First Semester, A.Y.

2023 - 2024

STAT 20063

ELEMENTARY STATISTICS
Ian J. Saguindan
ijsaguindan@pup.edu.ph

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 Chapter 2

Data Collection and Presentation

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Outline of Topics

Data Collection

Data Presentation

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Objectives

1. State and differentiate various data sources and types of extracted

data,
2. Differentiate various methods of data collection,
3. Differentiate various sampling techniques,
4. Exhibit sampling size considerations; and
5. Exhibit processed data using textual, tabular and graphical
presentation.

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Primary and Secondary Data

Data can be classified according to source: primary or secondary sources.

Primary and Secondary Data

1. A data source is said to be primary if the data gathered is directly

produced by the source. Hence, these data are called primary data.
2. A data source is said to be secondary if it is not primary. Thus, these data
are called secondary data.

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Example
1. The following are examples of primary sources:
• Individual persons
• Organized groups or organizations
• Established practices (marriage, religious rites, legal system, etc)
• Documents in their original forms (laws, orders, contracts, letters, diaries, etc)
• Living organisms
• Man-made material things (buildings, machines, artifacts, etc)
• Natural objects and phenomena

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2. The following are examples of secondary sources:

• Books including dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanacs, etc
• Articles published in professional journals, magazines, newspapers and other
publications
• Unpublished master’s theses and dissertations and other studies
• Monographs, manuscripts etc
• Broadcasting agencies

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Advantages of Using Primary Data Advantages of Using Secondary Data

1. These give detailed definitions of 1. These are already condensed and

terms and statistical units used in the organized.
study. 2. These allow easy analysis and
2. These include detailed copy of interpretation.
schedule and description of the 3. These are more accessible.
procedure used.
3. These are broken down into finer
classification.

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Categories of Extracted Data

Respondents/participants are those individuals that supply data or information to

the researchers. The following are the most common categories of data that can be
extracted from the respondents/participants.
1. Facts
2. Attitudes and Feelings
3. Judgment
4. Psychomotor Skills
5. Results of Tests and Experiments

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Example
• birth information (age, sex, place of
birth, date of birth, etc.)
• physical descriptors (height, weight,
Facts
color of hair, etc.)
Facts are recollections, ob- • family background (parents, siblings,
servations and perceptions spouse, children, etc.)
of respondents about them- • civil information (residence, nationality,
selves and of other people. religion, etc.)
• education (schools attended, degrees
finished, etc.)
• professional background (skills,
employment, affiliation, etc.).
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Attitudes and feelings

Example The following are the most
Attitudes and feelings are common Likert scales.
the respondents’ ideas and • level of agreement (strongly disagree,
feelings about the research disagree, agree, strongly agree)
topic, and his personal feel- • level of frequency (never, rare,
ings about the worth of sometimes, often, always)
the item being investigated.
• level of satisfaction (very dissatisfied,
Likert scales are usually used
dissatisfied, satisfied, very satisfied)
to describe these.

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Judgments
Example Judgments are observed
Judgments are the respon- necessary in the following.
dents’ ideas or opinion or
his actual behavior in a • competitions
given situation. Judgments • evaluation of a project or a program
are naturally based on stan- • individual performance
dards.

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Example Psychomotor skills are observed

Psychomotor skills
in the following.
Psychomotor skills refer to • handling of an equipment or machine
the manipulative skills of the • someone’s reaction to a conditioned
individual and his activities stimulus
that involve his five senses.
• individual performance

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Example Results of tests and

experiments are extracted in the
following.
Results of tests and experiments
• students’ achievement tests
Results of tests and experiments are • a individual’s intelligence test
objective evaluations derived from a
• pre-employment drug testing
controlled environment.
• creation of a vaccine
• modification of a known
treatment

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Data Collection Methods

The following are the most common data collection methods researchers used.
1. Direct or Interview method
2. Indirect or Questionnaire method
3. Observation method
4. Testing method
5. Registration method
6. Experimentation method
7. Library method

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Some Advantages
• more complete and valid information
Direct or Interview method • suitable for all kinds of people
The Direct or Interview • nonverbal reactions can be noted
method is a purposeful face Some Disadvantages
to face relationship between • may have inaccurate responses
two entities: the interviewer • time consuming for a small number
and the interviewee. of respondents
• may be expensive to travel far
destinations

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Indirect or Questionnaire Some Advantages

method • easy tabulation of responses
The Indirect or Question- • confidential information may be given
naire method is the method due to anonymity of respondents
that uses a set of questions • easy distribution
which when answered prop-
Some Disadvantages
erly by a required number
of properly selected items, • inaccessible to illiterate people
will supply the necessary in- • retrieval of questionnaires may be
formation to complete a re- compromised
search study. • items may be left unanswered

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Some Advantages
• easy gathering of direct information
Observation method
• highly suitable for nonverbal behavior
The Observation method is • natural behavior of the respondents
the way of perceiving data Some Disadvantages
through the use of any of the
• lack of control on some extraneous
five senses: sight, hearing,
variables
taste, touch and smell.
• generalization is limited
• difficulty to quantify data

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Some Advantages
Testing method • generally valid and reliable
• test scores are provided with norms
The Testing method is a
method that uses a specific • provides comprehensive coverage of
type of measuring instru- competencies
ment whose general charac- Some Disadvantages
teristic is that, it forces re- • difficulty to construct
sponses to be indicators of • limitation to measure subjective
skills, knowledge, attitudes, information
etc.
• scarcity of number of tests on various
constructs
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Some Advantages
• complete and accurate information
Registration method • governed by authorized personnel
The Registration method is • protected by legal policies
the process of listing down Some Disadvantages
items of the same kind in • requires to disclose relevant
some systematic manner for information
record purposes. • requires various identification
documents
• limited number of registration offices

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Some Advantages
• valid, reliable and accurate results
Experimentation method • well-trained personnel
The Experiments are • objectivity over subjectivity
scientific-based activities Some Disadvantages
that aim to establish • expensive to acquire necessary
cause-effect relationship. materials and equipment
• may be time consuming
• may call for repetition of set-ups

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Some Advantages
Library method • condensed and organized information
• easy analysis and interpretation
The Library method is one
that utilizes all existing doc- • more accessible to public offices
uments coming from li- Some Disadvantages
braries and agencies con- • old data may be invalid and unreliable
cerned in the study. • some are not for public dissemination
• may be scarce in selected offices

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Sample Size Consideration

Sampling Error and Margin of Error

1. The sampling error is the difference in the survey results between sample
and population.
2. The margin of error is a common summary which quantifies possible
sampling errors.

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Example.
1. Suppose there is a population from 100 people who intend to vote. One sample
reports 55 of these people will vote for Mr A; another sample reports 45 of
these people will vote for Mr. A; and a third sample reports that 30 of these
people will vote for Mr. A. With respective proportions 55%, 45% and 30% in
the given samples, the sampling error is the proportion of the voters
corresponding to the average of the differences of each proportion from the
average proportion.

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2. Suppose in a sample of 100 people who intend to vote, 55 said that they will
vote for Mr A while 45 said that they will vote for Mr B.
Say that the margin of error is determined to be 10%. Hence, 55 out of 100 is
55%. So, 55% - 10% = 45% and 55% + 10% = 65%. This implies that in the
population, the support for Mr A could range from 45% to 65%.

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On deciding for the sample size, kindly refer to the following procedure.

1. If either you have knowledge of the actual population size or there is a way to
find the actual population size, you have to utilize a proper formula.
a. If the population mean is estimated, the Minimum Sample Size Formula for
Estimating the Population Mean should be used. (OR)
b. If population proportion is to be estimated, use Cochran’s Formula. The
computed sample size can be lessened by using the Finite Population Correction
for Proportions. (OR)
c. If the population proportion is estimated, use Slovin’s Formula.

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2. If you do not wish to use any sampling formula, then either:

a. You have to look for the most recent study that is highly similar with your topic,
and be able to cite it as your basis for deciding this sample size. (OR)
b. You have to look for the most recent academic reference that states a standard
for the minimum sample size on researches that are highly similar to your topic.

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Minimum Sample Size Formula for Estimating a Population Mean

This formula is given by

z 2α σ 2
2
n= ,
e2
where
α = level of significance,
z α2 = z-score corresponding to half of α
e = margin of error, and
n = sample size.

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Example 14

1. Suppose we want to determine the

Solution:
average academic performance of the
current Grade 12 students of PUP. e=
From the report of the previous school σ=
year, the standard deviation of the
academic performance of the former α=
batch is 1.5. If we want to obtain a z α2 =
sample size with 95% confidence in the
2
z α2 σ 2
results, how many students should be n=
included in the sample if the margin of e2
error is 0.10?

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2. A quality control specialist uses
5-point-system to grade their products Solution:
via random selection. It was revealed
that from the previous month’s e=
production, the standard deviation is σ=
0.75 points. If the quality control α=
specialist will be conducting random z α2 =
checking for the current month and
2
wishes to have a 98%-confidence and z α2 σ 2
n=
5%-precision, how many products e2
should he include in the random
selection?

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Cochran’s Formula

The Cochran’s Formula is given by

z 2α p(1 − p)
2
n= ,
e2
where
α = level of significance,
z α2 = z-score corresponding to half of α
p = population proportion,
e = margin of error, and
n = sample size.
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Example 15

1. Suppose we want to determine the Solution:

number of Grade 12 students of PUP e=
who has at least very satisfactory p=
academic performance. From the α=
report of the previous school year, 82%
of the entire batch were determined to z α2 =

2
have at least very satisfactory academic z α2 p(1 − p)
performance. If we want to obtain a n≈
e2
sample size with 96% confidence in the
results, how many students should be
included in the sample if the margin of
error is 10%?

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Solution:
2. A quality control specialist uses e=
5-point-system to grade their new p=
products via random selection. It will α=
be released in the market for the very
first time. If the quality control z α2 =

2
specialist will be conducting random z α2 p(1 − p)
checking and wishes to have a n≈
e2
97%-confidence and 6%-precision, how
many products should he include in the
random selection?

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Finite Population Correction for Proportions

Let n0 be the sample size determined by the Cochran’s Formula and N be the
population size. Then the sample size n is given by the closest higher integer
n0
than , i.e,
n0 − 1
1+
N
n0
n≈ .
n0 − 1
1+
N

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Example 16
Refer to the previous examples.

1. Assume that PUP has 3000 Grade 2. Assume that the 5000 units are
12 students. targeted to produce.

N= N=
n0 = n0 =
n0 n0
n≈ n≈
n0 − 1 n0 − 1
1+ 1+
N N

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Slovin’s Formula

Let N be the population size and e be the margin of error fixed at 5%. Then
N
the sample size n is given by the closest higher integer than , i.e,
1 + Ne 2
N
n≈ .
1 + Ne 2

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Data Presentation

Example 17
1. 2.
N = 350 N = 500
e = 0.05 e = 0.05
N N
n≈ n≈
1 + Ne 2 1 + Ne 2

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Sampling and Sampling Techniques

Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting samples from a population. There are

two sets of sampling techniques: Probability sampling techniques and Non-
probability sampling technique.

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Probability Sampling Techniques

Probability sampling techniques choose samples in a way that each member of

the population has a known chance, though not necessarily equal chance, of
being included in the sample.

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Example. Suppose, the desired sample size is
385 to be selected from a population of 2000.
With a list of ALL potential participants,
Simple Random Sampling numbered from 1 to 2000, any of these can be
done.
Simple Random Sampling
requires samples to be cho- 1. Prepare small pieces or strips of paper.
Each piece or strip may contain the name
sen at random with mem- of a participant from the list OR the
bers of the population hav- number corresponding to the name of the
ing a known or sometimes participant in the list. Apply lottery to draw
equal probability of being in- 385 participants.
cluded in the sample. 2. Generate random numbers using
calculators, computers or the table of
random numbers. Make it sure to come up
with 385 random numbers within 1 to 2000.
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Example. Suppose, the desired sample size is 385 to be selected from
a population of 2000. With a list of ALL potential participants,
numbered from 1 to 2000, follow these steps.
population size
Systematic Random Sampling 1. Determine the period k, given by k = . Thus,
sample size
2000
Systematic Random Sampling re- k= ≈ 5.19. Taking the next integer, this means that
385
quires that samples are randomly every 6th member in the list will be selected.
chosen by selecting the so called 2. Decide for a random start number, say 22. This makes the
’every kth member of the popu- individual numbered 22 in the list will be the first one to be
N included in the sample.
lation’, where k = , N is the
n 3. Taking the 6th individual from 22, the individual numbered 28
population size and n is the sam- in the list will be the second one to be included in the sample.
ple size. This will continue until you reach the number nearest to 2000,
or 2000 itself.
4. Decide for a new random start number, and apply the period k.
5. Continue this process until you reach 385 individuals in the list.

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To conduct stratified random sampling, follow these steps.

1. Decide on an allocation scheme per section.

Stratified Random Sampling 1.1 The proportional allocation allows to maintain the size
of a stratum from the population inside the sample. The
sample stratum size can be computed as
Stratified Random Sampling population stratum size
× sample size,
requires that samples are population size
taken to the next integer.
chosen from all nonoverlap- 1.2 The equal allocation restricts that every stratum in the
ping subgroups of the pop- sample should have the same sizes. Thus, the sample
stratum size can be computed as
ulation. Each subgroup is sample size
called a stratum. ,
number of strata
taken to the next integer.
2. Apply simple random sampling or systematic random sampling
in each stratum.

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Example. Suppose, a survey will be conducted to ALL students of PUP - Open University - Bachelor of Science in
Business Administration program. Assume that the desired sample size is around 220 to be selected from a
population of 500 students. With a list of ALL potential participants, numbered properly in their respective sections,
the following table summarize the expected computations.

Section Number of Students Proportional Allocation Equal Allocation

(Population Stratum Size)
60 220
1-1 60 × 220 = 26.4 ≈ 27 = 22
500 10
56 220
1-2 56 × 220 = 24.64 ≈ 25 = 22
500 10
1-3 58 26 22
2-1 52 23 22
2-2 52 23 22
2-3 50 22 22
3-1 47 21 22
3-2 45 20 22
4-1 41 19 22
4-2 39 18 22
Total 500 224 220

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Data Presentation

Example. Suppose, a survey will be conducted to the students of

Cluster Random Sampling PUP - Open University - Bachelor of Science in Business
Administration program. Assume that the desired sample size is
around 220 to be selected from a population of 500 students.
Cluster Random Sampling
requires that samples are For practicality concerns, you may consider reaching the 10 sections
chosen from a pre-selected difficult on your end. Thus, you may decide on the number of sections
that will participate in your study. In this case, the sections will be
set of nonoverlapping sub- called clusters.
groups of the population.
Each subgroup is called a For instance, you decide that only 7 sections will participate in the
study. Select the 7 sections randomly. You may consider proportional
cluster. allocation or equal allocation to determine the number of participants
to complete the sample size 220.

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Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

Non-probability sampling techniques choose samples in a way that each member

of the population does not have a known chance of being included in the sample.

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Convenience Sampling

Convenience Sampling lets the researcher to pick anyone he pleases to include

in the sample based on his/her convenience.

Example.
Researchers may consider gathering data from their peers, friends and family
members.

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Accidental Sampling

Accidental Sampling allows the researcher to pick anyone that happens to be

available by chance in his/her setting.

Example.
Some undergraduate students conduct room-to-room visits and administer their
survey to whoever is present that time.

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Quota Sampling

Quota Sampling sets that the researcher has to comply for a specific number of
respondents only, regardless of their individuality.

Example.
A group of five market surveyors have a target to reach 100 participants for the day.
They have decided that each of them will be reaching 20 participants for the day.

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Purposive Sampling

Purposive Sampling set that the respondents are chosen on the basis of pre-
determined criteria set by the researchers.

Example.
Suppose the research is about the perceptions of teenage mothers. Hence, they
can’t invite any female teenager who haven’t been pregnant or a woman that was
pregnant aged 20 and above. It is a strong requirement that participants should be a
female that got pregnant within ages 13 to 19.

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Snowball Sampling

Snowball Sampling initially sets that the researcher choose a primary set of
participants based on initial criteria, and completion of the sample size relies on
the referrals given either by the primary set of participants or by those who are
also referred.

Example.
A researcher may initially look for potential participants for his/her study. Then,
he/she will be asking the participants if they can refer more potential participants.
Eventually, he/she will have new sets of participants that were referred to by his/her
former participants.
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Data Presentation

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Textual Presentation

Processed data and results are presented via discussions in paragraphs.

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The following are some of the most common contents in the textual presentation:
1. all figures for all categories
2. all figures for the top 3 or 5 categories
3. all figures for the topmost and bottommost categories

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Tabular Presentation

Processed data are arranged using rectangular grids.

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The following are the essential parts of a table:

1. Table Number
2. Table Title
3. Column Headers
4. Row Classifiers
5. Legend, if possible
6. Source, if possible

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The following are the most common table structures:

1. One-Way table presents frequencies for exactly one variable.

2. Two-Way table presents frequencies for exactly two variable.

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Example 27
A One-Way Table

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Example 27
A Two-Way Table

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Graphical Presentation

Processed data are exhibited using charts or graphs.

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The following are the most common graphs:

For Qualitative Variables For Quantitative Variables

1. Bar Graph 1. Histogram
2. Pictograph 2. Line Graph
3. Pie Graph 3. Frequency Polygon
4. Statistical Maps 4. Statistical Maps

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 Data Presentation
Procedure in Making a Simple Bar Graph Using MS Excel

Consider the table below. 1. Open an MS Excel File.

2. In a sheet, encode the entries of the given table in
their proper cells.
3. Highlight all the cells.
4. Click Insert and choose Column. In this board, you
can select among 2-D Column, 3-D Column,
Cylinder, Cone and Pyramid. Say, select 2-D
Column.
5. In the Chart Layouts, you can choose a layout that
suits your preference. Say, select Layout 5.
6. Edit the Chart Title and/or Axis Title.
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The stated procedure yields the following output.

Colors may be changed. Data Presentation 63/77

 Data Presentation
Procedure in Making a Comparative Bar Graph Using MS Excel

1. Open an MS Excel File.

Consider the table below. 2. In a sheet, encode the entries of the given table in
their proper cells.
3. Highlight all the cells.
4. Click Insert and choose Column. In this board, you
can select among 2-D Column, 3-D Column,
Cylinder, Cone and Pyramid. Say, select 2-D
Column.
5. In the Chart Layouts, you can choose a layout that
suits your preference. Say, select Layout 7.
6. Edit the Chart Title and/or Axis Title.
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Data Presentation
The stated procedure yields the following output.

Colors may be changed.

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 Data Presentation
Procedure in Making a Pie Graph Using MS Excel

Consider the table below.

1. Open an MS Excel File.
2. In a sheet, encode the entries of the given table in
their proper cells.
3. Highlight all the cells.
4. Click Insert and choose Pie. In this board, you can
select between 2-D Pie and 3-D Pie. Say, select
3-D Pie.
5. In the Chart Layouts, you can choose a layout that
suits your preference. Say, select Layout 1.
6. Edit the Chart Title.
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Data Presentation
The stated procedure yields the following output.

Colors may be changed.

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 Data Presentation
Procedure in Making a Simple Line Graph Using MS Excel

1. Open an MS Excel File.

Consider the table below.
2. In a sheet, encode the entries of the given table in
their proper cells.
3. Highlight all the cells.
4. Click Insert and choose Line. In this board, you can
select between 2-D Line and 3-D Line. Say, select
2-D Line.
5. In the Chart Layouts, you can choose a layout that
suits your preference. Say, select Layout 1.
6. Edit the Chart Title and/or Axis Title.
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Data Presentation
The stated procedure yields the following output.

However, this is somehow wrong since it contains an extra line (the one that represents Years).
Moreover, we will replace the horizontal coordinates (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) by the indicated years (2016,
2017, 2018, 2019, 2020). We will include more steps to fix this. Data Presentation 69/77
Data Presentation

7. In the graph, click the line that represents the periods. Make it sure that it is
the only component of the graph that the mouse pointer holds.
8. Hit Delete or Backspace on the keyboard. You should be able to delete this
extra line.
9. Click Select Data from the top menu, along with the Chart Layout. A box
with title Select Data Source emerges.
10. Click Edit. A box with title Axis Labels emerges.
11. Highlight only the cells that contains the entries of the Years column.
12. Click OK.

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Data Presentation
With the additional steps, the entire procedure yields the following output.

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 Data Presentation
Procedure in Making a Comparative Line Graph Using MS Excel

Consider the table below. 1. Open an MS Excel File.

2. In a sheet, encode the entries of the given table in
their proper cells.
3. Highlight all the cells.
4. Click Insert and choose Line. In this board, you can
select between 2-D Line and 3-D Line. Say, select
2-D Line.
5. In the Chart Layouts, you can choose a layout that
suits your preference. Say, select Layout 1.
6. Edit the Chart Title and/or Axis Title.
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Data Presentation
The stated procedure yields the following output.

However, this is somehow wrong since it contains an extra line (the one that represents Years).
Moreover, we will replace the horizontal coordinates (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) by the indicated years (2016,
2017, 2018, 2019, 2020). We will include more steps to fix this. Data Presentation 73/77
Data Presentation

7. In the graph, click the line that represents Years. Make it sure that it is the
only component of the graph that the mouse pointer holds.
8. Hit Delete or Backspace on the keyboard. You should be able to delete this
extra line.
9. Click Select Data from the top menu, along with the Chart Layout. A box
with title Select Data Source emerges.
10. Click Edit. A box with title Axis Labels emerges.
11. Highlight only the cells that contains the entries of the Years column.
12. Click OK.

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Data Presentation
With the additional steps, the entire procedure yields the following output.

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The End
Thanks for your attention!

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References

1. Blay, B.E. (2007). Elementary Statistics. ANVIL Publishing, Inc: Mandaluyong City
2. Gravetter, F.J. & Wallnau, L.B. (2017). Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. Cengage
Learning: Massachusetts
3. Howitt, D & Cramer, D. (2000). First Steps in Research and Statistics. Routledge: London
4. Stephens, L.J. (2009). Schaums’ Outline: Statistics in Psychology. McGraw Hill

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