APPENDIX | Cer MELa-Wir lst] Leyte emu as A. Scientific Notation itten in scientific notation consists ofa decimal part, a number that is usually between 1 and 10, and an ‘exponential part, 10 raised to an exponent, Anumber Exponent (n) ia 4 Each of the following numbers is written in both scien- tific and decimal notation: Decimal part Exponential part. 6700 0.0067 [A positive exponent (n) means 1 multiplied by 10 times 10°=1 tol = 1x10 10? = 1x 10x 10 = 100 108 = 1x 10x 10 x 10 1000 ‘A negative exponent (~n) means 1 divided by 10 1 times: yi tot enor ‘To convert a number to scientific notation, we move the decimal point to obtain a number between 1 and 10 and then, ‘nultiply by 10 raised to the appropriate power. For example, to waite 5983 in scientific notation, we move the decimal point to the let three places to get 5.983 (a number between and 10) and then multiply by 1000 to make up for moving, the decimal point: 5983 = 5.983 x 1000 Since 1000 is 102, we write: 5983 = 5.983 x 10° ‘We can do this in one step by counting how many places we ‘move the decimal point to obtain a number between 1 and 10 and then writing the decimal part multiplied by 10 raised to the number of places we moved the decimal point: 9983 5.983 x 10° If the decimal point is moved to the left, as in the previous ‘example, the exponent is positive. f the decimal is moved to the right, the exponent is negative: 0.00034 = 3.4 x 10% 0003" To express a number in scientific notation’ 1. Move the decimal point to obtain a number between, Vand 10, 2. White the result from step 1 multiplied by 10 raised to ‘the number of places you moved the decimal point. + The exponent is postive ifyou moved the decimal point tothe left + The exponent is negative ifyou moved the decimal point tothe right. Consider the following additional examples: 290,809,000 = 2.90809 x 10° .000000000070m = 7.0 x 10° m Multiplication and Division To multiply numbers expressed in. scientific notation, ‘multiply the decimal parts and add the exponents: (A x 10"(B x 10") = (A xB) x 10" ‘Todivide numbers expressed in scientific notation, divide the decimal parts and subtract the exponent in the denominator from the exponent in the numerator: wx109._ (4 pai ~ (3) 1 Consider the following example involving multiplication: {B.S x 104(1.8 x 10% = (3.5 x 1.8) x 10**6 63x10” Consider the following example involving division: (56 x 107) _ (5.6) gy (4 x 10) 4) 0 = 40x 108 AtA-2_ APPENDIX Common Mathematics] Op Addition and Subtraction ‘To add or subtract numbers expressed in scientific notation, rewrite all the numbers so that they have the same exponent, ‘then add or subtract the decimal parts of the numbers. The ‘exponents remained unchanged: Ax 10" Bx 10" Hee Notice that the numbers must have the same exponent, Consider the following example involving addition: 4.82 x 107 +34 x Lot First, express both numbers withthe same exponent. In this case You rewrite the lower number and perform the addition as follows 4.82 x 10? 1034 x 107 5.16 x 10? Consider the following example involving subtraction: 7.33 x 10° 9 x 10% First, express both numbers with the same exponent. In this ‘ease, you rewrite the lower number and perform the subtrac- tion as follows: 7.33 x 10 0.19 x 108 74 x 10° Powers and Roots ‘To raise a number writen in scientific notation toa povre, raise the decimal part to the power and multiply the expo- nent by the power (4.0 x 108)? = 4.07 x 10%*? 16 x 10 = 16x 108 To ake the nth root ofa number written in scientific no- tation, take the nth root ofthe decimal pact and divide the exponent bythe rot {4.0 10613 = 4.01 x 106 1.6 x 10 B. Logarithms Common (or Base 10) Logarithms ‘The common or base 10 logarithm (abbreviated log) of a num- ber is the exponent to which 10 must be raised to obtain that number For example, the logarithm of 1004s 2 because 10 must beraised tothe second powerto get 100, Similarly thelogarithm ‘of 1000 is 3 because 10 must be raised to the thitd power to get 1000, The logarithms of several multiples of 10 are shown here: Jog 10 = 1 log 10 2 Jog 1000 = 3 log 10,000 = Because 10° = 1 by definition, log 1 = 0. ‘The logarithm of a number smaller than one is nega tive because 10 must be raised toa negative exponent to gota number smaller than one, For example, the logarithm of 0.01 4s ~2 because 10 must be raised to ~2 to get 0.01, Similarly, the logarithm of 0.001 is ~3 because 10 must be raised to -3 to get 0.001, The logarithms of several fractional numbers ate shown below: logo. =~ log0.01 = -2 og0.001 = -3, log0.0001 = -4 ‘The logarithms of numbers that are not multiples of 10 can be computed on your calculator. See your calculator manual for specific instructions, Inverse Logarithms The inverse logarithm or invlog function is exactly the oppo- site of the logarithm function, For example, the logarithm of 100 is 2 and the inverse logarithm of 2 is 100, The logarithm. function and the invlog function undo one another log 100 = 2 invlog2 = 100 invlog(log 100) = 100 The inverse logarithm of anumberis 10 rasied to that number: 0" invlogx invlog3 = 10° = 1000 The inverse logarithms of numbers can be computed on your calculator. See your calculator manual for specificinstructions. Natural (or Base e) Logarithms The natural (or base ) logarithm (abbreviated In) of a numbers theexponent to which e (which has the value of 2.71828...) must, be raised to obtain that number. For example, the In of 100 is 4,605 because e must be raised to 4.605 to get 100. Similazly, the Inf 10.01s 2.303 because emust be raised to 2.308 to get 10.0, ‘The inverse natural logarithm or invin function is exact ly the opposite of the In function. For example, the naturallogarithm of 100 is 4.605 and the inverse natural logarithm of 4.605 is 100, The inverse natural logarithm of a number is, simply erased to that number: invin x = invin3 20.1 ‘The invin of a number can be computed on your calculator. See your calculator manual for specific instructions, Mathematical Operations Using Logarithms Because logarithms are exponents, mathematical operations involving logarithms are similar to those involving expo- nents as follows: log(a Xb) = loga + logh Ina x) = Ina + Inb log =loge—logh n= na ~ ind loga" = nloga Ing" = nina C. Quadratic Equations [A quadratic equation contains at least one term in which, ‘the variable x is raised to the second power (and no terms in ‘which x is raised to a higher power). A quadratic equation has the following general form: axt + bet e=0 ‘A quadratic equat fonmula: 1m can be solved for x using the quadratic + VP tae 2a ‘Quadratic equations are often encountered when solving equilibrium problems, Here we show how to use the quadratic formula to solve a quadratic equation for x Bx? = Sx 1 = 0 (quadratic equation) mbt Vi aac 2a 4(3)(0) x= 143 oF x 0.233 [As you can see, the solution to a quadratic equation usually hhas two values. In any real chemical system, one of the val- tues can be eliminated because it has no physical significance. Gor example, it may correspond to a negative concentration, which does not exist) D. Graphs Graphs are often used to visually show the relationship between two variables. For example, in Chapter 5 we show APPENDIX! Common Mathamstical Operations in Chemisty AB the following relationship between the volume of a gas and its pressure: 500 4004 2 3004 200 1004 0 160 320 480 640800 950 1120, Pressure (rmmHg) ‘A Volume versus Pressure. A plot ofthe volume af a ge sample-—se messured in 2 J-tube—versus pressure, The plot shows that volume and prossute are inversly related, ‘The horizontal axis is the x-axis and is normally used to show the independent variable, The vertical axis is the y-axis, and is normally used to show how the other variable (called the dependent variable) varies with a change in the indepen- dent variable. In this case, the graph shows that as the pres- sure of a gas sample increases, its volume decreases Many relationships in chemistry are linear, which means that if you change one variable by a factor of the other vari- able will aso change by a factor of n. For example, the volume of a gasis linearly related to the number of moles of gas, When ‘two quantities are linearly related, a graph of one versus the other produces a straight line. For example, the graph below shows how the volume of an ideal gas sample depends on the number of moles of gas in the sample: O02 04 06 08 10 12 14 Number of moles (n) ‘A Volume versus Number of Moles. The volume of «gas sample increase neatly withthe number of moles of gas in the same. [A linear relationship between any two variables x and y can be expressed by the following equation: me +bAA APPENDIX Common Mathemsticsl Op jon in Chemisty ‘where mr is the slope of the line and bis the y-intercept, The slope is the change in y divided by the change in x: ay m= For the graph above, we can estimate the slope by simply ‘estimating the changes in y and x fora given interval. For ex- ample, between x = 0.4moland 1.2 mol, Ax = 0.80 moland ‘we can estimate that Ay = 18 L, Therefore the slopels: Ay 38 ax” 030mol 23 mol/L. In several places in this book, logarithmic relationships between variables can be plotted in order to obtain a linear relationship. For example, the variables [A], and fin the following equation are not linearly related, but the natural logarithm of [A]; and fare linearly related: In[Al, = ~Kt + InAlp yom +b A plot of InfA), versus f will therefore produce a straight line with slope = ~kand intercept = In{Alo