Philippine Nuclear Research Institute

Nuclear Training Center

BASIC NUCLEAR PHYSICS

 BASIC NUCLEAR PHYSICS
OBJECTIVES
To review the structure of the atom which
will serve as a basis to understand the
nuclear structure.

To describe the nuclear structure

To explain the basis for the phenomenon

of nuclear disintegration and radioactivity.
What is Nuclear Physics?
A branch of physics which deals
with the study of the structure,
forces, and behavior of the atomic
nucleus and its constituents.
Why do we study the
physics of the nucleus?
For a better understanding
of the principles of
radioactivity…
because this process
originates from the
nucleus.
THE ATOM
 REVIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 The universe is Matter is anything that
composed of matter has mass and volume
 All matter is found to
consist of simple
substances –
elements

 Elements are usually

chemically linked to
other elements in the
form of compounds
 1803  Dalton’s Atomic Theory

 1910  Thomson Model

 1911  Rutherford Model

 1913  Bohr Model

The Subatomic Particles
 ELECTRON (e-)
 Electrons are negatively charged particles that
surround the nucleus in “orbits” similar to
moons orbiting a planet.

 The sharing or exchange of electrons between

atoms forms chemical bonds which is how new
molecules and compounds are formed.

 Valence electrons or the electrons in the

outermost energy level of an atom determines
the chemical properties of a given element.

9
 PROTONS (p)
 Protons are positively charged
particles found inside the nucleus of
an atom. Each element has a unique
atomic number (a unique number of
protons).

 Proton number never changes for any

given element. For example, oxygen
has an atomic number of 8 indicating
that oxygen always has 8 protons.

10
 NEUTRONS (n)

 Neutrons are the other particle found

in the nucleus of an atom. Unlike
protons and electrons, however,
neutrons carry no electrical charge
and are thus neutral.

 Atoms of a given element do not

always contain the same number of
neutrons.

11
 SUMMARY OF THE ATOM
Energy
Particle Symbol Mass (kg) Charge
(MeV)
Proton p 1.672 x 10-27 938.2 +1

Neutron n 1.675 x 10-27 939.2 0

Electron e 9.11 x 10-31 0.511 -1

12
 HOW ARE THEY ARRANGED IN THE ATOM?

Neutron

Electron

Proton
 THE COMPOSITION OF THE NUCLEUS

Nucleus + d Neutron

+ d u
+

Nucleons

u
Quarks
d u

Proton

For most of our purposes, we will assume that the nucleus is just
composed of protons and neutrons.
 Elements
The number of protons (Z) in an atom
dictate the element.

For an uncharged atom, the number of

electrons equals the number of protons.
 Isotopes
Atoms of an
element that have
a different
number of
neutrons in the
nucleus are called
isotopes of each
other.

X = element symbol
Isotope notation
X
A
typically written as: A = atomic mass (neutron + protons)
Z
Z = atomic number (protons)
 Notation
A , mass number
A=p+n
A=Z+N Symbol of
element

Z , atomic number N , neutron number

Z=p N=n
 Nuclear Terms
Nucleon: pertains to both protons and neutrons

Nuclide: any atomic species characterized by the

Z and N

Isotopes: nuclides w/ the same Z but different N

70 Ga and 67 Ga
31 39 31 36

Isomers: nuclides w/ the same Z and A but w/

extra excitation energy above ground
state.
99m Tc (t =6h), 99 Tc (t =200,000y)
43 1/2 43 1/2
THE BOHR MODEL AND THE ELECTRONS
 Electron Transitions
Electrons can jump from one orbit to another by emitting or
absorbing energy.

Energy
emitted

Energy
absorbed

An electron jumping from orbit n = 3 to orbit n = 2, emitting

a photon of red light with an energy of 1.89 eV.
Bohr Model was a great success in explaining
the behavior of the Hydrogen atom.
Unfortunately it does not work for Helium or
other more complex atoms.

The failures of the Bohr model led to

Quantum Mechanics, which remains
our dominant world view.
Quantum Mechanical Theory
of the Atom
QUANTUM PHYSICS is a branch of science that deals with
discrete, indivisible units of energy called “quanta” as
Described by the Quantum Theory.

Wave-Particle Dualism
Schrödinger’s Wave Equation
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Quantum Numbers
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Periodic Table of the Elements

In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri

Mendeleev first described an
arrangement of the chemical
elements now known as the
periodic table.

The periodic table displays all

chemical elements
systematically in order of
increasing atomic number (the
number of protons in the
nucleus).
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
THE NUCLEUS
 THE NUCLEUS
 Composition

Particle Mass in kg Mass in amu Charge

Proton 1.67252 x 10-27 1.00727646 +
Neutron 1.67482 x 10-27 1.00866492 0

 Protons and neutrons together form the nucleus of the atom.

 Proton and neutrons have essentially the same mass but only the proton is
charged while the neutron has no charge.
 Mass of the nucleus is 99.95% of the total mass of the atom
 Nuclear radius is of the order 10 -12 cm or about 1/10,000 of an atomic
radius
 The nucleus determines the identity of the element and its atomic mass.
26
Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

Where 1 amu is
approximately equal to
1.6605 x 10-24 grams=
1.6605 x 10-27 kilograms
 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

The atomic mass of the proton and the neutron

is approximately:

Proton = 1.6726 x 10-27 kg = 1.0073 amu

Neutron = 1.6749 x 10-27 kg = 1.0087 amu

Thus, the neutron is just a little heavier than

the proton.
 Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

The atomic mass of the electron is

approximately:

Electron = 9.1094 x 10-31 kg= 0.00055 amu

Thus, the electron has a much smaller mass

than either the proton or the neutron, 1837
times smaller or about 2000 times smaller.
 How big is a nucleus?

The nucleus can be thought of as a bunch

of balls (protons and neutron) packed into
a sphere, with the radius of the sphere
being approximately:
r = ro A1/3
Where:
A = mass number ~ 10-15m
ro = a constant ~ 1.2 x 10-15 m
 NATURE OF NUCLEAR REACTION

 Nucleons are held together by

the strong nuclear force that
overcome the
electromagnetic repulsion
between the protons,
 When these forces are not
balanced, the nucleus
becomes unstable or
radioactive.
 All nuclei contain protons and  REPULSIVE
neutrons except hydrogen 11H electromagnetic force
 ATTRACTIVE strong
nuclear force
NUCLIDE CHART
Equal number of protons and neutrons

There are many

isotopes. Most
have more
neutrons than
protons. Some
are stable but
most are unstable
(radioactive).

32
 STABLE NUCLIDES
Nuclear stability depends
on the Z and N:

For Z ≤ 20, N = Z
nuclei contain
Line of stability
practically as many
neutrons as protons

For Z > 20, N > Z

nuclei require higher
# of neutrons in
order to be stable
STABLE AND UNSTABLE NUCLIDES

Too many
neutrons
for stability

Too many
protons
for stability
Nuclear Binding Energy and Mass Defect

Particle Mass in kg Mass in amu

Proton 1.67252 x 10-27 1.00727646

Neutron 1.67482 x 10-27 1.00866492

Mass of Carbon-12 = 12.000 amu, yet it

contains 6 p and 6 n that each has a mass
greater than 1.000 amu.
Something is odd here!!
 Nuclear Binding Energy and Mass Defect

 Fact is, these 6 p’s and 6 n’s have a larger mass when
they are separated than when they are bound together
into carbon-12 nucleus.
 True for all nuclei: mass of
nucleus is LESS THAN the
sum of masses of +
individual nucleons +
+ +
 The missing mass is known
as the MASS DEFECT, and
is essentially the equivalent
mass of the NUCLEAR
BINDING ENERGY.
 MASS–ENERGY RELATION

E = mc2

…If you convert some mass to

energy, you will know how much
energy you get.
Binding energy is the energy required to split the nucleus into
individual protons and neutrons.

To find the binding energy, BE:

1. compute for MASS DEFECT, Δm
Δm = (total mass of individual nucleons) – (mass of nucleus)

2. use Einstein’s famous equation

BE = Δm c2
 BINDING ENERGY
Total binding energy for a particular nucleus can be
calculated from the formula:

BEtotal = [ZMp + NMn - M] c2

BEtotal = Δmc2
= (Δm)(931.5 MeV/amu)
Where Z = atomic number (# of protons)
Mp = mass of the proton
N = neutron number (# of neutrons)
Mn = mass of the neutron
M = mass of the nucleus (from nuclide chart)

Average binding energy per nucleon:

BE = BEtotal / A
 SAMPLE COMPUTATION: BINDING ENERGY

Helium isotope: 4 He
2 2  composed of 2 p’s and 2 n’s

p: 2 x 1.00727646 amu = 2.01455292 amu

N N n: 2 x 1.00866492 amu = 2.01732984 amu

--------------------------
total mass of parts = 4.03188276 amu

N
2He2 Mass of from nuclide chart = 4.00260324 amu
4
2He2
4
N
 SAMPLE COMPUTATION: BINDING ENERGY

Mass defect , m = total mass of p’s and n’s - mass of nucleus

m = 4.03188276 amu - 4.00260324 amu

= 0.02927952 amu

BEtotal = Δmc2 = (Δm) (931.5 MeV/amu)

= (0.02927952 amu) (931.5 MeV/amu)
= 27.3 MeV
Total binding
energy in helium
nucleus
 SAMPLE COMPUTATION: BINDING ENERGY

Average binding energy per nucleon for a

helium nucleus

BE = BEtotal / A
= 27.3 MeV/ 4
= 6.82 MeV
BINDING ENERGY CURVE
 CHEMICAL VS. NUCLEAR

ENERGY RELEASED by a nuclear reaction is about a

million times that released by a chemical reaction

Chemical reaction : E in eV
Nuclear reaction : E in MeV (106 eV)

(eV: electron-volt , the E necessary to raise one e- to a potential of 1 volt)

Nuclear reactions involve changes in the nuclear

binding energy, which is why nuclear reactions give
you much more energy than chemical reactions; those
which involve changes in electron binding energy.
The enormity of the nuclear BE can be better appreciated
by comparing it to the BE of an electron in an atom.

Example:
BE of an e- to the nucleus in the hydrogen atom = 13.6 eV
BE of nucleons in the He-4 nucleus = 27273466 eV
 roughly 2 million times!
 To summarize some important points:
 The nuclear source of energy is understood only if the concept of
the binding energy (BE) is understood.
 Nucleons are held together by strong nuclear forces.
 (Mass of nucleus < sum of masses of nucleons)  called mass
defect, m
 m is responsible for the binding together of the nucleons.
 Energy equivalent of m is called the BE of the nucleus.
 When individual nucleons pack themselves together to form a
nucleus they liberate some E in the form of photons (gamma rays).
 The liberated E manifests as a reduction in the net mass of the
nucleus.
 It could also be said: nucleus could be split into nucleons by
supplying E = BE.
Nuclear Models
Liquid Drop Model
Nuclear Shell Model
Compound Model
 Liquid Drop Model
By Niels Bohr and Wheeler (1936)
“atomic nuclei are like liquid drops held together by
surface tension”

 The fluid is made of nucleons, and is held

together by the strong nuclear force.
 Nucleus is most stable when it is spherical.
 Successful in describing how a nucleus can
deform and undergo fission

Steps in nuclear fission  This is a crude model that

does not explain all the
properties of nuclei, but
does explain the spherical
shape of most nuclei.
 Nuclear Shell Model
By Robert Hofstadter (1950s )

Analogous to the Bohr Model of the atom:

 The nucleus has discrete energy levels (shells)
where the protons and neutrons arrange
themselves
 Shells exist for both p’s and n’s individually
 When adding nucleons to a nucleus, there are
certain points where the binding energy of the next
nucleon is significantly less than the last one
 Once a shell is filled, there is added stability
This model explains the stability of nuclei with
magic numbers of neutrons and protons.
 "Magic Numbers" in Nuclear Structure

It is found that nuclei with even Z and N are more

stable than those with odd numbers.

There is special stability of nuclei with N or Z

values of:

“magic numbers” = 2, 8 , 20 , 28 , 50 , 82 , 126

Ex: 4
2He , 16
8O , 40
20Ca

Nuclei which have both N and Z equal to one of

the magic numbers can be called "doubly magic",
and are found to be particularly stable.
 Collective Model

 The shell model succeeds in describing nuclei near

the magic numbers, but it fails to adequately
describe the other nuclei.

 Assumes all nucleons interact strongly and energy

levels are due to the collective action of all nucleons

 The nucleus rotates and vibrates as a whole and

gives rise to rotational and vibrational energy levels
 References

 Cember, H., Introduction to Health Physics, 3rd

Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (2000)

 Firestone, R.B., Baglin, C.M., Frank-Chu, S.Y., Eds.,

Table of Isotopes (8th Edition, 1999 update), Wiley,
New York (1999)

 International Atomic Energy Agency, The Safe Use

of Radiation Sources, Training Course Series No.
6, IAEA, Vienna (1995)
 Thank you!
Commit to the LORD whatever you do,
and he will establish your plans.
Proverbs 16:3