
If |r| < 1, the nth term of G.P. converges to zero and the sum becomes finite.
a r n 1
The sum to infinite terms of G.P. lim S n lim
n n r 1
a
As |r|< 1 rn 0 as n S
1 r
Geometric Mean :
If a, b and c are three positive numbers in GP, then b is called the geometric mean (GM) between a and c, and b2=ac. If a
and b are two real numbers of the same sign and G is the G.M. between them, G2 = ab.
Note : If a and b are two number of opposite signs, then the G.M. between the them does not exist.
To insert ‘n’ GMs between a and b: If a and b are two positive numbers and we have to insert n GMs, G1, G2,....,Gn,
between the two numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’ then a, G1, G2, ......,Gn, b will be in GP. The series consists of (n + 2) terms and the
last term is b and the first term is a.
1
Thus, b = ar b = ar b n 1
n + 2 –1 n+1
r
a
G1 = ar, G2 = ar2 .....Gn = arn
Note : The product of n GMs inserted between ‘a’ and ‘b’ is equal to the nth power of the single G.M. between ‘a’
n
G G
n
and ‘b’, i.e. r , where G ab (GM between a and b)
r 1
Relation between A.M. and G.M. :
For any two non–negative number A.M. G.M.
Proof : Let two non–negative numbers be a and b.
2
Now, we can write a b 0 a 2 ab b 0
ab
a b 2 ab ab A.M. G.M.
2
Note : (i) Equality for A.M., G.M. (i.e. A.M. = G.M.) exists when a = b.
(ii) Since A.M. G.M. ; (A.M.)min = G.M.; (G.M.)max = A.M.
x y z
Illustration-14 : If x, y and z have the same sign, then prove that 3.
y z x
x y z
Solution : As we know that A.M. G.M. , therefore by obtaining A.M. and G.M. of , and we can prove the
y z x
problem.
x y z
Let x1 ; x 2 ; x 3
y z x
x y z
x1 x 2 x 3 y z x
x1 x 2 x 3
1/ 3
1
3 3
Hence proved.
a n 1 b n 1
Illustration-15 : Calculate the values of n so that may be the G.M. between a and b.
an bn
a n 1 b n 1
Solution : We know that the G.M. between a and b ab , but here G.M. between a and b is .
a n bn
a n 1 b n 1
ab an+1 + bn+1 = (an + bn) (ab)1/2
an bn
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
n n n n
a n 1 b n 1 a 2
.b 2 a 2 .b 2
a n 1 a 2
.b 2 a 2 .b 2
b n 1
12 n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
n n n
a 2
a b b a b
2 2 2 2
a 2
b 2
1
n 0
a 2 a 1 1
1 n 0 n
b b 2 2
Illustration-16 : If a1, a2 and a3 are in G.P. with a common ratio r(r > 0 and a > 0), then values of r for which inequality
9a1 + 5a3 > 14a2 hold good are?
a
Solution : Since a1 a 2 a, a3 = ar, by substituting these values to the given inequality we will get the result.
r
a 9a
a1 a 2 a, a 3 ar Now, 5ar 14a
r r
5ar2 – 14ar + 9a > 0 5r2 – 14r + 9 > 0
5r2 – 5r - 9r + 9 > 0 5r(r – 1) – 9(r – 1) > 0
5
(5r – 9) (r – 1) > 0 r R 1,
9
Note s :
The product of n geometric means between a and (1/a) is 1.
Let the first term of a G.P. be negative; if r > 1, then it is a decreasing G.P. and if 0 < r < 1, then it is an increasing G.P.
If a1, a2, a3,.....an are in AP, a a1 ,a a2 ,a a3 ,....a an will be in G.P. whose common ratio is ad.
Properties of GP
(a) If each term of a G.P. is multiplied or divided by the same non–zero quantity, then the resulting sequence is also a
GP.
(b) If in a finite GP, the number of terms is odd, then its middle term is the G.M. of the first and last terms.
b c
(c) If a, b and c are in GP, then b2 ac (which is the condition of GP).
a b
1
(d) The reciprocals of the terms of a given G.P. also give a G.P. with a common ratio of .
r
(e) If each term of a G.P. is raised to the same power (say k), then the resulting sequence also forms a G.P. with the
common ratio as rk.
(f) In a GP, the product of the terms equidistant from the beginning and the end is always the same and it is equal to
the product of the first and last terms (only for finite GP).
(g) If the terms of a G.P. are chosen at regular intervals, the new sequence so formed also forms a G.P. with the
common ratio as rp, where p is the size of interval.
(h) If a1, a2, a3,....,ar.... is a G.P. of non–zero, non–negative terms, then log a1, log a2,...., log an,.... is an AP and vice
versa.
(i) If T1, T2, T3.... and t1, t2, t3 are two GPs, T1t1, T2t2, T3t3..... is also in GP.
(j) The resulting sequence thus formed by dividing the terms of a G.P. by the corresponding terms of another G.P. is
also a GP.
Illustration-17 : If x = 1 + a + a 2 + ...., y = 1 + b + b 2 + .... and |a| < 1, |b| < 1, then prove that
xy
1 ab a 2 b 2 ....
x y 1
a
Solution : By using the formula S , we can solve problem.
1 r
xy
x 1 ab a 2 b 2 ....
x y 1 |a| 1
1 1 x 1
1 a a 1 a
x x x
1
Also, y = 1 + b + b2 + ...... to
1 b
|b| 1
1 1 y 1
1b b 1 b
y y y
xy
1 ab a 2 b 2 .... ( |a| < 1, |b| < 1 |ab| < 1)
x y 1
1 xy xy
[Using (i) and (ii)]
x 1 y 1 xy xy x y 1 x y 1
1 .
x y
Hence proved.
Illustration-18 : If S1, S2, S3,.....,Sp denote the sum of an infinite G.P. whose first terms are 1, 2, 3,....., p, respectively and
1 1 1 1
whose common ratios are , , ,...., , respectively, show taht S1 S 2 S 3 ..... S p p(p 3) .
2 3 4 (p 1) 2
a
Solution : By using S we can obtain S1, S2, S3,......,Sp and after that by adding them we can prove the given
1 r
equation.
Illustration-19 : If |x| < 1, then find the sum S = 1 + 3x + 6x2 + 10x3 + ......
Solution : Similar to above illustration.
S = 1 + 3x + 6x2 + 10x3 + .....
Sx = x + 3x2 + 6x2 .........
S(1 – x) = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 .....
S(x)(1 – x) = x + 2x2 + 3x3 .....
S(1 – x)2 = 1 + x + x2 + .....
1 1
S 1 x
2
S
1 x x 3
1
Do Yourself - 3
1. Find the sum to n terms for the series 9 + 99 + 999 …n.
2. On a certain date, the height of a plant is 1.6 m. If the height increases by 5 cm in the following year and if the increase
in each year is half of that in the preceding years, show that the height of the plant will never be 1.7m.
3. A manufacturer reckons that the value of a machine (price = Rs. 15,625) will depreciate each year by 20%. Calculate the
estimated value at the end of 5 years.
4. If sum of infinite terms of G.P. is 15 and sum of squares of infinite terms of G.P. is 45, then find G.P.
Miscellaneous Sequences
Type 1 : Some Standard Results
n
n(n 1)
(i) Sum of the first n natural numbers r
r 1 2
n
(ii) Sum of the first n odd natural numbers 2r 1 n 2
r 1
n
(iii) Sum of the first n even natural numbers 2r n n 1
r 1
n
n(n 1)(2n 1)
(iv) Sum of the squares of the first n natural numbers r 2
r 1 6
2
n
n(n 1)
Sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers r
3
(v)
r 1 2
Sum of the fourth powers of the first n natural n
4
(vi)
n(n 1)(2n 1)(3n 2 3n 1)
n 1 2 ..... n
4 4 4 4 ; n 4
30
n i j
Illustration-20 : Find the value of (1) .
i 1 j 1 k 1
n
n(n 1)
n
n(n 1)(2n 1)
Solution : Using the formula r and r 2
6
, we can solve the problem.
r 1 2 r 1
n i j
Let S (1)
i 1 j 1 k 1
n i n
i(i 1) 1 1 n(n 1)(2n 1) n(n 1) n(n 1)(2n 4) n(n 1)(n 2)
S (j) [ n2 n]
i 1 j 1 i 1 2 2 2 6 2 12 6
Type 2 : Using Method of Difference :
If T1, T2, T3, T4, T5.... is a sequence whose terms are sometimes in AP and sometimes in GP, then for such series
we first compute their nth term and then compute the sum to n terms using sigma notation.
Illustration-21 : Find n = 6 + 13 + 22 ....... + Tn.
Solution : By calculating [Sn + (–Sn)], we will get Tn. After that we will obtain Tn and thus we will get the result.
n = 6 + 13 + 22 ...... Tn
–n = 6 + 13 + 22 ...... Tn–1 – Tn
0 = 6 + (7 + 9 + 11 .....(Tn – Tn–1)) – Tn
Tn = 6 + (7 + 9 + 11 .....(Tn – Tn–1)) = 6 + (n – 1) (7 + n – 2) = 6 + (n – 1) (n + 5)
Tn = 6 + n2 + 4n – 5 = n2 + 4n + 1
n(n 1)(n 1)
n n 2 4n n 2n(n 1) n
6
1 1 1
Illustration-22 : Find S 1 1 1 2 ......n terms
3 3 3
1 1 1
Solution : Given, Tn 1 ..... n 1 ; therefore by obtaining Tn and thus we will get the result.
3 32 3
1 1 1
S 1 1 ......
3 3 9
1
3 1 n
1 1 1
Tn 1 2 ..... n 1
3
3 3 3 2
3n 3 1 3n 3 1 1 1 3 3 1
Tn n n 1 n
2 2 3n 2 2 3 32 3 2 2 3
Type 3 : Splitting the n th term as a difference of two :
Here, S is a series in which each term is composed of the reciprocal of the product of r factors in an AP.
1 1 1
Illustration-23 : Find the sum of n terms of the series .... .
1.2.3.4 2.3.4.5 3.4.5.6
1
Solution : Here nth term of the series will be Tn .
n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)
1
By considering Sn = c – , , we will get the result.
3(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)
1
First calculate the nth term, Tn
n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)
Now, let the sum of the above series be given by:
Sn = c – , where is obtained by replacing the first factor by (last factor – first factor).....(i)
Hence
1 First factor n
3(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) Last factor n 3
1
Using (ii) Sn c
3(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)
To calculate ‘c’, put n = 1 in (iii)
1 1 1 1 1
Sn , Sn
18 3(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) 3 6 (n 1)(n 2)(n 3)
1 1
Remark If we want to calculate S, then n , 0 S
(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) 18
Note : The above method is applicable only when the series looks like as follows:
1 1 1
....
a a d (a 2d) a d (a 2d)(a 3d) a 2d (a 3d)(a 4d)
Type 4 : Vn Method :
This is method of resolving the nth term into partial fraction and summation by telescopic cancellation. First, find
the nth term of the series and try to create a denominator part in the numerator by using partial fraction whenever
the series is in the form of fraction or Tn is in the form of fraction.
For example, let us suppose a summation where the nth term is like the followings:
2
Tn
n 1
2
1 1
Using the partial fraction, we can write the nth term as Tn
n 1 n 1
Now, when we find the summation, there will be telescopic cancellation and thus we will get the sum of the given
series.
Type 5 : Dealing with Sn 4 :
This technique is valid for n2 and n3. In this type, there is a series in which each term is composed of factors in
an AP, i.e. factors of several terms being in AP.
1
Tn (n 1)(n 2)(n 3)(n 4)[n (n 1)]
5
1
n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)(n 4) (n 1)(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)(n 4)
5
1
T1 1 2 3 4 5 0
5
1
T2 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5
5
1
T3 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6
5
1
Tn
5
n n 1 n 2 n 3 n 4 (n 1)(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)(n 4)
Adding all, we have
1
Sn
5
n n 1 n 2 n 3 n 4
Note s : This method will be applicable only when the series looks like the following:
a(a + d)(a + 2d) + (a + d)(a + 2d) (a + 3d) + (a + 2d) (a + 3d)(a + 4d)+....+ up to n term,
where a = first term and d = common difference
1 1 1 1 n
(i) ....
1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n 1) n 1
1 1 1 1 1
(ii) ....
1.2.3 2.3.4 n(n 1)(n 2) 4 2 n 1 n 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
(iii) ....
a1 a 2 ....a r a 2 a 3 ....a r 1 a n a n 1 ....a n r 1 (r 1) a 2 a1 a1 a 2 ....a r 1 a n 1 a n 2 ....a n r 1
1
(iv) a1 a 2 .....a r a 2 a 3 ....a r 1 .... a n a n 1 .....a n r 1 an an 1 ....a n r a 0 a1 a 2 ....a n
r 1 a 2 a1
Where a1a2....an are in AP and a0 = a1 – d
Do Yourself - 4
1 1 1
1. Find the sum of n terms of the series
12 3 4 23 4 5 3 4 5 6
2. Find the sum of 1.2.3 + 2.3.4 + 3.4.5 + … n terms.
3. Find the sum upto n terms of the series 1.4.7.10 + 4.7.10.13 + 7.10.13.16 + …
Harmonic Progre ssion
A sequence will be in harmonic progression (HP) if the reciprocals of its terms are in AP, e.g. if a1, a2, a3,...... are in HP, then
1 1 1
, , ....... are in AP. For e ver y AP, there w ill be a corre sponding HP, and the standard HP is
a1 a 2 a 3
1 1 1 1
, , .......
a a d a 2d a n 1 d .
The terms of a hormonic series are the outcomes of an AP.
Note :
(i) 0 cannot be a term of H.P. because is not a term of AP, but can be a term of HP.
(ii) There is no general formula for finding the sum of nth terms of HP.
1 1 1
(iii) If a, b and c are in HP, there , , are in AP..
a b c
2 1 1 2ac
b
b a c ac
a, b and c are in HP
1 1 1 1 ab bc a ab
Moreover, i.e. ; i.e.
b a c b ab bc c bc
Illustration-24 : If a1, a2, ......an are in H.P. then the expression a1a2 + a2a3 + ......+ an–1an is equal to …… ?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution : As , ,..... are in AP, taking ... d , we can obtain the values of
a1 a 2 an a 2 a1 a 3 a 2 a n a n 1
a1a2, a2a3 and so on.
a1, a2,.....an are in HP
1 1 1
, ,......
a1 a 2 a n are in AP
1 1 1 1 1 1
..... d (say)
a 2 a1 a 3 a 2 a n a n 1
1 1 1
a1 a 2 a1 a 2 ,a 2 a 3 a2 a3 ,......,an 1 a n a n 1 a n
d d d
1 1
Hence a1 a2 a 2 a 3 ...... a n 1 a n a1 a 2 a 2 a3 .... a n 1 a n a1 a n
d d
1 1 a1 a n
But a a n 1 a a (n 1)d
n 1 n 1
a1a2 + a2a3 + ..... + an–1an = (n – 1)a1an
Harmonic Mean
If a, b and c are in HP, then the middle term is called the harmonic mean (HM) between them. If H is the HM between a
2ac
and b, then a, H, c are in H.P. and H .
ac
1 100
1
For example, between 1 and
100
if 100 HMs are inserted, then H
i 1
5050 .
i
Sum of the Reciprocal of ‘n’ Harmonic Means
n(a b)
The sum of reciprocal of n harmonic means
2ab
To insert n Harmonic Means Between a and b
a, H1, H2, H3 ..........Hn, b H.P.
1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , ......... , A.P.
a H1 H2 H3 Hn b
1 1 ab
(n 1)d (n 1)d
b a ab
Illustration-25 : If a2, b2, c2 ar in AP, then show that b + c, c + a, a + b are in HP.
Solution : Given taht a2, b2 and c 2 are in AP. Thus, by adding ab + ac + bc to each term and then dividing each
term by (a + b)(b + c) (c + a), we will get the result.
By adding ab + ac + bc to each term, we find that a2 + ab + ac, b2 + ba + bc + ac, c2 + ca + cb + ab are
in AP, i.e. (a + b)(a + c), (b + c)(b + a), (c + a)(c + b) are in AP.
Dividing each terms by (a + b)(b + c)(c + a), we find that
1 1 1
, , are in AP, i.e.
bc ca ab
b + c, c + a, a + b are in HP
H1 a H n b
Illustration-26 : If H1, H2, ......., Hn are n harmonic means between a and b ( a) , then find the value of .
H1 a H n b
1 1 1 1 1
Solution : As a H1, H2, ....., Hn, b are in HP, , , ...... , are in AP. By considering d as the common
a H1 H2 Hn b
difference of this AP and using Tn = a + (n – 1)d we can solve this problem.
1 1 1 1
(n 1)d and (n 1)d
a b H n H1
H1 a 1 / a 1 / H1 1 / a 1 / H1
Now,
H1 a 1 / a 1 / H1 d
H n b 1 / b 1 / H n 1 / b 1 / Hn
and
Hn b 1 / b 1 / Hn d
H1 a H n b 1 / a 1 / H1 1 / b 1 / H n 1 1 1 1 1
2n
H1 a H n b d d d b a H n H1
Relation between AM, G.M. and HM :
If a and b are two positive numbers, then it can be shown that A G H and A, G, H are in GP, i.e. G2 = AH.
If a and b are two positive quantities, then AM, G.M, and HM are always in GP, i.e. only for two numbers.
If there are three numbers, then AM, G.M. and HM are in G.P. only when the three numbers, are in GP.
For example, 2, 4, 8 GP
14 24
GM = 4; A.M. ;HM
3 7
For two positive numbers, it has been shown that A G H , equality holding for equal numbers.
For n non–zero positive numbers, it has been shown that A G H , equality holding when all the numbers are equal.
ab cb
Illustration-27 : If a, b and c are unequal positive numbers in HP, the prove that 4.
2a b 2c b
2 1 1
Solution : As a, b and c are in H.P. therefore . Thus, by substituting this to LHS, we can prove that given
b a c
problem.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
LHS b a b c b a b c , using (i)
2 1 2 1 1 1
b a b c c a
c c a a ac a c
.
b a b c b c a
a c
c a a c a c
Now, A.M. > G.M. , or 2.
2 c a c a
a c a c a c a c
2 2
2
b 2ac 2ac 2ac
ac
aca c
LHS 22 4
b c a
IIllustration-28 : If 2a + b + 3c = 1 and a > 0, b > 0, c > 0, then find the greatest value of a4b2c2 and obtain the corresponding
values of a, b and c.
Solution : Since there is a4, take four equal parts of 2a; as there is b2, take two equal parts of b; as there is c2, take two
equal parts of 3c. Since A.M. G.M. , obtaining A.M. and G.M. of these numbers will help in solving this
illustration.
2a 2a 2a 2a b b 3c 3c
Let us consider the positive numbers , , , , , , , .
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2
2a 2a 2a 2a b b 3c 3c
for the numbers, A 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2a b 3c 1
422 8 8
( 2a + b + 3c = 1)
1 1
2a 2a 2a 2a b b 3c 3c 8 1 1 1 8
G , , , , , , , 4 . 2 . 2 .32 a 4 b2 c 2
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
1 32 4 2 2 8
AG a b c
8 28
1 32 4 2 2 28 1
or a b c or a 4 b2 c2 or a 4 b2 c2
88 2 8 32.8 8 9.4 8
1
Hence, the greatest value of a 4 b 2 c 2
9.4 8
It has been found that when the equality holds, the greatest value take place.
We know that A = G when all the numbers are equal, i.e.
2a b 3c
a = b = 3c
4 2 2
a b c
k a = 3k, b = 3k, c = k
3 3 1
2a + b + 3c = 1 6k + 3k + 3k = 1
1 3 3 1 1 1 1
k a ,b ,c i.e. a ,b ,c
12 12 12 12 4 4 12
Arithmetic Mean of the m th Power :
Suppose a1, a2,......,an be n positive real numbers (not all equal) and let m be a real numbers, then
a1m a 2m ......a mn a a 2 .....a n
m
1 , if m R [0,1]
n n
a1m a 2m ......a mn a a 2 .....a n
m
If m(0, 1), then 1
n n
a1m a 2m ......a mn a a 2 .....a n
m
Thus, if m {0, 1}, then 1
n n
Do Yourself - 5
1 1 3
1. If the 3rd, 6th and last terms of a H.P. are , , , then find the number of terms.
3 5 203
1 1 1 1
2. Find the sum of .
H1 H2 H3 Hn
3. The harmonic means between two numbers is given as 4, their A.M. is A, and G.M. is G,
satisfy the relation 2A + G2 = 27. Determine the two numbers.
Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relation with Constant Coefficient of Order ‘2’
Consider the recurrence relation
an = pan–1 + qan–2
where p and q are constant.
As we have seen, in first order homogeneous recurrence relation, solution are of the form xn (usually). Let us plug this
solution in second order with x 0.
xn = pxn–1 + qxn–2
x2 = px + q
or x2 – px – q = 0
This equation is called the characteristic equation of the recurrence and the quadratic equations appearing on the left hand
side is called the characteristic polynomial.
After solving this quadratic we get two roots, x =
There are two cases :
Case-1 : , in this case,
an = n + n
for value of use initial conditions.
Case-2 : = , in this case,
an = + n)n
Illustration-29 : Let {an} be a sequence such that, an = an–1 + 2an–2; n 2, a0 = 1, a1 = 3, find an.
Solution : Replace an by xn, x 0
xn = xn–1 + 2xn–2
x2 – x – 2 = 0 x = –1, 2
an = (–1)n + 2n
Now a0 = + = 1
Also a1 = – + 2 = 3
4 1
,
3 3
1 n 2
ar
3
2 (1)n 1 .
IIllustration-30 : Let {an} be a sequence such that, an = an–1 + an–2 n 3, a1 = 1, a2 = 1. Find an.
Solution : Replace an by x 0
xn = xn–1 + xn–2
x2 – x – 1 = 0
1 5
x
2
n n
1 5 1 5
an
2 2
1 5 1 5
a1 1
2 2
3 5 3 5
Also a 2 1
2 2
1 1
,
5 5
1 1 5 n 1 5 n
an , n = 1, 2,…
5 2 2
General Form of Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relation with Constant Coefficients :
Consider the relation c0an + c1an–1 + ...... + ckan–k = 0
where ci’s are constants c0, ck 0, this is called kth order recurrence relation.
By replacing the terms ar by xr, r = n, n – 1, ...., n – r.
c0xn + c1xn–1 + ...... + ckxn–k = 0
c0xk + c1xn–1 + ...... + ck–1x + ck = 0 …(1)
This equation is called characteristic equation of the recurrence.
Case-1 : 1, 2, 3, ...., k are all distinct and roots of the equation then
an = 1(1)n + 2(2)n + ..... + k(k)n
where 1, 2, ...., k are constants will be calculated using initial conditions.
Case-2 : 1, 2, ...., p (1 p k) are the distinct characteristic roots of (1) such that i is of multiplicity
mi, i = 1, 2, ...., p then
a n 11 12 n 13 n2 .... 1m1 n mi 1 1n
21 22n 23 n2 .... 2m nm 1 n2
2
2
+ .....
p1 p2n p3 n2 .... pmp n
mp 1
n
p
where ij‘s are constants will be calculated using initial conditions.
Illustration-31 : Let {an} be a sequence such that,
a n 5a n 1 9a n 2 7a n 3 2a n 4 , n 4, a 0 3, a1 8, a 2 17, a 3 32
Find an.
Solution : Characteristic equation of the recurrence is,
xn 5x n 1 9xn 2 7xn 3 2x n 4 , x 0
x4 – 5x3 + 9x2 – 7x + 2 = 0
(x – 1)3 (x – 2) = 0
x = 1, 1, 1, 2
a n ( 1 2 n 3 n2 )(1)n 4 2n
Now, a 0 1 1 3
a 1 1 2 3 2 4 8
a 2 1 22 4 3 4 4 17
a 3 1 32 9 3 8 4 32
1 1, 2 2, 3 1, 4 2
an = (1 + 2n + n2) + 2•2n
= (n + 1)2 + 2n+1
Special Cases :
If the recurrence relation is of the form
a n c1 a n 1 c2 a n 2 ..... c r an r 1n f1 (n) 2n f2 (n) ..... kn fk (n)
where 1, 2, 3, ...., k are constants and f1, f2, f3, ...., fk are polynomials in ‘n’ of degree p1, p2, p3, ....., pk respectively,
then the characteristic equation of the recurrence will be
(x r c1 x r 1 c 2 x r 2 .... c r )(x 1 )p1 1 (x 2 )p2 1 ....(x k )pk 1 0
Here we added additional roots in the equation as our equation contains terms of the form n f(n) where is a constant
and f(n) is a polynomial in ‘n’.
The general form of the solution is the same as previous.
Illustration-32 : Let a0 = 2, an = 3an–1 – 4n. Find an.
Solution : Given recurrence can be rewritten as an = 3an–1 – (1)n 4n.
= 1 and f(n) = 4n, which is of degree 1.
Hence corresponding characteristic equation is,
(x – 3)(x – 1)1+1 = 0
a n 3n ( n)1n …(1)
Now we need two more terms to resolve µ and .
a0 = 2 a1 = 2, a2 = –2 (From the recurrence relation)
Plugging n = 0, 1, 2 in equation (1), we get
= –1, µ = 3 and = 2
Hence an = –3n + 2n + 3
Illustration-33 : Let an = 2an–1 + n + 2n+1, a0 = 0. Find an.
Solution : Given recurrence can be rewritten as an = 2an–1 + n(1)n + 2n(2)
1 = 1, f1(n) = n, which is of degree 1 and 2 = 2, f2(n) = 2, which is of zero degree.
Hence corresponding characteristic equation is,
(x – 2)(x – 1)1+1 (x – 2)0+1 = (x – 1)2 (x – 2)2 = 0
a n ( n)1n ( n)2n
Now we need three more terms. From the recurrence : a1 = 5, a2 = 20, a3 = 59.
Plugging n = 0, 1, 2, 3 in equation (1), we get
0
2 2 5
2 4 8 20
3 8 24 59
2, 1, 2 and 2
Hence an = –n – 2 + (n + 1)2n+1.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example-1 : Let an = 7an/2 – 6an/4, a1 = 2, a2 = 7. Find an.
Solution : Take n = 2m
a 2m 7a2m 1 6a 2m 1
Let a2m b m
bm = 7bm–1 – 6bm–2, b0 = 2, b1 = 7
Characteristic equation is
x2 – 7x + 6 = 0 x = 6, 1
bm = 6m + µ1m
For m = 0, 2 = + µ
For m = 1, 7 = 6 + µ
= 1, µ = 1
bm = 6 m + 1
a 2m 6 m 1
a n 6log2 n 1
a n nlog2 6 1
Example-2 : Let a1 = 1, an+1 = 2an + 3a2n 2 n 1 . Prove that an .
Solution : a2n1 4an1an 4a2n 3a2n 2
a 2n 1 4a n 1 a n a 2n 2 0
a 2n 4a n a n 1 a2n 1 2 0 or a 2n 1 4an an 1 a2n 2 0
an+1, an–1 are the roots of p(x) = x2 – 4anx + an2 + 2 = 0
an+1 + an–1 = 4an
an+1 = 4an – an–1 and by induction we are done.
Example-3 : Let a0 = 1, a1 = 2 and an = 4an–1 – an–2 n 2. Find an odd prime factor of a2015.
Solution : Characteristic equation x2 – 4x + 1 = 0
x 2 3
a n (2 3) n (2 3)n
1, (2 3) (2 3) 2
1
2
1
an (2 3)n (2 3)n …(1)
2
1 n n
For the sake of notational ease, let 2 3 and 2 3 , then a n ( )
2
Claim : If k is an odd positive integer and an 0 then an | akn.
a kn kn kn ( n )k (n )k
Proof : n
an n n n
(k 1)n (k 2)nn ..... n(k 2)n (k 1)n …(1)
As = 1 and m m m, RHS of (1) is an integer a n |a kn
Now 2015 = 403 5
a5 | a5.403, i.e. a5 | a2015
(2 3 ) 5 (2 3 ) 5
Here a5
2
= 362 = 2 181
Hence one possible answer is 181.
Example-4 : a0 = 0, a1 = 1, an = 2an–1 + an–2, n 2. Prove that 2k | an if and only if 2k | n.
Solution : By the binomial theorem, if (1 2) n A n Bn 2, then (1 2)n A n Bn 2.
Multiplying these 2 equations, we get An2 – 2Bn2 = (–1)n.
This implies An is always odd. Using characteristic equation method to solve the given recurrence relations
on an, we find that an = Bn.
Now write n = 2km, where m is odd.
We have k = 0 (i.e. n is odd) if and only if 2Bn2 = An2 + 1 = 2 (mod 4), (i.e., Bn is odd).
Next suppose case k is true.
Since (1 2)2n (A n Bn 2 )2 A2n B2n 2, so B2n = 2AnBn.
Then it follows case k implies case k + 1,
n 1
Example-5 : Let a1 = 1, an = (n k)a k , n 2. Find An.
k 1
Solution : a1 = 1 a2 = 1, a3 = 3, a4 = 8 and so on.
n
Then a n 1 (n 1 k)a k …(1)
k 1
n 1
Also an (n k)ak …(2)
k 1
n
a n 1 a n ak (From (1) – (2)) …(3)
k 1
n 1
a n 2 a n 1 ak …(4)
k 1
(an+2 – an+1) – (an+1 – an) = an+1 (From (4) – (3))
a n 2 3a n 1 a n n 2
Characteristic equation is
3 5
x2 3x 1 0 x
2
n n
3 5 3 5
an
2 2
3 5 3 5
a2 1
2 2
73 5 73 5
a3 3
2 2
2 2
and
5(3 5 ) 5(3 5 )
(3 5 ) n 1 (3 5 )n 1
an n2
2n 1 5
Example-6 : It is given that the sequence (a n )n1 with a 1 = a 2 = 2 is given by the recurrence relation
2a n 1 a n 2011
a k 1
a n 1 a n 1 a 2n
n3 n n 2,3,4... Find integer that is closest to the value of ak
.
k 2
2a n 1 a n
Solution : n3 n
a n 1 a n 1 a n2
a n 1a n 1 a n2 2 2
3
a n 1 a n n n n(n 1)(n 1)
a n 1 a (n 1) (n 1) 1 1
n
an a n 1 n(n 1)(n 1) (n 1)n n(n 1)
Plugging n = 2, 3, 4, ...., n and adding all, we get
an a 1 1
2
a n 1 a1 2 (n 1)n
a n 1 3 1 1
an 2 n n 1
Again plugging n = 2, 3, ...., n and adding all, we get,
n
a k 1 3 1 1 3n 1 1
a
n
2 2 n 1
2
n 1
k 2 k
For n = 2011,
2011 a
6033 1 1 1
k 1
ak
2
2012
3016
2012
k 2
Closest integer is 3016.
Example-7 : Let a1 = 1, a2 = –1, an = –an–1 – 2an–2 n 3. Prove that 2n+2 – 7an2 is a perfect square.
Solution : Let us generate enough data
a3 = –a2 – 2a1 = 1 – 2(1) = –1
a4 = –a3 – 2a2 = 1 + 2 = 3
Now let 2n 2 7a2n b2n
b12 23 7a12 8 7 1
b22 24 7a22 16 7 9
b23 25 7a23 32 7 25
b24 26 7a24 64 63 1
Let us define b1 = –1, b2 = –3 and bn = –bn–1 – 2bn–2 n 3
bn a n 7a n b n
Claim-1 : a n 1 and b n 1
2 2 2 2
b1 a1 1 1
Proof : For n = 1, a2 = 1, which is true.
2 2 2 2
7a1 b1 7 1
b2 3, which is true.
2 2 2 2
b2 a2 3 1
For n = 2, a3 = 1, which is true.
2 2 2 2
7a2 b2 7 3
b3 5, which is true.
2 2 2 2
Let for n = k, claim be true.
For n = k + 1
bk a k
ak+2 = –ak+1 – 2ak = 2a k
2 2
3a k b k 1 7a k b k 1 bk ak
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
a k 1 bk 1
2 2
7a k 3b k
and b k 2 bk 1 2bk
2 2
7b k 1 b k 1
2 2
Hence by induction our claim is true!
Claim-2 : 2 n+2 = 7an2 + bn2
For n = 1, 23 = 7a12 + c12 = 7 + 1 = 8 true
Let for n = k, claim be true
For n = k + 1
2k 3 2(2k 2 ) 2(7a2k b2k )
2 2
b a a b
7 k k 7 k k
2 2 2 2
7a2k 1 b2k 1
Hence by induction our claim is true.
As 2n 2 7a2n b2n
2n 2 7a2n b2n
2n 2 7a2n is a perfect square.
Example-8 : Let {an} be a sequence such that a0 = 2, a1 = 25, an = 10an–1 – 25an–2 n 2, n , find an.
Solution : Characteristic equation of the recurrence is,
x2 – 10x + 25 = 0
x = 5, 5
As characteristic roots are equal,
an = ( + µn)5n
Now, a0 = = 2
a1 = ( + µ)5 = 25 µ = 3
Hence, an = (2 + 3n)5n.
k 1
Example-9 : Let Sk, k = 1, 2, ....., 100, denote the sum of the infinite geometric series whose first term is and thee
k!
1 1002 100 2
common ratio is . Then the value of (k 3k 1)S k is
k 100! k 1
100
Solution : (k 2 3k 1)S k
k 1
for k = 2 |(k2 – 3k + 1) sk| = 1
100
k 1 k 11
(k 2)! (k 1)!
k 3
100
1 1 1 1
(k 3)! (k 2)! (k 2)! (k 1)!
k 3
100
1 1
(k 3)! (k 1)!
k 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S 1 1
2! 1! 3! 2! 4 ! 3! 5! 4! 6!
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
....
94! 96! 95! 97! 96! 98! 97! 99!
1 1
2
98! 99!
1002 1 1
E 3
100! 98! 99.98!
1002 100 1002 100
3 3 3
100! 99! 100.99! 99!
Example-10 : Let a1, a2, a3, .........., a11 be real numbers satisfying a1 = 15, 27 – 2a2 > 0 and ak = 2ak – 1 – ak – 2 for k =
a12 a22 .... a11
2
a a2 ..... a11
3, 4, ...., 11. If 90, then the value of 1 is equal to
11 11
Solution : ak = 2ak–1 – ak–2 a1, a2, ...., a11 are in A.P.
a12 a22 ..... a11
2
11a2 35 11d 2 10ad
90
11 11
225 + 35d2 + 150d = 90
35d2 + 150d + 135 = 0
d = –3, –9/7
27
Given a2 < d = –3 and d –9/7
2
a1 a2 .... a11 11
[30 10 3] 0
11 2
Example-11 : Let b = 6, with a and c satisfying equations. If and are the roots of the quadratic equation
n
1 1
ax2 + bx + c = 0, then is
n 0
Solution : ax2 + bx + c = 0 x2 + 6x – 7 = 0
1, 7
N N
1 1 1 1
1 7 7
n0 n 0
Example-12 : Let a1, a2, a3, .... be in harmonic progression with a1 = 5 and a20 = 25. The least positive integer n for which
an < 0 is
1 1
Solution : Corresponding A.P. , ........., (20thh term)
5 25
1 1 1 4 4
19d d
25 5 19 25 19 25
an < 0
1 4
(n 1) 0
5 19 25
19 5
n 1
4
n > 24.75 n = 25 (least)
4n k(k 1)
Example-13 : Let Sn = ( 1) 2 k2
. Then Sn can take value(s).
k 1
4n k(k 1)
Solution : Sn = ( 1) 2 k 2
k 1
(n 1)
((4r 4)2 (4r 3)2 (4r 2)2 (4r 1)2 )
r 0
(n 1) (n 1)
(2(8r 6) 2(8r 4)) (32r 20)
r 0 r 0
1056 for n 8
= 16(n – 1)n + 20n = 4n(4n + 1) = 1332 for n 9
b
Example-14 : Let a, b, c be positive integers such that is an integer. If a, b, c are in geometric progression and
a
a 2 a 14
the arithmetic mean of a, b, c is b + 2, then the value of is ...........
a 1
b c
Solution : (integer)
a b
b2
b2 ac c
a
abc
b2
3
a b c 3b 6 a 2b c 6
b2 2b b2 6
a 2b 6 1
a a a2 a
2
b 6
1 a = 6 only
a a
Example-15 : Suppose that all the terms of an arithmetic progression (A.P.) are natural numbers. If the ratio of the
sum of the first seven terms to the sum of the first eleven terms is 6 : 11 and the seventh term lies
in between 130 and 140, then the common difference of this A.P. is
Solution : Let seventh term be ‘a’ and common difference be ‘d’.
S7 6
Given, S 11 a 15d
11
Hence, 130 < 15d < 140
d = 9
EXERCISE - 1
1. The sum of three numbers in A.P. is 12 and the sum of their cubes is 288. Find the sum of the numbers.
2. Find the sum of the integers between 1 and 200 which are
(i) Multiple of 3
(ii) Multiple of 7
(iii) Multiple of 3 and 7
p
3. The sum of first n terms of two A.P.’s are in the ratio (3n – 3); (5n + 21). If the ratio of their 24th terms is . Find the value
q
of (q – p).
4. Let a, b, c, d, e be five real numbers such that a, b, c are in A.P.; b, c, d are in G.P.; c, d, e are in H.P. If a = 2 and e = 18, find
sum of b, c and d.
5. Find the sum of first 10 terms of the series:
123 + 234 + 345 + ....
6. The H.M. of two numbers is 4 and their A.M. (A) and G.M. (G) satisfy the relation 2A + G2 = 27. Find the sum of numbers.
7. Find the sum of first 10 terms of the series:
(33 – 23) + (53 – 43) + (73 – 63) + .....
8. Find the sum of first 20 terms of the series:
132 + 252 + 372 + ......
9. The increasing sequence of positive integers a1, a2, a3, . . . has the property that an + 2 = an + an + 1, for all n 1. Suppose
that a7 = 120. What is a8?
(1) 128 (2) 168 (3) 193 (4) 194
10. A sequence of three real numbers forms an arithmetic progression with a first term of 9. If 2 is added to the second term
and 20 is added to the third term, the three resulting numbers form a geometric progression. What is the largest possible
value for the third term in the geometric progression?
11. In the sequence 2001, 2002, 2003, . . ., each term after the third is found by subtracting the previous term from the sum
of the t wo terms that precede that term. For example, the four th term is
2001 + 2002–2003 = 2000. What is the 2004th term in this sequence?
12. Consider the sequence of numbers: 4, 7, 1, 8, 9, 7, 6, . . . . For n > 2, the nth term of the sequence is the units digit of the
sum of the two previous terms. Let Sn denote the sum of the first n terms of this sequence. If smallest value of n for Sn
> 10, 000 is abcd then find a + b + c + d:
16 108
13. Let x and y be positive real numbers. What is the smallest possible value of + xy?
x y
14. Find the value of the positive integer n if
1 1 1 1
... 5.
4 5 5 6 6 7 n n 1
15. Consider a sequence of real numbers {an} defined by
an
a1 = 1 and an + 1 = 1 na for n 1.
n
1
Find the value of – 2009000.
a 2005
16. James calculates the sum of the first n positive integers and finds that the sum is 5053. If he has counted one integer
twice, which one is it?
17. What is the value of
1 1 1
2100 – (x + 1)(x + 2006) [ ... ]?
(x 1)(x 2) (x 2)(x 3) (x 2005)(x 2006)
18. Suppose an denotes the last two digits of 7n. For example, a2 = 49, a3 = 43. The value of a1 + a2 + a3 +.........+ a2007 is given
by x. Find sum of all the digits of x.
1 a n 1
19. A sequence {an} is defined by a1 = 2, an = 1 a , n 2. Find the value of (1100 + 2008 a2007).
n 1
100 m
20. If the minimum value of n k
k 1
, where n ranges over all positive integers, is m, find
50
.
21. Find the maximum value of x 144 722 x .
99
( 1) k 1
22. If S =
k 1 k(k 1) ( k 1 k )
, find the value of 10S.
23. Let a1, a2, a3,... be the sequence of all positive integers that are relatively prime to 75, where a1 < a2 < a3 < . (The first
five terms of the sequence are: a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 4, a4 = 7, a5 = 8.)
Then the value of a2008 is defined as p103 + q102 + r10 + s. Find (p + q + r + s)
24. Given that x + (1 + x)2 + (1 + x)3 + ... + (1 + x)n = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn,
where each ar is an integer, r = 0, 1, 2,..., n.
n(n 1)
Find the value of n such that a0 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ... + an – 2 + an – 1 = 60 – .
2
a n 1 1
25. Given that an + 1 = 1 na a , where n = 1, 2, 3, ... and a0 = a1 = 1, find the value of 2 10 4 .
n 1 n
a 199 a 200
26. Suppose that (un) is a sequence of real numbers satisfying un + 2 = 2un + 1 + un, and that u3 = 9 and u6 = 128. What is u5?
27. For each positive integer n, the mean of the first n terms of a sequence is n. What is the square root of 2008th term of
the sequence to the nearest integer?
28. A finite sequence of three-digit integers has the property that the tens and units digits of each terms are, respectively, the
hundreds and tens digits of the next term, and the tens and units digits of the last term are, respectively, the hundreds and
tens digits of the first term. For example, such a sequence might begin with terms 247, 475, and 756 and end with the
term 824. Let S be the sum of all the terms in the sequence. What is the largest prime number that always divides S?
29. How many non-similar triangle have angles whose degree measures are distinct positive integers in arithmetic progression?
30. Let a1, a2, , be a sequence with the following properties.
I. a1 = 1, and
II. a2n = n an for any positive integer n.
Find the sum of digits of ‘n’ if a2100 = 2n.
EXERCISE - 2
1 1 1
1. If a > 0, b > 0 and c > 0, prove that (a b c) 9
a b c
2. If A1, A2, G1, G2, ; and H1, H2 be two A.M.’s, G.M.’s and H.M.’s between two numbers,
G1 G 2 A1 A 2
then prove that : H H H H
1 2 1 2
3. Find the coefficient of x99 and x98 in the polynomial : (x – 1)(x – 2) (x – 3) … (x – 100).
4. The interior angles of a polygon are in A.P. The smallest angle is 1200 and the common difference is 50. Find the number
of sides of the polygon.
5. A number consists of three digits in G.P. the sum of the digits at unis and hundreds place exceeds twice the digit at tens
place by 1 and the sum of the digits at tens and hundreds place is two third of the sum of the digits at tens and units place.
Find the number.
6. 25 trees are planted in a straight line at intervals of 5 meters. To water them the gardener must bring water for each tree
separately from a well 10 meters from the first tree in line with the trees. How far he will have to cover in order to water
all the tree beginning with the first if he starts from the well.
7. Natural numbers have been grouped in the following way
n(n 2 1)
1; (2, 3); (4, 5, 6); (7, 8, 9, 10); ...... Show that the sum of the numbers in the nth group is .
2
8. In three series of GP’s, the corresponding numbers in G.P. are subtracted and the difference of the numbers are also found
to be in G.P. Prove that the three sequences have the same common ratio.
6
9. If 9 arithmetic means and 9 harmonic means be inserted between 2 and 3, prove that a 5 , where A is anyy
H
arithmetic mean and H the corresponding harmonic mean.
10. If x + y + z = 1 and x, y, z are positive numbers, show that (1 x)(1 y)(1 z) 8 xyz .
11. Show that any positive integral power (greater than 1) of a positive integer m, is the sum of m consecutive odd positive
integers. Find the first odd integer for mr(r > 1).
ba bc
12. If a, b, c are distinct positive real in H.P., then the value of the expression, is equal to
o
ba bc
1 1 1
13. The sum of infinity of the series ...... is equal to
o
1 12 123
14. Along a road lies an odd number of stones placed at intervals of 10 m. These stones have to be assembled around the
middle stone. A person can carry only one stone at a time. A man carried out the job starting with the stone in the
middle, carrying stones in succession, thereby covering a distance of 4.8 km. Then the number of stones is
15. If S = 12 + 32 + 52 + ..... + (99)2 then the value of the sum 22 + 42 + 62 + .... + (100)2 is
16. In an A.P. with first term and the common difference d(a, d 0), the ratio ‘S’ of the sum of the first n terms to sum of n
terms succeeding them does not depend on n. Then the ratio “a/d” and the ratio ‘’, respectively are
17. If x R, the number (51 + x + 51–x), a/2 (25x + 25–x) form an A.P. then ‘a’ must lie in the interval.
18. If the sum of the first 11 terms of an arithmetical progression equals that of the first 19 terms, then the sum of its first 30
terms, is
10 15
19. Let s1, s2, s3 ...... and t1, t2, t3 .... are two arithmetic sequence such that s1 = t1 0; s2 = 2t2 and s t
i 1
i
i 1
i .
s2 s1
Then the value of is
t 2 t1
20. Let an, n I be the nth term an A.P. with common difference ‘d’ and all whose terms are non–zero.
1 1 1
If n a a a a .... a a will approach.
1 2 2 3 n n 1
21. The sum of the first three terms of an increasing G.P. is 21 and the sum of their squares is 189. Then the sum of its first
n term is
n
n
22. The sum is equal to
n 1
4
4
23. If a1 and (ln a2) + (ln a2)2 + (ln a2)3 + .... = 3 [lna + (ln a)2 + (ln a)3 + (ln a)4 + ....], then ‘a’ is equal to
24. Define a sequence recursively by F0 = 0, F1 = 1, and Fn = the remainder when Fn–1 + Fn–2 is divided by 3, for all n 2. Thus
the sequence starts 0, 1, 1, 2, 0, 2 . . .. What is F2017 + F2018 + F2019 + F2020 + F2021 + F2022 + F2023 + F2024?
25. How many four-digit integers abcd, with a 0, have the property that the three two-digit integers ab < bc < cd form an
increasing arithmetic sequence? One such number is 4692, where a = 4, b = 6, c = 9, and d = 2.
26. Given that are roots of the equation Ax2 – 4x + 1 = 0 and the roots of the equation Bx2 – 6x + 1 = 0, then
find value of (A + B), such that and are in H.P.
27. If a, b, c are in H.P.; b, c, d are in G.P. and c, d, e are in A.P. such that (ka – b)2 e = ab2 then value of k.
28. Let a1, a2, ....., an, be real numbers such that
100
1 n(n 3)
a1 a 2 1 a3 2 ..... a n (n 1) (a1 + a2 + .... + an) – then find the value of ai .
2 4 i 1
n
1 1
29. If S n t r
6
n (2n2 + 9n + 13), then r tr
equals
r 1 r 1
30. If sum of first n terms of an A.P. (having positive terms) is given by Sn = (1 + 2Tn) (1 – Tn) where Tn is the nth term of series,
2 a b
then T2 , (a N, b N), then find the value of (a + b).
4
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE - 1 EXERCISE - 2
1. 12
1
3. –5050, 50502 338350
2. (i) 6633 (ii) 2842 (iii) 945 2
3. 59 4. 9
4. 19 5. 469
5. 4290 6. 3370
6. 9 12. 2
7. 4960 13. 2
8. 188090 14. 31
9. 194 15. S + 5050
10. 49
1 1
11. 00 16. ,
2 3
12. 28
17. [12, )
13. 36
18. [1, 5]
14. 48
19
15. 11 19.
8
16. 03
17. 95 1
20. a1 d
18. 24
19. 96 21. 3(2n – 1)
20. 50 3
22.
21. 34 8
22. 11 23. e1/4
23. 20 24. 09
24. 05 25. 17
25. 99 26. 11
26. 53 27. 2
27. 63 28. 5050
28. 37 29. 1
29. 59 30. 6
30. 18
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION
1. For how many pairs of positive integers (x, y) is x + 3y = 100? [PRMO 2012]
2. Suppose that 4 x 1 5,5 x 2 6,6 x 3 7,.....,126 x123 127 , 127x124 128 . What is the value of the product X1X2...X124?
[PRMO 2012]
3. Let P(n) = (n + 1)(n + 3)(n + 5)(n + 7)(n + 9). What is the largest integer that is a divisor of P(n) for all positive even integers
n? [PRMO 2012]
x x
4. How many non–negative integral values of x satisfy the equation ? [PRMO 2012]
5 7
5. Let x 1 , x 2 , x 3 be the root s of the equation x 3 + 3x + 5 = 0. W hat is the value of the expre ssion
1 1 1
x1 x 2 x 3 ? [PRMO 2012]
x1 x 2 x3
6. What is the sum of the squares of the roots of the equation x2 – 7[x] + 5 = 0? [PRMO 2012]
(Here [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x. For example [3.4] = 3 and [–2.3] = –3.) [PRMO 2012]
7. How many integer pairs (x, y) satisfy x2 + 4y2 – 2xy – 2x – 4y – 8 = 0? [PRMO 2012]
8. It is given that the equation x + ax + 20 = 0 has integer roots. What is the sum of all possible values of a?
2
[PRMO 2013]
9. Three real numbers x, y, z are such that x + 6y = –17, y + 4z = 1 and z + 2x =2. What is the value of x2 + y2 + z2 ?
2 2 2
[PRMO 2013]
10. Let f(x) = x3 – 3x + b and g(x) = x2 + bx – 3, where b is real number. What is the sum of all possible values of b for which
the equations f(x) = 0 and g(x) = 0 have a common root? [PRMO 2013]
11. The first term of a sequence is 2014. Each succeeding term is the sum of the cubes of the digits of the previous term. What
is the 2014th term of the sequence? [PRMO 2014]
12. If real numbers a, b, c, d, e satisfy a + 1 = b + 2 = c + 3 = d + 4 = e + 5 = a + b + c + d + e + 3, what is the value of
a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + e2? [PRMO 2014]
13. What is the smallest possible natural number n for which the equation x2 – nx + 2014 = 0 has integer roots?
[PRMO 2014]
If x x4 4 , what is the value of x x x x ?
2 8
14. [PRMO 2014]
1 1
15. Natural numbers k, , p and q are such that if a and b are roots of x2 – kx + = 0 then a and b are the roots of
b a
x2 – px + q = 0. What is the sum of all possible values of q. [PRMO 2014]
16. For natural numbers x and y, let (x, y) denote the greatest common divisor of x and y. How many pairs of natural numbers
x and y with x y satisfy the equation xy = x + y + (x, y)? [PRMO 2014]
x1 x2 x 2014
17. Let x1, x2,.....,x2014 be real numbers different from 1, such that x1 + x2 + ... + x2014 = 1 and 1 x 1 x ... 1 x 1.
1 2 2014
x12 x 22 x 32 2
x 2014
What is the value of ... ? [PRMO 2014]
1 x1 1 x 2 1 x 3 1 x 2014
18. The equations x2 – 4x + k = 0 and x2 + kx – 4 = 0, where k is a real number, have exactly one common root. What is the
value of k? [PRMO 2015]
19. Let P(x) be a non–zero polynomial with integer coefficients. If P(n) is divisible by n for each positive integer n, what is the
value of P(0)? [PRMO 2015]
20. Let a, b and c be real numbers such that a – 7b + 8c = 4 and 8a + 4b – c = 7. What is the value of a2 – b2 + c2?
[PRMO 2015]
21. If 3x + 2y = 985 and 3x – 2y = 473, what is the value of xy? [PRMO 2015]
22. Find the number of integer solutions of the equation x 2016
+ (2016! + 1!).x2015
+ (2016! + 2!).x
2014
+ .... + (1! + 2016!) = 0,
where n! = n (n – 1) .... 3 2 1, for n 1 . [PRMO 2016]
23. Find the coefficient a5b5c5d6 in the expansion of the following expression
(bcd + acd + abd + abc)7 [PRMO 2016]
24. Find the number of integer solutions of x x 5 . [PRMO 2016]
100 100
25. Let and be the roots of the equation x2 + x – 3 = 0. Find the value of the expression 4 2 – 3. [PRMO 2016]
26. Let M be the maximum value of (6x – 3y – 8z), subject to 2x2 + 3y2 + 4z2 = 1. Find [M]. [PRMO 2016]
27. For real numbers x and y, let M be the maximum value of the expression x y + x y + x y + xy + xy + xy3 + xy4, subject
4 3 2 2
to x + y = 3. Find [M]. [PRMO 2016]
28. Let S 1 1 1 1 .... 1 1 . Find [S].
2 3 4 99 100
You may use the fact that n
11
22
n n 1
n 1 for all integers n 1 .
[PRMO 2016]
29. Let a, b be integers such that all the roots of the equation (x2 + ax + 20)(x2 + 17x +b) = 0 are negative integers. What is
the smallest possible value of a + b ? [PRMO 2017]
30. Let u, v, w be real numbers in geometric progression such that u > v > w. Suppose u40 = vn = w60. Find the value of n.
[PRMO 2017]
1 p
9
31. Let the sum n 1
n n 1 n 2 written in its lowest terms be . Find the value of q – p. [PRMO 2017]
q
32. Suppose x is a positive real number such that {x}, [x] and x are in a geometric progression. Find the least positive integer
n such that xn > 100. (Here [x] denotes the integer part of x and {x} = x – [x].) [PRMO 2017]
33. If the real numbers x, y, z are such that x2 + 4y2 + 16z2 = 48 and xy + 4yz + 2zx = 24, what is the value of x2 + y2 + z2?
[PRMO 2017]
34. Suppose 1, 2, 3 are the roots of the equation x4 + ax2 + bx = c. Find the value of c. [PRMO 2017]
35. Suppose an integer x, a natural number n and a prime number p satisfy the equation 7x – 44x + 12 = p . Find the largest
2 n
value of p. [PRMO 2017]
36. Suppose a, b are integers and a + b is a root of x2 + ax + b = 0. What is the maximum possible value of b 2?
[PRMO 2018]
37. What is the value of i j i j ?
1 i j 10 1 i j 10
[PRMO 2018]
i j odd i j even
38. Let N = 6 + 66 + 666 + ... + 666...66, where there are hundred 6’s in the last term in the sum. How many times does
the digit 7 occur in the number N? [PRMO 2018]
39. Let P(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + .... + anx n be a polynomial in which ai is non–negative integer for each i{0, 1, 2, 3, ..., n}.
If P(1) = 4 and P(5) = 136, what is the value of P(3)? [PRMO 2018]
40. Let f(x) = x2 + ax + b. If for all nonzero real x
1 1
f x f(x) f
x x
are the roots of f(x) = 0 are integers, what is the value of a2 + b2 ? [PRMO 2019]
41. How many positive integers n are there such that 3 n 100 and x 2n
x 1 is divisible by x + x + 1 ?
2
[PRMO 2019]
42. Positive integers x, y, z satisfy xy + z = 160. Compute the smallest possible value of x + yz. [PRMO 2019]
N
2k 1
0.9999
43. If
k k then determine the value of N. [PRMO 2021]
2 2
k 1
44. Find the number of integer solutions to x 2020 5 . [PRMO 2021]
45. Let X = {–5, –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and S = {(a, b) X X : x2 + ax + b and x3 + bx + a have at least a common
real zero}. How many elements are there in S? [PRMO 2021]
40 1 1 b
46. If 1
k 2 k 1 2
a .
c
k 1
where a, b, c N, b < c, gcd(b, c) = 1, then what is the value of a + b? [PRMO 2021]
47. Let x, y, z be complex numbers such that
x y z
9
yz zx xy
x2 y2 z2
64
yz zx xy
x3 y3 z3
488
yz zx xy
x y z m
If where m, n are positive integers with GCD(m, n) = 1, find m + n. [PRMO 2022]
yz zx xy n
48. Let x, y be real numbers such that xy = 1. Let T and t be the largest and the smallest values of the expression
x y x y 2
2
x y 2 x y 2
m
If T + t can be expressed in the form where m, n are nonzero integers with GCD (m, n) =1, find the value of m + n.
n
[PRMO 2022]
49. Let a, b, c be reals satisfying 3ab + 2 = 6b, 3bc + 2 = 5c, 3ca + 2 = 4a. Let denote the set of all rational numbers., Given
r t
that the product abc can take two values and , in lowest form, find r + s + t + u. [PRMO 2022]
s u
50. For a positive integer n > 1, let g(n) denote the largest positive proper divisor of n and f(n) = n – g(n). For example,
g(10)=5, f(10) = 5 and g(13) = 1, f(13) = 12. Let N be the smallest positive integer such that f(f(f(N))) = 97. Find the largest
integer not exceeding N. [PRMO 2022]
51. Show that the infinite arithmetic progression {1, 4, 7, 10...} has infinitely many 3–term sub sequences in harmonic
progression such that for any two such triples { a1, a2, a3} and {b1, b2, b3} in harmonic progression, one has
a1 a 2
b1 b2
[RMO 2016]
52. (a) Given any natural number N, prove that there exists a strictly increasing sequence of N positive integers in harmonic
progression.
(b) Prove that there cannot exist a strictly increasing infinite sequence of positive integers which is in harmonic progression.
[RMO 2016]
53. Find all integers such that all roots of the following polynomial are also integers:
f(x) = x3 – (k – 3)x2 – 11x + (4k – 8) [RMO 2016]
54. Let (a1, a2, ....) be a strictly increasing sequence of positive integers in arithmetic progression. Prove that there is on
infinite sub–sequence of the given sequence whose terms are in a geometric progression. [RMO 2016]
55. Consider a sequence a k k 1 of natural numbers defined as follows a1 = a and a2 = b with a, b > 1 and gcd(a, b) = 1 and
ak
for all k > 0, ak + 2 = ak + 1 + ak. Prove that for all natural numbers n and k, gcd a n , a n k . [RMO 2016]
2
56. Let P1(x) = x2 + a1x + b1 and P2(x) = x2 + a2x + b2 be two quadratic polynomials with integer coefficients. Suppose
a1 a 2 and there exist integers m n such that P1(m) = P2(n), P2(m) = P1(n). Prove that a1 – a2 is even.[RMO 2015]
57. Let P(x) = x2 + ax + b be a quadratic polynomial with real coefficients. Suppose there are real numbers s t such that
P(s) = t and P(t) = s. Prove that b – st is a root of the equation x2 + ax + b – st = 0 [RMO 2015]
58. Find all integers a, b, c such that a2 = bc + 1, b2 = ca + 1 [RMO 2015]
59. Show that there are infinitely many triples (x, y, z) of integers such that x + y = z .
3 4 31
[RMO 2015]
60. Let P(x) = x + ax + b be a quadratic polynomial where a is real and b is rational. Suppose P(0) , P(1) , P(2)2 are integers.
2 2 2
Prove that a and b are integers. [RMO 2015]
61. Find all integers a, b, c such that a2 = bc + 4, b2 = ca + 4 [RMO 2015]
62. Let P(x) be a non-constant polynomial whose coefficients are positive integers. If P(n) divides P(P(n) – 2015) for every
natural number n, prove that P(–2015) = 0. [RMO 2015]
63. Let a1, a2, ...., a 2n be an arithmetic progression of positive real numbers with common difference d. Let (i)
a12 a32 ... a22n 1 x (ii) a 22 a 24 ... a 22n y and (iii) an+an + 1=z. Express d in terms of x, y, z, n. [RMO 2014]
1 1 1 1 1 1
64. Find all positive real numbers x, y, z such that 2x 2y ,2y 2z ,2z 2x .
z 2014 x 2014 y 2014
[RMO 2014]
65. The roots of the equation x – 3ax + bx + 18c = 0 form a non-constant arithmetic progression and the roots of the
3 2
equation x3 + bx2 + x – c3 = 0 form a non-constant geometric progression. Given that a, b, c are real numbers, find all
positive integral values a and b. [RMO 2014]
66. Let f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c and g(x) = x3 + bx2 + cx + a, where a, b, c are integers with c 0 . Suppose that thee
following conditions hold: (a) f(1) = 0; (b) the roots of g(x) = 0 are the squares of the roots of f(x) = 0. Find the value of
a2013 + b2013 + c2013. [RMO 2013]
67. Suppose that m and n are integers such that both the quadratic equations x2 + mx – n = 0 and x2 – mx + n = 0 have
integer roots. Prove that n is divisible by 6. [RMO 2013]
x7 1
68. Prove that there do not exist natural numbers and with x > 1 such that y5 1 . [CRMO 2013]
x 1
69. Prove that the polynomial f(x) = x4 + 26x3 + 56x2 + 78x + 1989 cannot be expressed as a product f(x) = p(x)q(x), where
p(x), q(x) are both polynomials with integral coefficients and with degree less than 4. [CRMO 2013]
70. A polynomial is called a Fermat polynomial if it can be written as the sum of the squares of two polynomials with integer
coefficients. Suppose that f(x) is a Fermat polynomial such that f(0) = 1000 Prove that f(x) + 2x is not a Fermat
polynomial. [CRMO 2013]
1 1 1
Let x be a non-zero real number such that x x 5 5 are both rational numbers. Prove that x is a
4
71. 4 and
x x x
rational number. [CRMO 2013]
72. Let P(x) = x3 + ax2 + b and Q(x) = x3 + bx + a, where a, b are non-zero real numbers. Suppose that the roots of the
equation P(x) = 0 are the reciprocals of the roots of the equation Q(x) = 0. Prove that a and b are integers. Find the
greatest common divisor of P(2013! + 1) and Q(2013! + 1). [RMO 2013]
73. Show that for all real numbers x, y , z such that x + y + z = 0 and xy + yz + zx = –3, the expression x3y + y3z + z3x is a
constant. [CRMO 2012]
74. Solve the system of equations for positive real numbers:
1 x 1 y 1 z
1, 1, 1 [CRMO 2012]
xy z yz x zx y
75. Find all pairs (a, b) of real numbers such that whenever is a root x2 + ax + b = 0, 2 – 1 is also a root of the equation.
[RMO 2007]
76. Let a, b, c be three positive real numbers such that a + b + c = 1. Let =min{a + a bc, b + ab c, c + abc2}. Prove that
3 2 3 2 3
the roots of the equation x2 + x + 4 are real. [RMO 2005]
77. Let and be the roots of the quadratic equation x2 + mx –1, where m is an odd integer. Let m = an + bn, for n 0 .
Prove that for n 0 , (a) is an integer and (b) gcd(n, n+1) = 1. [RMO 2004]
78. Find all real numbers a for which the equation x2 + (a – 1)x + 1 = 3|x| has exactly three distinct real solutions in x.
[RMO 2003]
79. Solve the following equation for real x: (x2 + x – 2)3 + (2x2 – x – 1)3 = 27(x2 – 1)3. [RMO 2002]
80. Solve the equation y = x + 8x – 6x + 8, for positive integers x and y.
3 3 2
[RMO 2000]
81. Find all real values of a for which the equation x – 2ax + x + a – a = 0 has all its root real.
4 2 2
[RMO 2000]
82. If p, q, r are the roots of the cubic equation x – 3px + 3q x – r = 0, show that p = q = r.
3 2 2 3
[RMO 1999]
4mn
Find all solution in integers m, n of the equation m n
2
83. . [RMO 1999]
m n 1
1 1 1
84. Solve for real x : 9(x) , where [x] is the greatest integer less than or equal to x and (x) = x – [x], [e.g.
|x| |2x| 3
[3, 4] = 3 and (3, 4) = 0.4]. [RMO 1997]
1 1 1
85. Find all triples (a, b, c) of positive integers such that 1 1 1 3 . [RMO 1996]
a b c
86. Solve for real number x and y: xy2 = 15x2 + 17xy + 15y2, x2y = 20x2 + 3y2. [RMO 1996]
87. Show that the quadratic equation x + 7x – 14(q + 1) = 0, where q is an integer, has no integer root.
2 2
[RMO 1995]
1 1
88. Solve the system of equations for real x and y : 5x 1 12,5y 1 2 12 . [RMO 1994]
x y2
2
x y2
1 1 1
89. If where a, b, c are positive integers with no common factor, prove that (a + b) is the square of an integer..
a b c
[RMO 1992]
90. Solve the system (x + y) (x + y + z) = 18, (y + z) (x + y + z) = 30, (z + z)(x + y + z) = 2A in terms of the parameter A.
[RMO 1992]
91. Find all integer values of a such that the quadratic expression (x + a) (x + 1991) + 1 can be factored as a product
(x + b)(x + c) where b and c are integers. [RMO 1991]
a b c
92. Let a, b, c be real numbers with 0 < a < 1, 0 < b < 1, 0 < c < 1 and a + b + c = 2. Prove that : 8.
1a 1b 1c
[INMO 1991]
93. Solve the following system of equations for real x, y, z:
x+y–z=4
x2 – y2 + z2 = 4
xyz = 6 [INMO 1991]
2
94. If real numbers x, y, z satisfy x + y + z = 4 and x2 + y2 + z2 = 6, show that each of x, y, z lies in the segment ,2 . Cann
3
x attain either of the endpoints of the segment? [INMO 1992]
95. Let f(x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients such that there exist distinct integer a1,....., a5 at which f takes the value
2. Show that there does not exist an integer b with f(b) = 9. [INMO 1992]
96. Let P(x) = x2 + ax + b be a quadratic polynomial in which a and b are integers. Given any integer n, show that there is an
integer M such that P(n) . P(n + 1) = P(M). [INMO 1993]
1
97. If a, b, c, d are 4 non–negative real numbers and a + b + c + d = 1, show that ab bc cd . [INMO 1993]
4
98. If x5 – x3 + x = a, prove that x6 2a 1 . [INMO 1994]
99. Show that there are infinitely many pairs (a, b) of relatively prime integers (not necessarily positive) such that both
quadratic functions x2 + ax + b = 0 and x2 + 2ax + b = 0 have integer roots. [INMO 1995]
100. Solve the following system of equations for real numbers a, b, c, d, e.
3a = (b + c + d)3, 3b = (c + d + e)3, 3c = (d + e + a)3, 3d = (e + a + b)3, 3e = (a + b + c)3. [INMO 1996]
101. Define a sequence a n n 1 by a1 = 1, a2 = 2 and an + 2 = 2an + 1 – an + 2 for n 1 . Prove that for any m, amam + 1 is also
a term in the sequence. [INMO 1996]
102. Suppose a and b are two positive real numbers such that the roots of the cubic equation x – ax + b = 0 are all real. If
3
b 3b
is a root of this cubic with minimum absolute value, prove that . [INMO 1997]
a 2a
103. Suppose a, b, c are three real numbers such that the quadratic equation x2 – (a + b + c)x + (ab + bc + ca) = 0 has roots of
the form i where > 0 and 0 are real numbers [here i 1 ]. Show that
(i) the numbers a, b, c are all positive;
(ii) the numbers a, b, c form the sides of a triangle. [INMO 1998]
104. It is desired to choose n integers from the collection of 2n integers, namely, 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2,....,n–1, n –1 such that the
average (that is, the arithmetic mean) of these n chosen integers is itself an integer and as minimum as possible. Show
that this can be done for each positive integer n and find this minimum average for each n. [INMO 1998]
105. Show that there do not exist polynomials p(x) and q(x) each having integer coefficients and of degree greater than or equal
to 1 such that
p(x)q(x) = x5 + 2x + 1. [INMO 1999]
106. Given any four distinct real numbers, show that one can choose three numbers, say, A, B, C from among them such that
all the three quadratic equations Bx2 + x + C = 0, Cx2 + x + A = 0, Ax2 + x + B = 0.
have only roots or all the three equations have only imaginary roots. [INMO 1999]
107. Solve for integers x, y, z:
x + y = 1 – z, x3 + y3 = 1 – z2. [INMO 2000]
xb 1 x c xc 1 x a xa 1 x b
108. If a, b, c, x are real numbers such that abc 0 and , then prove that
a b c
either a + b + c = 0 or a = b = c. [INMO 2000]
109. Let a, b, c be three real numbers such that 1 a b c 0 . Prove that if root of the cubic equation x + axx2 + bx + c = 03
(real or complex), then | | 1 . [INMO 2000]
110. Show that the equation x2 + y2 + z2 = (x – y)(y – z)(z – x) has infinitely many solutions in integers x, y , z. [INMO 2001]
111. Determine the least positive value taken by the expression a + b + c – 3abc as a, b, c vary over all positive integers.
3 3 3
Find also all triples (a, b, c) for which this least value is attained. [INMO 2002]
112. Let x, y be positive reals such that x + y = 2. Prove that x y x y 2 .
3 3 3 3
[INMO 2002]
113. Do there exist three distinct positive real numbers a, b, c such that the numbers a, b, c, b + c – a, c + a – b, a + b – c and
a + b + c form a 7 term arithmetic progression in some order? [INMO 2002]
114. Show that for every real number a the equation 8x4 – 16x3 + 16x2 – 8x + a = 0 has at least one non–real root and find
the sum of all the non–real roots of the equation. [INMO 2003]
115. Suppose p is a prime greater than 3. Find all pairs of integers (a, b) satisfying the equation a2 + 3ab + 2p(a + b) + p2 = 0.
[INMO 2004]
116. If is a real root of the equation x5 – x3 + x – 2 = 0, prove that [6] = 3. (For any real number a, we denote by [a] the
greatest integer not exceeding a.) [INMO 2004]
117. Let p, q, r be positive real numbers, not all equal, such that some two of the equations px2 + 2qx + r = 0, qx2 + 2rx + p
= 0, rx2 + 2px + q = 0, have a common root, say . Prove that
(a) a is real and negative; and
(b) the third equation has non–real roots. [INMO 2005]
118. Let n be a natural number such that n = a2 + b2 + c2, for some natural numbers a, b, c. Prove that
9n = (p1a + q1b + r1c)2 + (p2a + q2b + r2c)2 + (p3a + q3b + r3c)2,
where pj’s, qj’s rj’s are all nonzero integers. Further, if 3 does not divide at least one of a, b, c, prove that 9n can be
expressed in the form x2 + y2 + z2, where x, y, z are natural numbers none of which is divisible by 3. [INMO 2007]
119. Let m and n be positive integers such that the equation x2 – mx + n = 0 has real roots and . Prove that and are
integers if and only if [m] + [m] is the square of an integer. (Here [x] denotes the largest integer not exceeding x.)
[INMO 2007]
120. If x, y, z are positive real numbers, prove that
x y z 2 yz zx xy 2 3 y 2 yz z 2 z 2 zx x2 x 2 xy y 2 . [INMO 2007]
121. Let P(x) be a given polynomial with integer coefficients. Prove that there exist two polynomials Q(x) and R(x), again with
integer coefficients, such that (i) P(x)Q(x) is a polynomial in x2; and (ii) P(x)R(x) is a polynomial in x3. [INMO 2008]
122. Find all real numbers x such that [x2 + 2x] = [x]2 + 2[x].
(Here [x] denotes the largest integer not exceeding x.) [INMO 2009]
123. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that a + b = c . Prove that a + b – c > 6(c – a)(c – b).
3 3 3 2 2 2
[INMO 2009]
124. Find all non-zero real numbers x, y, z which satisfy the system of equations:
(x2 + xy + y2)(y2 + yz + z2)(z2 + zx + x2) = xyz,
(x4 + x2y2 + y4)(y4 + y2z2 + z4)(z4 + z2x2 + x4) = x3y3z3. [INMO 2010]
125. Consider two polynomials P(x) = anx + an–1x + .... + a1x + a0 and Q(x) = bnx + bn–1x + ....+ b1x + b0 with integer
n n–1 n n–1
coefficients such that an - bn is a prime, an–1 = bn–1 and anb0 – a0bn 0. Suppose there exists a rational number r such that
P(r) = Q(r) = 0. Prove that r is an integer. [INMO 2011]
126. Let a, b, c, d, be positive integers such that a b c d . Prove that the equation x4 – axx3 – bx2 – cx – d = 0 has no
integer solution. [INMO 2013]
127. For positive real numbers a, b, c, which of the following statements necessarily implies a = b = c: (I) a(b3 + c3) = b(c3 + a3)
= c(a3 + b3), (II) a(a3 + b3) = b(b3 + c3) = c(c3 + a3) ? Justify your answer. [INMO 2016]
128. Consider a non-constant arithmetic progression a1, a2, . . . ,an, . . .. Suppose there exist relatively prime positive integers
p > 1 and q > 1 such that a12 , a 2p 1 and a 2q 1 are also the terms of the same arithmetic progression. Prove that the terms
ms
of the arithmetic progression are all integers. [INMO 2016]
129. Suppose n 0 is an integer and all the roots of x + x + 4 – (2 2016 ) = 0 are integers. Find all possible values of .
3 n
[INMO 2017]
130. Find all polynomials with real coefficients P(x) such that P(x2 + x + 1) divides P(x3–1). [INMO 2018]
131. Suppose P(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients satisfying the condition P(cos + sin) = P(cos – sin), for every real
. Prove that P(x) can be expressed in the form P(x) = a0 + a1(1 – x2)2 + a2(1 – x2)4 + ... + an(1 – x2)2n, for some real numbers
a0, a1, a2, . . . ,an and nonnegative integer n. [INMO 2020]
132. Find all pairs of integers (a, b) so that each of the two cubic polynomials x3 + ax + b and x3 + bx + a has all the roots to
be integers. [INMO 2021]
133. Let [x] be the set of all polynomials with real coefficients, and let deg P denote the degree of a nonzero polynomial P..
Find all functions f : [x] [x] satisfying the following conditions:
f maps the zero polynomial to itself,
for any non-zero polynomial P [x], deg f(P) 1 + deg P, and
for any two polynomials P,Q [x], the polynomials P–f(Q) and Q–f(P) have the same set of real roots. [INMO 2021]
Important Notes
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