Physics grade 10 physics Transverse pulses Apulse Asingle disturbance that is propagated by a medium Transverse pulse A pulse in which the displacement of the particles of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of movement of the pulse Amplitude Maximum disturbance of a particle from its position of rest Pulse length Distance between the start and end of a pulse Pulse speed Distance covered by the pulse in one second Interference Whenever two pulses in the same medium meets they will interact with each other this interaction is known as interference Interference; constructive and destructive Constructive interference This happens when two pulses meet each other on the same side of the rest position this results in a pulse with greater amplitude Destructive interference This happens when two pulses meet on opposite sides of the rest position this results in a pulse with smaller amplitude Superposition The algebraic sum of the amplitudes of the two pulses that occupy the same space at the same time Transverse waves A transverse wave Is a wave in which the particles of the medium vibrates perpendicular to the direction of motion of the Wave itis a succession of transverse pulsesCrest The highest point of a wave at its maximum displacement from its position of rest, is known as a Crest TROUGH The lowest point of a wave at its maximum displacement from Its position of rest in the opposite direction, is known as a TROUGH Wavelength This is the distance between the two consecutive points in phase Two points in phase Two points are in phase when they are separated by a whole number multiple of complete wavelengths Points out of phase Points out of phase are not separated by a whole number multiple of complete wavelengths Frequency the number of wave pulses per second Period This is the time taken from one complete wave points to pass a point T=1/F \V=d divided by change in time The speed is influenced by the - density of the medium - tension of the medium - elasticity of the medium V=F times by Lambda Longitudinal waves - Sound wave Longitudinal wave A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of movement of the wave Compression: A region of high pressure and the particles are close togetherRarefaction: a region of low pressure and the particles are far apart sound Sound is propagated by vibrations and therefore needs a medium to propagate the sound Reflection Also known as echos When the sound is reflected off a surface far away it is heard as a separate sound The echo is always softer, since parts of the energy has been absorbed by the reflecting objects Pitch: The pitch of a note indicates how high or low the notes sounds Sound travels faster in solids In liquids and Then in gases this is because the density of solids is higher than that of liquids which means that the particles are closer together sound can be transmitted more easily the speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium the hotter the medium is the faster its particles move and therefore the quicker the sound will travel through the medium when we heat a substance the particles in that substance have more kinetic energy and vibrate or move faster sound can therefore be transmitted more easily and quickly in hotter substances sound waves are pressure waves the speed of sound And will therefore be influenced by the pressure of the medium through which it is traveling at sea level the air pressure is higher than high up on the mountain sound will travel faster at sea level Where the air pressure is higher than it would at places high above sea level Reflections and echoes When the sound waves collide with an object they are reflected you can think of the individual particles that are oscillating about their equilibrium position colliding into the object when the wave passes they bounce off the object causing the wave to be reflected in a space with many small objects there are reflections at every surface but they are too small and too mixed up to have an outcome that a human can hear however when there is an open space that has only large surfaces Sonar Ships on the ocean make use of the reflecting properties of sound waves to determine the depth of the ocean a sound wave is transmitted and bounces off the sea bed because the speed of sound is known and the time lapse between sending and receiving the sound can be measured the distance from the ship to the bottom of the ocean can be determined this is called sonar which is an acronym for sound navigation and ranging D=speed x timecharacteristics Of 2 sound wave Since sound is a wave We can relate the properties of sound to the properties of a wave, the basic properties of sound are pitch loudness and tone Loudness ,the amplitude of the sound wave determines its loudness or volume a larger amplitude means a louder sound and a smaller amplitude means a softer sound in figure 10.2 sound seat is louder than sound B the vibration of a source sets the amplitude of a wave it transmits energy into the medium through its vibration more energetic vibration corresponds to larger amplitude the molecules move back and forth more vigorously the loudness of a sound is also determined by the sensitivity of the ear the human ear is more sensitive to some frequencies than to others the volume we receive thus depends on both the amplitude of a sound wave and whether its frequency lies in a region where the ear is more or less sensitive Ultra sound Ultrasound is sound with a frequency that is higher than 20 kHz some animals such as dogs dolphins and bats have an upper limit that is greater than that of the human ear and can hear ultrasound some animals such as dogs dolphins and bats have an upper limit that is greater than that of the human ear and can hear ultrasounds The most common use of ultrasound is to create images and has industrial and medical applications the use of ultrasound to create images is based on the reflection and transmission of a wave at a boundary when the wave goes from one substance to another when an ultrasound wave travels inside an object that is made-up of different materials such as the human body each time it encounters A boundary e.g.between bone and muscle or muscle and fat part of the wave is reflected in part of itis transmitted the reflected rays are detected and used to construct an image of the object ultrasound And in medicine can visualize muscle and soft tissue making them useful for scanning the organs and is commonly used during pregnancy ultrasound is a safe non invasive method of looking inside the human body Electromagnetic radiation The most common example of electromagnetic EM radiation is visible light everyone is very familiar with light in everyday life you can only see things because light bounces off them and enters your eyes this alone makes it worthwhile to learn about it but there are also very many other applications of em radiation It is called electromagnetic because there are electric and magnetic fields making up the radiation we will look at this in more detall a little later in everyday experience life doesn’t seem to havemany special properties but it does a huge spectrum the light we can see visible EM radiation is only a small part of all of the EM radiation electromagnetic spectrum that exists nature speed limit nothing moves faster than the speed of light wave nature all EM radiation has the ability to behave like a wave which we call wave like behavior particle nature all EM radiation has the ability to behave like a particle which we call particle like behavior no medium required EM radiation can propagate without a medium through which to move even though they are waves two important things to notice we have mentioned waves without a medium end being both a particle and a wave Electromagnetic spectrum Gamma rays >3x10417 Xerays 3x10*16-3x10"17 ultraviolet light 7.5x10"14-3x10914 visible light 4.3x10%14-7.5x10414 Infrared 3x10912-4.3x10%14 microwave 3x1099-3x10412 radio waves <3x1049 The energy of a photo f Esh. c/lamda Joules His plancks constant Cis the speed of light Fis the frequencyATOMS AND COMPOUNDS The atom as the building block of matter Itis not often that substances are found in atomic form just as you seldom find a building or structure made from one building material normally atoms are bonded (joined) to other atoms to form compounds or molecules it is only in the noble gases EG helium neon and argon that atoms are found individually and are not bonded to other atoms Compound A compound Is a group of two or more different atoms that are attracted to each other by relatively strong forces or bonds the atoms are combined in definite proportion, compounds can be divided into molecular compounds (molecules ), ionic compounds| salts} and metallic compounds (metal) Molecular compounds form as a result of covalent bonding where electrons are shared between non metal atoms. lonic compounds form as a result of ionic bonding where electrons are transferred from metals to non metals. metals are formed as a result of metallic bonding where metal atoms lose their outer electrons to form a lattice of regularly spaced positive ions and a pool of delocalized electrons that surround the positive fons. Molecular formula ‘The molecular formula is a concise way of expressing information about the atoms that make up a particular covalent molecular compound the molecular formula gives the exact number of each type of atom in the molecule Empirical formula The empirical formula is a way of expressing the relative number of each type of atom in a chemical ‘compound. the empirical formula does nat show the exact number of atoms but rather the simplest ratio of the atoms in the compound Physical and chemical change Physical change a change where the chemical identity of the substance does not change mass and the number of atoms of each element are both conserved physical changes usually involve relatively small changes in energy Chemical changeThe formation of new substances in a chemical reaction one type of matter Is changed into something different Conservation of atoms and mass in reactions Ina chemical reaction the total mass of all the substances taking part in the reaction remains the same also the number of atoms in a reaction remains the same mass cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction Law of conservation of mass The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass of substances taking part in a chemical reaction is conserved during the reaction The law of constant composition the law of constant composition says that in any particular chemical compound all samples of that compound will be made up of the same elements in the same proportion or ratio The law of constant composition says that in any particular chemical compound all samples of that compound will be made-up of the same elements in the same proportion or ratio Gay-lussac’s law states that in a chemical reaction between gases the relative volumes of the gases and the reaction are present in a ratio of small whole numbers if all the gases are at the same temperature and pressure law states that in a chemical reaction between gases the relative volumes of the gases and the reaction are present in a ratio of small whole numbers if all the gases are at the same temperature and pressure Magnetism Magnetism is an interaction that allows certain kinds of objects which are called magnetic objects to exert forces on each other without physically touching a magnetic object is surrounded by a magnetic field that gets weaker as one moves further away from the object a second object can feel a magnetic force from the first object because it feels the magnetic field of the first object the further away the objects are the weaker the magnetic force will be ‘A magnetic field is a region in space where a magnet or object made of magnetic material will experience a non contact magnetic forcea moving charged particle has a magnetic fields associated with it one example of a charged particle that occurs in most matter is the electron electrons are in constant motion inside matter ,orbiting the nucleus in the atom which may also be moving rotating or vibrating so electrons inside any object are moving and have magnetic fields associated with them in most materials these fields point in various directions so the net magnetic field is 0 Electrostatics Positively charged electrons are removed making the object electron deficient negatively charged electrons are added giving the object an excess of electrons Tribo electric charging Objects may become charged in many ways including by contact with or being rubbed by other objects this means that they can gain or lose negative charge for example charging happens when you rub your feet against the carpet when you then touch something metallic or another person you feel a shock as the excess charge that you have collected is discharged Conservation of charge Principles of conservation of charge The principle of conservation of charge states that the net charge of an isolated system remains constant during any physical process a= ais 02/2 Quantisation of charge Qe=1.6x104-19 Charge is measured in coulombs a=nqe Potential difference Potential difference is the work done per unit charge W/q the units of potential difference are the Volt which is defined as one Joule per coulomb Current Current is the rate at which charges moves past a fixed point in a circuitResistance slows down the flow of charge ina Reactions in aqueous solutions Dissociation is the process in which solid ionic crystals are broken up into ions when dissolved in water hydration is the process where ions become surrounded with water molecules Because electrolytes generally consist of ions in solution they are also known as jonic solutions a strong electrolyte is one where many ions are present in the solution and a weak electrolyte is one where few ions are present strong electrolytes are goad conductors of electricity and weak electrolytes are weak conductors of electricity An electrolyte Is a substance that contains free ions and behaves as an electrically conductive medium A precipitate is the solid that forms in a solution during a chemical reaction lon exchange reaction , a type of reaction where the positive ions exchange their respective negative ions due to a driving force A scalar Is a physical quantity that has only a magnitude Mass, electric charge a vector is a physical quantity that has both direction and magnitude Force, weight Average speed is the distance travel divided by the time taken for the journey average velocity is the change in position of a body divided by the time it took for the displacement to occur Average acceleration is the change in average velocity divided by the time taken Instantaneous velocity is the change in position over the change in a very small time intervalInstantaneous is speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity The gradient of a position- time graph (x v.s t] gives the velocity the gradient of a velocity - time graph (v VS t) gives the acceleration the area under a velocity- time graph (v VS t) gives the displacement the area under an acceleration- time graph (a VS t) gives the velocity the equations of motion are used where constant acceleration takes place Vizvieat t+ 14. AAD Change in x = Change in x =(vievf) /2 xt VEA2= viN2+2a. Change in time Potential energy is the energy and object has due ta its position or state Gravitational potential energy is the energy and object has due to its position in a gravitational field relative to some reference point Ep=mgh Kinetic energy Kinetic energy is the energy an object has due to its motion Fk=1/2.mvA2 Mechanical energy Mechanical energy is the sum of the gravitational potential eneray and the kinetic energy of a system EptEk=Em The law of conservation of eneray energy cannot be created or destroyed but is merely changed from one form into another law of conservation of mechanical energy the total amount of mechanical energy in a closed system in the absence of dissipative forces