CN EXTERNAL QUESTION BANK

1. Difference between LAN, WAN and MAN.

Ans:

When several computers are connected together and are able to communicate with one
another, it is called a computer network. Computer networks are designed to share data and
information among the computers of the network. Depending on the operating geographical
area, computer networks are of the three major types, namely LAN, MAN, and WAN.

All the three computer networks are designed for the same purpose, i.e., for sharing
information among the computers. But, they are different in many ways, which we are going
to highlight in this article. Let's start with some basics of LAN, MAN, and WAN.

What is LAN?

LAN represents Local Area Network. LANs are tiny networks within a single construction
or colleges of up to a few kilometers. When two or more computers are attached in a limited
area, i.e., the inside diameter of not more than a few kilometers, then such a network is called
a local area network. Local area network connects various computers in a small
geographical area such a building so that they can share data, resources, programs, tools, etc.

LAN has very high data transmission rate because it connects a very limited number of
computers in a single network. The hardware components like network adapters, hubs,
network cables, etc. required to design LAN are relatively less expensive.

The most common examples of LAN include private computer networks for home, office,
schools, hospitals, colleges, etc.

What is MAN?

MAN represents Metropolitan Area Network. MAN is a huge version of LAN and uses
similar technology. It uses one or two cables but does not include switching components. It
covers an entire city and can be associated with the local cable TV network.

A typical MAN connects two or more computing devices that reside apart but in the same or
different cities. MAN convers comparatively larger geographical area as compared to a LAN.
But, it is very costly as compared to a LAN. The speed of data transmission in MAN is of the
order of Mbps (Mega Bytes per Second). The most common examples of MAN are networks
of telephone companies that provide high speed digital subscriber line to cable TV customers.

What is WAN?

WAN represents Wide Area Network. WAN supports no limit of distance. A WAN offers
long-distance communication of data, voice, pictures and video data over a large
geographical area consisting of a country, a continent or even a planet.
A WAN is basically large connection of various LANs and MANs. A WAN makes use of
telephone lines or radio waves to connect LANs together. A WAN uses a relatively very
expensive and high-speed technology for data communication.

Based on network structure, WANs are of two types, namely Point-to-Point WAN and
Switched WAN. In WANs, satellite links and public switched telephone networks are used
as the communication mediums.

The rate of data transmission in a WAN is comparatively less than a LAN or MAN due to
larger distances and the greater number of computing devices connected in a single network.
The speed of data transmission in WANs typically ranges from a few kbps (kilo bytes per
second) to Mbps (Megabytes per second). One of the major issues that WANs face is the
propagation delay. The most common examples of WANs include the Internet, the network
of bank cash dispensers, etc.

2. Note on ring/ star topology /bus topology with advantages and disadvantages.

Ans:

Ring Topology:

In a ring topology, each device is connected to two other devices, forming a closed loop. The
data is transmitted in one direction around the loop, passing through each device until it
reaches its destination.

Advantages:

• Good for handling high-volume traffic.

• No collisions because data travels in one direction.
• Adding or removing devices is easy.

Disadvantages:

• Failure of a single device can cause the entire network to fail.

• Limited scalability due to the physical constraints of the loop.
• Difficult to troubleshoot and locate faults.

Star Topology:

In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch. The data is transmitted
from the sending device to the hub, which then sends it to the destination device.

Advantages:

• Failure of a single device doesn't affect the entire network.

• Easy to add or remove devices.
• Scalable for a large number of devices.

Disadvantages:
 • If the hub fails, the entire network goes down.
• High traffic volume can cause congestion at the hub.
• Requires more cabling than a bus topology.

Bus Topology:

In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single cable called a backbone. The data is
transmitted in both directions along the backbone, and each device listens to the data to see if
it's intended for them.

Advantages:

• Simple to install and requires less cabling than other topologies.

• Easy to add or remove devices.
• Good for small networks.

Disadvantages:

• If the backbone fails, the entire network goes down.

• Limited scalability due to bandwidth limitations.
• If too many devices are added, the network can become congested.

3. Digital to Analog / Digital-to-Digital Conversion.

Ans:

Digital-to-Analog Conversion:

Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC) is the process of converting digital signals into analog
signals. In computer networks, DAC is used to convert digital data from a computer or other
digital device into analog signals that can be transmitted over an analog communication
medium, such as a telephone line or radio waves.

The process of DAC involves sampling the digital signal and then using an analog signal
generator to create an analog waveform that represents the original digital signal. The analog
waveform can then be transmitted over the communication medium.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion:

Digital-to-Digital Conversion (DDC) is the process of converting one digital signal to another
digital signal. In computer networks, DDC is used for various purposes, such as signal
regeneration, data compression, encryption/decryption, and protocol conversion.

The process of DDC involves receiving a digital signal and then processing it to create a new
digital signal that is either identical to the original signal or has been modified according to
the specific requirements. The process of DDC can be performed using various techniques,
such as logic gates, multiplexers, demultiplexers, encoders, and decoders.

Overall, DAC and DDC are essential processes in computer networks that help to ensure the
reliable transmission and efficient processing of digital signals.
 4. Explain 1st Scenario for protocol Layering.

Ans:

The first scenario for protocol layering in computer networks is the most basic and essential
layering model, known as the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. The OSI model is
composed of seven layers, each of which serves a specific purpose in the communication
process between two or more networked devices.

The seven layers of the OSI model are:

1. Physical layer: This layer deals with the physical aspects of the network, such as the
transmission medium (cables, fiber optics, wireless) and the signaling method (analog
or digital). It defines the electrical and mechanical specifications of the network and
how the data is transmitted between devices.
2. Data link layer: This layer is responsible for the reliable transfer of data between
adjacent network nodes, usually over a physical link. It breaks up the data into frames,
adds addressing and error control information, and handles flow control and access
control.
3. Network layer: This layer provides end-to-end routing and logical addressing
functions. It determines the best path for the data to travel between networked devices
and handles congestion control and quality of service (QoS) issues.
4. Transport layer: This layer provides end-to-end reliable data transport services
between processes running on different networked devices. It manages the
segmentation and reassembly of data, as well as flow control and error recovery.
5. Session layer: This layer establishes, maintains, and terminates connections between
applications on different networked devices. It handles authentication and encryption,
as well as session management and synchronization.
6. Presentation layer: This layer deals with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between networked devices. It provides data conversion services such as
compression, encryption, and decryption.
7. Application layer: This layer provides the interface between the network and the
applications that run on networked devices. It supports a wide range of application
services, including file transfer, email, and web browsing.

Each layer in the OSI model communicates only with the layer immediately above or below
it. This allows for easier development, maintenance, and upgrading of individual layers
without affecting the operation of other layers in the network. Additionally, it facilitates
interoperability between different network technologies and equipment from various vendors,
as long as they conform to the same layering model.
 5.Two Types of Delay / Two Types of Noise.

Ans:

There are two main types of delay in computer networks:

1. Transmission Delay: This is the time it takes for a packet of data to travel from the
source to the destination. It is determined by the distance between the two devices and
the speed of the medium over which the data is transmitted.
2. Propagation Delay: This is the time it takes for a signal to travel through a medium. It
is determined by the physical characteristics of the medium, such as its length and the
speed at which signals can travel through it.

Similarly, there are two main types of noise in computer networks:

1. Thermal Noise: This is random electrical noise that is generated by the thermal
motion of electrons in a conductor. It is present in all electronic circuits, including
those used in network devices, and can interfere with the transmission of data.
2. Interference Noise: This is noise that is generated by external sources, such as other
electronic devices or sources of electromagnetic radiation. It can also interfere with
the transmission of data and is more difficult to control than thermal noise.

6.Write a Note on ALOHA.

Ans:

ALOHA is a multiple access protocol for transmission of data via a shared network channel.
It operates in the medium access control sublayer (MAC sublayer) of the open systems
interconnection (OSI) model. Using this protocol, several data streams originating from
multiple nodes are transferred through a multi-point transmission channel.

In ALOHA, each node or station transmits a frame without trying to detect whether the
transmission channel is idle or busy. If the channel is idle, then the frames will be
successfully transmitted. If two frames attempt to occupy the channel simultaneously,
collision of frames will occur and the frames will be discarded. These stations may choose to
retransmit the corrupted frames repeatedly until successful transmission occurs.

Versions of ALOHA Protocols

Pure ALOHA

In pure ALOHA, the time of transmission is continuous.Whenever a station hasan available

frame, it sends the frame. If there is collision and the frame is destroyed, the sender waits for
a random amount of time before retransmitting it.

Slotted ALOHA

Slotted ALOHA reduces the number of collisions and doubles the capacity of pure ALOHA.
The shared channel is divided into a number of discrete time intervals called slots. A station
can transmit only at the beginning of each slot. However,there can still be collisions if more
than one station tries to transmit at the beginning of the same time slot.

7.What is FDMA Its Advantages and DisAdvantages.

Ans:

Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) :

Frequency-division multiple access is one among the only multiple access methods. During
this method, the channel bandwidth is subdivided into a variety of sub-channels. This
multiple access method used for voice and data transmission. During this method the general
channel bandwidth is being shared by multiple users, therefore the variety of users can
transmit their information simultaneously. The adjacent frequency bands within the FDMA
spectrum are likely to interfere with one another. Therefore, it’s necessary to incorporate the
guard bands between the adjacent frequency bands. No code words and synchronization are
required. Power efficiency reduced using FDMA, it’s an old and proven system and used for
analog signals.

Advantages of FDMA :

1. Use of efficient numerical codes increases the capacity.

2. It reduces the worth.
3. Lowers the inter symbol interference (Equalization isn’t required).
4. An FDMA system is often easily implemented, system are often configured so, the
improvements in terms of speech encoder and bit rate reduction could even be easily
incorporated.
5. Simple to implement, from a hardware standpoint.
6. Fairly efficient with a little base population and when traffic is constant.
7. FDMA includes its applicability to both analog and digital transmission systems, the
actual fact that no special coding is required, the allocation of capacity is simple, no
network synchronization or timing is required, which the baseband signal are often
recovered using simple and cheap receiver equipment.
8. Reducing the knowledge bit rate and using efficient digital codes can obtain capacity
increases.
9. As FDMA systems use low bit rates (large symbol time) compared to average delay
spread, they reduce the worth, and there is low Inter Symbol Interference (ISI).
 10. There is hardly any equalization required.
11. Technological advances required for implementation are simple. A system is often
configured so as that improvement in terms of speech coder bit-rate reduction could
be readily incorporated.

Disadvantages of FDMA :

1. Due to the simultaneous transmission of a large number of frequencies, there is a

possibility of inter modulation distortion at the transponder.
2. It is suitable only for analog signals.
3. Storage, enhancement of signals is not possible.
4. The large bandwidth requirement for transponders.
5. Guard bands may waste capacity.
6. It requires RF(Radio Frequency) filters to meet stringent adjacent channel rejection
specifications. This may increase the cost of the system.
7. Network planning is cumbersome and time-critical.
8. There is not much flexibility so, need to slowly change already assigned traffic
patterns.
9. The carrying capacity of traffic is relatively low.
10. In a general system, because the channels are assigned for a single user, idle channels
add to the spectrum.
11. Frequency planning is time-consuming.
12. Required multi-channel receivers that are expensive.
13. The highest bit rate per channel is fixed and small.
14. Hardware involves narrowband filters, which cannot be realized in VLSI.

8.Write a note on Multiplexing.

Ans:

Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of transmission can
be simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing divides the high capacity
medium into low capacity logical medium which is then shared by different streams.

Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media (cable), and
light (optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.

When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called Multiplexer divides
the physical channel and allocates one to each. On the other end of communication, a De-
multiplexer receives data from a single medium, identifies each, and sends to different
receivers.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog technology. FDM divides the
spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each channel.
Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All
channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other. Channels are
separated by guard bands. Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either channel.
Time Division Multiplexing

TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well. In
TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot. Each user can
transmit data within the provided time slot only. Digital signals are divided in frames,
equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be transmitted in given time
slot.

TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-multiplexer are timely
synchronized and both switch to next channel simultaneously.

When channel A transmits its frame at one end,the De-multiplexer provides media to channel
A on the other end.As soon as the channel A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel
B. On the other end, the De-multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and provides media
to channel B. Signals from different channels travel the path in interleaved manner.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Light has different wavelength (colors). In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals
are multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. This is an analog
multiplexing technique and is done conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light
as signals.
Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can be incorporated to accommodate
more data signals.

Code Division Multiplexing

Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency by using Code Division
Multiplexing. FDM divides the frequency in smaller channels but CDM allows its users to
full bandwidth and transmit signals all the time using a unique code. CDM uses orthogonal
codes to spread signals.

Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip. Signals travel with these codes
independently, inside the whole bandwidth.The receiver knows in advance the chip code
signal it has to receive.

9.Packet Switching And Circuit Switching.

Ans:

Packet Switching

• The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is
divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
• The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.
• Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.
• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
• If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.
Circuit Switching

• Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender
and receiver.
• In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated
path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
• Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
• In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a
request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to
ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated
path transfers the data.
• Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
• Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

10.Write a Note on Hub Repeater.

Ans:

A hub repeater is a network device that is used to connect multiple devices in a local area
network (LAN). It is a simple network device that operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of
the OSI model and its primary function is to regenerate and distribute incoming signals to all
its connected devices.

The hub repeater has multiple ports that allow devices to connect to it through Ethernet
cables. When a device sends a signal to the hub repeater, the signal is received on one port
and is then repeated or broadcasted on all the other ports. This means that every device
connected to the hub repeater receives the signal, regardless of whether it is the intended
recipient or not.

Since the hub repeater does not perform any filtering or addressing, it can lead to network
congestion and collisions, especially in large networks with heavy traffic. As a result, hubs
have largely been replaced by switches which operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI model and can perform packet filtering and forwarding based on MAC addresses.
In summary, a hub repeater is a legacy network device that can connect multiple devices in a
LAN and regenerate signals, but its lack of intelligence and packet filtering capabilities make
it unsuitable for modern high-performance networks.

11.Write a note on IPv4 Explain Its any two classes.

Ans:

IPv4 is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol (IP) and is widely used for communication
between devices on the internet. It is a connectionless protocol that provides a unique address
to each device connected to the internet.

IPv4 addresses are 32-bit binary numbers that are commonly represented in dotted decimal
notation (for example, 192.168.0.1). The addresses are divided into classes to simplify the
allocation process. The two most commonly used classes of IPv4 addresses are Class A and
Class B addresses.

1. Class A addresses: Class A addresses are used for large networks that require a large
number of IP addresses. The first bit of a Class A address is always set to 0, which
means that the first 8 bits (the first octet) represent the network portion of the address,
and the remaining 24 bits represent the host portion. This allows for up to 126 Class A
networks, each with up to 16,777,214 hosts.
2. Class B addresses: Class B addresses are used for medium-sized networks. The first
two bits of a Class B address are always set to 10, which means that the first 16 bits
(the first two octets) represent the network portion of the address, and the remaining
16 bits represent the host portion. This allows for up to 16,384 Class B networks, each
with up to 65,534 hosts.

Overall, IPv4 has some limitations, including the limited number of unique addresses
available, which has led to the development of IPv6 with a larger address space

12.What is Routing? Explain Its Any one type.

Ans:

Routing
• A Router is a process of selecting path along which the data can be transferred from
source to the destination. Routing is performed by a special device known as a router.
• A Router works at the network layer in the OSI model and internet layer in TCP/IP
model
• A router is a networking device that forwards the packet based on the information
available in the packet header and forwarding table.
• The routing algorithms are used for routing the packets. The routing algorithm is
nothing but a software responsible for deciding the optimal path through which packet
can be transmitted.
• The routing protocols use the metric to determine the best path for the packet
delivery. The metric is the standard of measurement such as hop count, bandwidth,
 delay, current load on the path, etc. used by the routing algorithm to determine the
optimal path to the destination.
• The routing algorithm initializes and maintains the routing table for the process of
path determination.

Types of Routing

Routing can be classified into three categories:

• Static Routing
• Default Routing
• Dynamic Routing

Static Routing

• Static Routing is also known as Nonadaptive Routing.

• It is a technique in which the administrator manually adds the routes in a routing table.
• A Router can send the packets for the destination along the route defined by the
administrator.
• In this technique, routing decisions are not made based on the condition or topology of the
networks

Advantages Of Static Routing

Following are the advantages of Static Routing:

• No Overhead: It has ho overhead on the CPU usage of the router. Therefore, the cheaper
router can be used to obtain static routing.
• Bandwidth: It has not bandwidth usage between the routers.
• Security: It provides security as the system administrator is allowed only to have control
over the routing to a particular network.

Disadvantages of Static Routing:

Following are the disadvantages of Static Routing:

• For a large network, it becomes a very difficult task to add each route manually to the
routing table.
 • The system administrator should have a good knowledge of a topology as he has to add each
route manually.

Default Routing

• Default Routing is a technique in which a router is configured to send all the packets to the
same hop device, and it doesn't matter whether it belongs to a particular network or not. A
Packet is transmitted to the device for which it is configured in default routing.
• Default Routing is used when networks deal with the single exit point.
• It is also useful when the bulk of transmission networks have to transmit the data to the
same hp device.
• When a specific route is mentioned in the routing table, the router will choose the specific
route rather than the default route. The default route is chosen only when a specific route is
not mentioned in the routing table.

Dynamic Routing

• It is also known as Adaptive Routing.

• It is a technique in which a router adds a new route in the routing table for each packet in
response to the changes in the condition or topology of the network.
• Dynamic protocols are used to discover the new routes to reach the destination.
• In Dynamic Routing, RIP and OSPF are the protocols used to discover the new routes.
• If any route goes down, then the automatic adjustment will be made to reach the
destination.

The Dynamic protocol should have the following features:

• All the routers must have the same dynamic routing protocol in order to exchange the
routes.
• If the router discovers any change in the condition or topology, then router broadcast this
information to all other routers.

Advantages of Dynamic Routing:

• It is easier to configure.
• It is more effective in selecting the best route in response to the changes in the condition or
topology.

Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing:

• It is more expensive in terms of CPU and bandwidth usage.

• It is less secure as compared to default and static routing.
13.Explain TCP Segment Header.

Ans:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a protocol used in computer networks to establish a

reliable connection between two devices and to transfer data between them. A TCP segment
is a unit of data transmitted over a TCP connection, and it consists of a header and a data
section.

The TCP header is a fixed-size section at the beginning of the TCP segment that contains
information about the connection and the data being transferred. The TCP header has the
following fields:

1. Source Port (16 bits): This field identifies the port number of the sending device.
2. Destination Port (16 bits): This field identifies the port number of the receiving
device.
3. Sequence Number (32 bits): This field contains the sequence number of the first byte
of data in the segment.
4. Acknowledgment Number (32 bits): This field contains the sequence number of the
next byte of data that the receiving device expects to receive.
5. Data Offset (4 bits): This field specifies the length of the TCP header in 32-bit words.
6. Reserved (6 bits): These bits are reserved for future use.
7. Flags (6 bits): This field contains six flags that indicate various control information
about the segment, such as whether it contains urgent data, whether it is the last
segment in a sequence, and whether it is an acknowledgment of previously received
data.
8. Window Size (16 bits): This field specifies the size of the receiving device's buffer, in
bytes, that is available for receiving data.
9. Checksum (16 bits): This field contains a checksum value that is used to detect errors
in the segment during transmission.
10. Urgent Pointer (16 bits): This field is used to indicate the location of urgent data in the
segment.
11. Options (variable length): This field is used to provide additional information about
the connection and the data being transferred.

The TCP segment header is an essential part of the TCP protocol, as it provides the necessary
information for establishing and maintaining a reliable connection between two devices and
for ensuring the integrity and accuracy of the data being transferred.

14.Features of UDP.

Ans:

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is simplest Transport Layer communication protocol
available of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It involves minimum amount of communication
mechanism. UDP is said to be an unreliable transport protocol but it uses IP services which
provides best effort delivery mechanism.
In UDP, the receiver does not generate an acknowledgement of packet received and in turn,
the sender does not wait for any acknowledgement of packet sent. This shortcoming makes
this protocol unreliable as well as easier on processing.

Requirement of UDP

A question may arise, why do we need an unreliable protocol to transport the data? We
deploy UDP where the acknowledgement packets share significant amount of bandwidth
along with the actual data. For example, in case of video streaming, thousands of packets are
forwarded towards its users. Acknowledging all the packets is troublesome and may contain
huge amount of bandwidth wastage. The best delivery mechanism of underlying IP protocol
ensures best efforts to deliver its packets, but even if some packets in video streaming get
lost, the impact is not calamitous and can be ignored easily. Loss of few packets in video and
voice traffic sometimes goes unnoticed.

Features

• UDP is used when acknowledgement of data does not hold any significance.
• UDP is good protocol for data flowing in one direction.
• UDP is simple and suitable for query based communications.
• UDP is not connection oriented.
• UDP does not provide congestion control mechanism.
• UDP does not guarantee ordered delivery of data.
• UDP is stateless.
• UDP is suitable protocol for streaming applications such as VoIP, multimedia
streaming.

15.Define Bit Rate And Bit Interval.

Ans:

Bit rate refers to the number of bits transmitted over a communication channel per unit of
time, usually measured in bits per second (bps). It represents the speed at which data is
transmitted from one point to another in a communication system.

Bit interval, on the other hand, refers to the time duration of one bit. It is the time it takes for
one bit to be transmitted from the sender to the receiver. It is calculated as the inverse of the
bit rate, that is, the duration of one bit interval is equal to one divided by the bit rate.

In communication networks, bit rate and bit interval are important parameters that affect the
overall performance of the system. Higher bit rates mean more data can be transmitted per
unit of time, but also require more bandwidth and may introduce more errors. Longer bit
intervals mean more time is required to transmit data, which may increase latency and reduce
the overall throughput of the system.
16.Data Communications Attenuation.

Ans:

Attenuation is a measure of the reduction in power or intensity of a signal as it travels

through a medium, such as a computer network. In data communications, attenuation can
cause a loss of data or a reduction in the quality of the signal being transmitted.

Attenuation can occur due to various factors, including the length of the transmission
medium, the quality of the medium, and the frequency of the signal. In general, the longer the
transmission medium, the greater the attenuation. This is because the signal loses energy as it
travels through the medium.

The quality of the medium can also affect attenuation. For example, a medium with a lot of
interference or noise can cause greater attenuation than a cleaner medium. The frequency of
the signal can also affect attenuation, with higher frequencies experiencing greater
attenuation than lower frequencies.

To overcome attenuation in computer networks, various techniques can be used. These

include using repeaters to amplify the signal, using better quality transmission media, and
reducing the distance that the signal needs to travel. Additionally, error correction techniques
can be used to detect and correct errors in the transmitted data, which can help to mitigate the
effects of attenuation.

17.Write a Note on ARP.

Ans:

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a network-specific standard protocol. The Address

Resolution Protocol is important for changing the higher-level protocol address (IP
addresses) to physical network addresses. It is described in RFC 826.
ARP relates an IP address with the physical address. On a typical physical network such as
LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical address, usually printed on the network
interface card (NIC). A physical address can be changed easily when NIC on a particular
machine fails.

The IP Address cannot be changed. ARP can find the physical address of the node when its
internet address is known. ARP provides a dynamic mapping from an IP address to the
corresponding hardware address.

When one host wants to communicate with another host on the network, it needs to resolve
the IP address of each host to the host's hardware address.

This process is as follows−

• When a host tries to interact with another host, an ARP request is initiated. If the IP
address is for the local network, the source host checks its ARP cache to find out the
hardware address of the destination computer.
• If the correspondence hardware address is not found, ARP broadcasts the request to
all the local hosts.
• All hosts receive the broadcast and check their own IP address. If no match is
discovered, the request is ignored.
• The destination host that finds the matching IP address sends an ARP reply to the
source host along with its hardware address, thus establishing the communication.
The ARP cache is then updated with the hardware address of the destination host

18.Wired Media or Guided Media.

Ans:

In computer networks, wired media and guided media are two types of transmission media
that are used to transmit data over a communication channel.

Wired media refers to the physical cables or wires that are used to transmit data from one
device to another. This includes copper cables, such as twisted-pair cables used in Ethernet
networks, coaxial cables used in cable TV systems, and fiber-optic cables used in high-speed
networks.

Guided media, on the other hand, refers to the physical channels or pathways that guide the
transmission of data signals. This includes radio waves, microwaves, and infrared signals.
Guided media typically require a transmitter and a receiver to communicate over a specific
frequency range.

In general, wired media are more reliable and provide better quality of transmission than
guided media, especially over long distances. However, guided media are more flexible and
can transmit data wirelessly, making them ideal for mobile and remote applications.