Burn Hall Hr. Sec.

School
Gupkar Road, Sonwar, Srinagar, Jammu& Kashmir - 190 001
www.burnhallschool.ac.in
TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
ENGLISH
THE SERMON AT BENARES

The chapter is a sermon and is reflection of Buddha‘s teachings. Sermon is a religious talk delivered by a
saint or a person who has authority over religious matters. In the introduction of the chapter we read about
the journey of Prince Siddhartha Gautama. He had a wife and a son. The Prince, who was shielded from
the sufferings of the world, while hunting chanced upon a sick man, an aged man, then a funeral
procession and finally a monk begging for alms. The prince was deeply struck by a profound question:
how can the sufferings of the world end. He became a wandering ascetic. After seven years finally he sat
under a fig tree, meditating until he got enlightenment. He renamed the tree –the Bo tree(the tree of
wisdom) and began to teach his new understandings. He now became the Buddha-the awakened or
enlightened. He delivered his first sermon at Benares,the most holyof the dipping places on the Ganges.
This sermon reflects Buddha‘s wisdom about one inscrutable kind of suffering.

Kisa Gotami had an only son and he died. She moved from door to door asking for the medicine that could
bring her son back to life. At last she came to Buddha to bring her son to life. Buddha asked her to get
handful of mustard seeds from a house where no one had lost a child, husband, parent or friend. She went
from house to house but was unable to find one where nobody had died. She was tired and hopeless and sat
down at the wayside watching the lights of the city as they flickered up for some time and extinguished.
This way she was taught that death is common to all. The Buddha said that the life of mortals in this world
is troubled, brief and combined with pain. Those that have been born can by no means avoid dying. This is
the nature of all living beings. As all earthen vessels made by the potter end in being broken so is the life
of mortals.

He thinks that he who seeks peace should draw out the arrow of lamentation, complaint and grief. He who
has drawn out the arrow will obtain peace of mind. He who has overcome all sorrows will become free
from sorrows and be blessed.

THINKING ABOUT THE TEXT

Ans2. When Kisa Gotami‘s son died, in her grief she went from house to house asking for the medicine
that could cure her son.
No, she did not get it because her son was dead and no medicine would bring him back to life.
Ans3. When she met the Buddha, he asked her to get a handful of mustard seeds from a house where no
one had lost a child, husband, parent or a friend. She went from house to house, but could not get the
mustard seeds because there was not a single house where no one had died in the family.
Ans4. Kisa Gotami understood the second time that death is common to all and that she was being selfish
in her grief. There was no house where some beloved had not died.
Yes, this was what Buddha wanted her to understand that no one can escape death.
Ans5. Kisa Gotami understood that death is common to all and that she was being selfish in her grief. She
understood this only the second time because it was then that she found there was not a single house where
some beloved had not died.
First time she was only thinking about her grief and therefore asking for a medicine. When she met
Buddha, he gave her a task of procuring seeds from a house where no one had died, he did this purposely
to make her realize that death is inevitable. She felt dejected when she couldn‘t get seeds, as she sat on the

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
wayside she realized that she was being selfish in her grief. Death is common to all—this is what Buddha
wanted her to understand.
Ans.6. selfishness is being concerned excessively or exclusively, for oneself or one‘s own advantage. Such
people may achieve success but it is short lived. Man can‘t live alone so one has to be very careful, caring
in order to live amicably. It is natural to feel sad over death of a near or dear one. But at the same time
people start preparing for the last rites of the dead person. People never hope and wait for a miracle that
would reverse the situation. The family,society and friends are a great help in consoling the grieving
person. Kisa Gotami was so overpowered by her grief that she forgot about the living members of family.

GRAMMAR
RELATIVE CLAUSE
A relative clause is one which acts as an adjective, in that it describes the subject or object of the sentence.
It can also be called an adjectival clause.
That is the car that won the race. (relative clause)
The relative clause can come after the main clause.
I bought the shoes that we saw in the window yesterday.
The relative clause can also be in the middle of the sentence. This is known as an embedded relative
clause.
My sister, who used to live in Surat, has moved to Mumbai.
DEFINING AND NON DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE
Non-defining relative clauses simply add more information and can be omitted from the sentence without
changing the basic meaning. We usually use a comma in this type of sentence.
Paul is a cousin of mine, who lives in England.
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE
Defining relative clauses are essential to understanding a sentence and cannot be omitted. We do not use
commas in this type of sentences.
My cousin runs the bike shop that opened last week.
RELATIVE PRONOUN
We can use a pronoun at the beginning of a relative clause, depending on the subject of the sentence.
It is sometimes clearer if we use a comma before and after a relative clause. This may be necessary when
the meaning of the sentence is ambiguous if the commas are omitted.
Relative clause (answers only)
Join the given pair of sentences by changing one of the pairs into a relative clause:
1. My brother who is living in France these days has made a mark in the field of art and literature.
2. A waitress who was very polite and patient served us.
3. Government passed a law which the public did not accept.
4. A girl who saved a baby from drowning was highly praised.
5. Tom who was lame could not walk properly.
6. I visited the school in which Sir Mohammad Iqbal had studied.
7. The fires that swept across much of North Kashmir caused widespread damage.
8. The play that was staged in the theatre wasn‘t a great success.
9. Javid whose job involves a lot of travelling is away from home a lot.
10. The manager spoke to the workers whose work was below standard.

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
PAPPACHI’S MOTH
Thinking about the text
Ans.1…..CHARACTER SKETCH OF PAPPACHI
Benan John Ipe, Pappachi got retired as joint director, Entomology. He had discovered a moth but it was
not named after him. He had always been ill- humoured and his moth was held responsible for his black
moods and sudden bouts of anger. The fact that he was a retired government officer without any fame and
his wife, still in her prime, was doinggood in her business, wounded his pride. He would beat his wife
every day with a brass vase. A once Imperial Entomologist, after retirement was now reduced to a withered
old man. This gave a jolt to his ego. He had kept a picture of himself as a young man, with his hair slicked
down. He was a jealous man and resented the attention his wife was getting. He once broke the bow of his
wife‘s violin. He would sew buttons onto his shirt to show that he was neglected by his wife. He was
extremely cautious of his image and would drive importantly down the narrow lanes of Ayemenem
wearing 3-piece suit and sweating profusely inside. Pappachi died of a heart attack. His character reflects a
typical male chauvinist of Indian society.
CHARACTER SKETCH OF MAMMACHI
Mammachi or Shoshamma Ipe was married to Pappachi who was 17 years her senior. Mammachi has
conical corneas and was practically blind. She never complained against her husband although he
physically abused her on a regular basis. She was astrong woman with a keen judgement and a good
business sense. Her pickle making business became a commercial success. Undaunted by the way her
husband ill-treated her, she did not give up the business but kept herself occupied all year round.
Mammachi was a woman with exceptional talents. She never suffered from depression for the way life had
turned out for her. After her husband‘s death, Mammachi cried she was used to his presence in her life.
Despite being brutally abused throughout her life she was sad at his death, which shows her
compassionate nature
Ans.3 Pappachi andMammachi had a gap of 17 years. They come across as typical stereotypes of anIndian
couple seen in olden days. There is no love, understanding or communication from either spouse.
Pappachi, a chauvinist thinks it his birthright to beat his wife whenever he liked. Pappachi is jealous and
frustrated by his wife‘s calm and non- complaining nature.
On the other hand Mammachi reflected the plight suffered by majority of women during those days. She
submissively and patiently bore all the pain inflicted by her husband, because she was now conditioned to
the fact, that this was her destiny. Thus, it was not strange to see her crying at her husband‘s death. In a
society, where the husband is considered to be God and is worshipped despite his shortcomings she cried
not because she loved him, but because she had become used to his presence in her life.
Ans.4 Mammachi is quite a complex character in the story. On one hand we sympathize with her as she is
oppressed and unfortunate as she is frequently beaten up by her tyrant husband.
But on the other hand she faces bad circumstances with determination. She is confident as she runs her
pickle making business independently. She is aware of her husband‘s jealousy andhe would take out all
his frustrations and rage on her in the form of brutal beatings. She is resilient and not scared of the
consequences. She continues doing business against all odds. Mammachi comes out as a woman of
substance.
Ans.5 Irony: is a figure of speech which consists of a statement that appears to be praise, but is really
condemnation.
There are several elements of irony, mainly revolving around Pappachi‘s life.
Pappachi‘s biggest failure came after his biggest triumph in life. He leaves no stone unturned to ensure that
a rare species of moth discovered by him should be credited as his discovery and be named after him. At
that time no such credit was given to him. Ironically 12 years later,after he had retired, Pappachi‘smoth
was declared a separate species and was named after a junior officer, whom he detested.
To the public, Pappachi was a well-dressed respectable man, driving a Plymouth, wearing a 3- piece suit
and sweating profusely in Ayemenem heat. Few pitied as he seemed to be neglected by his wife, an image

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Gupkar Road, Sonwar, Srinagar, Jammu& Kashmir - 190 001
www.burnhallschool.ac.in
TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
which he portrayed onto on lookers. No one saw the reality that he was a wife beater, a frustrated and a
jealous man.
When he throws his favourite chair and breaks it, it is ironical because no one reacts or isaffected by his
tantrums any more.
THE PASSIVE VOICE
We make the passive form of a verb by using an appropriate form of the verb be+ past participle.
The simple present:…….The dog is shut in the kitchen at night.
The present continuous:…….Homiis being assisted by Priya today.
The simple past:……Susan was given the first appointment of the day.
The past continuous:……..The door was being unlocked as I arrived.
The present perfect simple:…….Has the rose bush been pruned?
The past perfect simple:……Tony said that he had been woken by the phone.
Will\ shall (future)………..I hope I will be offered a better job.
Going to:……….The window is going to be repairedsoon.
The future perfect simple:……..The loan will have been paid off by 2022.
USES OF PASSIVE VOICE
It is used when we either don‘t know or it is unimportant who or what the agent of the action is. Example-I
was surprised to find a bouquet on my door steps.
It is used when we want to talk about a general opinion about something. Example-it is said that ginger is
very good for nausea.
It is also used when we are introducing information about the agent and we want to emphasise its
importance by putting it at the end of a sentence or a clause. Example –she was awarded the first prize by
the Film Critics Association.
CHANGE THE VOICE (ANS. ONLY BOOK EXERCISE)

1. Lies are not told by good boys.

2. Parents should be obeyed.
3. The poor are being fed by him.
4. Always speak the truth.
5. The truth has not been spoken by you.
6. Let it be kept a secret.
7. Thank God.
8. He was punished by the teacher.
9. The wood cutter was cutting the trees.
10. Quinine is bitter when tasted.
11. A good lesson had been taught to him by her.
12. Let the door be opened.
13. The police will look into the matter.
14. You are ordered to stop writing.
15. This book will have been read by her.

WHAT DO THESE SCIENTISTS STUDY

Dermatologist ---------skin Endocrinologist------hormones Ornithologist------------birds
Gerontologist---------old age Cytologist-------------cells Ergonomist---------working conditions
Paleontologist---------fossils Herpetologist----------reptiles Ichthyologist ----------fish.

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 Burn Hall Hr. Sec. School
Gupkar Road, Sonwar, Srinagar, Jammu& Kashmir - 190 001
www.burnhallschool.ac.in
TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
SNOWDROP BY TED HUGES
The poem ‗Snowdrop‘ has been written by Edward James Huges. The poet presents the harsh and cruel
image of nature. The poet describes the life of various aerial and land animals affected by extreme winter.
Finally he talks about Snowdrop- a flower that blooms in the harsh winter. He admires the flower as it
sprouts through the frosty surface of the earth.
SUMMARY…..The poet says that the globe has shrunk because of the extreme cold that has curtailed the
movement of active creatures like mouse. The mouse seems to be dull and inactive. The poet says that the
flight of crow is also restricted by intense cold and the weasel is dormant. Both appear as if they are brass
statues. They have become lifeless and seem not in their right minds. The stars in this season donot invoke
any warm feelings or have any charm. The poet turns his attention towards a little but strong flower—
Snowdrop as it blooms in harsh weather and cuts its way open through the frosty earth. So the poet says
that its head which is pale seems to be made of metal.
THEMES—death, survival
THINKING ABOUT THE POEM
Ans1. In the poem ―Snowdrop‖, the poet Ted Hughes presents a very tough and cruel image of winter. The
animals stop scurrying about. Some animals hibernate while others die due to lack of shelter and food. All
the activities during winter come to a standstill that is why the poet says the globe is shrunk tight.
Ans 2. The mouse is a lively creature and alwaysscurrying about the severe winter has put a stop to its
activities. The severe winter has dulled its heart rate, it might become immobile due to intense cold.
Ans3. Winter is portrayed tough and brutal. The animals don‘t move about as they used to. Winter has
restricted their movement and other activities have also come to a standstill. Mouse‘s faint heart has made
it immobile. Weasel and crow are frozen and look like brass statues. There are other animals that are dead
as they couldn‘t survive the winter.
Ans4. Ted Hughes presents a very tough and cruel image of nature. He creates atmosphere of a hard winter
by citing condition of animals. The mouse no longer scurries as winter has dulled its heart rate, many
outdoor creatures donot move around or fly, the winter has reduced their horizon. Crow and weasel are
frozen and look like brass statues. Many other animals are on the verge of death due to intense toughness
and brutality of winter.
Ans5. `Her pale head heavy as metal`
The given verse is taken from the poem `Snowdrop‘ written by Ted Hughes.
The poet is making reference to the snowdrop flower. It is a pale white coloured flower and has a slender
stalk, the flower slightly droops to one side. It seems the flower is heavy for the stalk. The flower looks
fragile but has shot up through thick layers of snow and survived the tough winter, hence the poet has used
a simile to compare the toughness of the flower with a metal.
Alliteration is used in the verse-sound of H is repeated.

PICK OUT THE IMAGES FROM THE POEM

1. Nature –mouse, weasel, crow snowdrop
2. Universe-globe, stars, outer darkness
3. Metal-brass

Weasel and crow as if moulded in brass

The given verse is taken from the poem Snowdrop by Ted Hughes.
The poet uses a simile to compare the frosted stillness of weasel and crow with brass statues.
On the winter land scape, due to intense cold, these outdoor creatures are frozen, since they are dark
coloured so they look like brass statues.

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www.burnhallschool.ac.in
TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
Two Alliterations from the poem:
Wintering heart weasel and crow----`w‘ sound
Her pale head heavy----`h‘ sound
MY MOYHER AT SIXTY-SIX
My Mother at Sixty-Six is written by Kamala Das. The poet is famous for capturing the complication of
relationships between human beings.

SUMMARY
The author is going to Cochin airport with her mother and she looks at her mother‘s pale face, she gets
stuck with the fear of losing her mother. Her mother, a sleepy face and open mouth is comparable to a
corpse. The poet is hurt and shifts her attention outside the car for driving out the undesirable feelings. The
scene from the window of car is of rising life and energy. The fast sprinting trees and children playing
represents life, vitality and youth. Now the poet remembers her own childhood when she as a child would
fear losing her mother. When she reaches the airport she looks at her mother‘s ashen face and it seems a
late winter moon. The poet is feeling the pain of being separated from her but hides her feeling to say
goodbye to her and hoping to see her again.
Thinking about the text (answers only)
Ans1. The poet‘s mother is beside her. She has dozed off open mouthed. Her face is ashen like that of a
corpse. She has become pale as a late winter‘s moon. The poet is pained to see her mother and realizes that
her old mother is not going to survive long.
Ans2. The poet is pained to see her mother. Her pale face reminds her too clearly that her mother is
approaching death. So she looks outside the window and sees young trees sprinting pass as her car speeds
away. She also sees merry children rushing out of their homes. The poet uses these images for the purpose
of contrast.
Ans3. The poet is in a moving car so the trees seem to be sprinting in opposite direction.
Ans4. The late winter‘s moon is pale, hazy and obscure. It lacks shine and strength. It is shrouded and
symbolizes ebbing of life. Her mother too has become pale and dull.
Ans5 most of the children feel insecure without their mothers and follow them wherever they go. On
seeing her mother old, pale and weak, the childhood fear of losing mother revisited the poet.
Ans6. After security check, the poet stands a few yards away and looks again at her mother. She notices
that she is wan, pale as a late winter‘s moon.
Ans7. (a) There is helplessness, pain and fear that she may never be able to see her mother alive again. But
she bids her a formal goodbye.
(b) The parting words `see you soon Amma‘ are used by the poet to reassure the mother and to infuse
optimism in the poet herself. The poet accepts the reality yet keeps up the façade of smiling in order to put
up a brave front. It require effort, hence poet has used the poetic devise of repetition.
Question 8, 9 and 10 ---do on your own.

LEARNING ABOUT THE LITERARY DEVISES

The two similes are

(a) Her face ashen like that of a corpse

(b) Pale as a winter‘s moon
The images used to describe death in the poem are:

Face ashen, pale

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
Devise of contrast used is:
The poet uses the images of young trees sprinting and merry children spilling out of their homes to help
bring out the contrast between old age and young age.
Happy children mean new life starting whereas pale, ashen face is image of life coming to an end.
The poetic devise used is called `refrain‘.
OUT OF BUSINESS
THINKING ABOUT THE TEXT
Q1. What was Rama Rao’s business? How did it collapse?
Ans. Rama Rao was Malgudi agent of a gramophone company. He had little money that he put into the
agency as security. For five years his business brought him enough money to help him keep his family in
good comfort. Suddenly the crash came and the company collapsed. A series of circumstances in the world
of trade, commerce, banking and politics were responsible for it.
The gramophone company which had its factory somewhere in Northern India, automatically collapsed
when a bank in Lahore crashed, it was the result of a Bombay financier‘s death.
Q2. What effect did it have on him and his family?
Ans. Rama Rao suddenly found himself in the streets. At first he could hardly understand the full
significance of this collapse. There was a little money in the bank and he had some stock on hand. The
money in the bank was fast melting. Rama Rao‘s wife tried some measures of economy. She sent away the
cook and the servant, withdrew the children from a fashionable nursery school and sent them to a free
primary school. And they let out their bungalow and moved to a very small house behind the market.
Q3. What is the `stock’ referred to in line 13?
The `stock‘ referred to few gramophones, he had with him when the company collapsed.
Q4. Why did Rama Rao worry less about his family after he came across The Captain?
Ans. Rama Rao came across a journal in the Jubilee Reading Room.it was called The Captain. It consisted
of four pages and all of them were devoted to cross word puzzles. It offered every week a first prize of four
thousand rupees. It seems to him the easy way to overcome his financial problems. For each entry he had
to invest a rupee only but it was a big amount for Rama Rao. But he wanted an easy way out of his
problems. For the next few days his head was free from family cares. He was intensely thinking of his
answers. He hardly stopped to look at his wife and children standing in the doorway. Week after week he
invested money and sent down his solutions but was disappointed every time. He quarreled with his wife if
she refused to give him a rupee for puzzle.
Q5.Why did Rama Rao decide to send in at least four entries for the “Special Offer Crossword
Competition”?
Ans. One day the journal announced a special offer of eight thousand rupees it exited Rama Rao‘s vision
of a future tenfold. There were only four doubtful corners in it. This time he didn‘t want to leave anything
to chanceas it was too big a prize, so he decided to send all four entries.
Q6. Why did Rama Rao plan to go to Madras?
Ans. After sending away the solutions by registered post he built elaborate castles in the air. After getting
substantial amount of prize money, he decided that he would send away his tenants, take his wife and
children back to his bungalow and give all his money to his wife to manage and he himself would take a
hundred and go away to Madras to seek his fortune there.
Q7. What made Rama Rao believe that God has shown him mercy?
Ans. Rama Rao has left nothing to chance and sent in four entries. He was sure that he would win but on
that fateful day of results he was shocked to see his numerous blunders. All the losses, disappointments
and frustrations of life came down on him with renewed force. He came to the conclusion that the life was
not worth living and the best remedy was to end it on a railway line. He lay on the railway line for quite a
long time but the train didn‘t come. He grew tired of lying down there. He rose and walked back to the

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
station and came to know that the train was three hours late because of an accident. Thus, Rama Rao was
in no doubt that God has shown him mercy.
Q8. How did Rama Rao alternate between hope and despair?
Ans. Rama Rao used short cut to overcome his financial problems by sending solutions to crossword
puzzles every week. He would send in an entry every week and awaited the results with a palpitating heart.
He hoped to win but plunged in despair to see the result. It took three hours for Rama Rao to recover from
this shock. The only way to exist was to fill in the next week‘s puzzle that would keep him buoyed up with
hope for a week. This violent alternating between hope and despair wrecked his nerves and balance.

LANGUAGE WORK

Match the following:

1. Rent his heart----tore off his heart, made him extremely sad
2. To wear one‘s feet out--- to walk a lot
3. Hang about----wait, doing nothing
4. Come to rest----stop
5. To show tears and frays----come out in loose threads
6. To have the heart-----be inclined to, wish
7. Bolt from the blue----thunder bolt, a shocking surprise
8. File in—march in one behind the other
9. With air of finality---giving the impression that there is nothing more ….
10. Build castles in the air ---make plans
11. Worm oneself into someone‘s favour---get into someone‘s favour slowly
12. Brood over---think for a long time over
13. Buoyed up---lifted up, cheerful
14. Fast melting---diminishing

ABHILEY
MAJOR THEMES
Simplicity of village life; ignorance towards modernity and also generation gap
The story shows that it is good to be simple but illiteracy breed ignorance and backwardness. Love for
one‘s own land and its people is appreciable. But it can never be good to keep ourselves detached from
outside world. The simplicity of rural people is heartwarming but it shouldn‘t mean that we don‘t know the
difference between Srinagar, Delhi or Turkey. It is for the benefit of everyone to know and use technology
and leave the traditions which hamper progress. The decision of young generation to go in search for better
education is praiseworthy in this story.
CHARACTER SKETCH OF ABHILEY
Abhiley is an old Ladakh woman who loves her home, family and grandchildren very much. She is an
overprotective and adorable grandmother, who constantly worries about her granddaughter Rukhsana.
Abhiley has never ventured beyond a distance of 10 miles from her village. She is ignorant and an innocent
woman. An earthquake in Turkey brings tears to her eyes because her granddaughter is living in Srinagar.
If she hears a bus breaking down on a road, she feels certain that no passenger would be live and starts
praying to God for Rukhsana‘s safety. Her innocence and ignorance has made her amusing for the family.
They drive pleasure from her funny response to technology and take advantage of her simplicity.

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
LANGUAGE WORK
Match the following(ans. only)
Abhiley---grandmother Kaga----elder brother Agu---uncle Aba—father Achey-aunt
Meanings: (make sentences of your own)
Sunken cheeks—cheeks that are wrinkled inward Spewing venom—spit out poison
Broken down—not working properly Hale and hearty—in good health and spirits
Pursed her mouth—lips pressed together
GRAMMAR ……………MODALS
Modals or modal auxiliaries are verbs which are used before ordinary verbs to express permission,
possibility, ability, obligation, suggestion, request and so on. They indicate the attitude, intention and mood
of the speaker.
Modals are always followed by main verb as they cannot stand on their own in a sentence.
Modals are not affected by change in the person or the number of the subject. It is important that the main
verb after modal must be in the root form.
Present participle or past participle form is never used with a modal.
Words used as Modals are
Shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, be able to, ought to, must.
ABILITY
CAN COULD BE ABLE TO
Indicate ability to do Suggests ability in the past Indicates ability to do
something; to be able to; be something which is more
capable of; know how to possible than `can‘.
Example: Karthik can drive Example: He could walk for a Example: He was able to write
the new racing car. (It also kilometer without a break with both hands.
means that he has the
opportunity to drive the new
racing car.)
Suggest general ability.
Example: In my childhood I
could climb trees.
It is used for present tense. Could is used for past tense. It is used for all tenses.

OBLIGATION, ADVICE, SUGGESTION

SHOULD MUST OUGHT TO
To make a suggestion or give Suggests strong obligation. Conveys a sense of moral
an advice. Example: You Example: You must help duty. Example: You ought to
should take medicine twice people in need. plant trees to save the
daily.(advice) environment.
We should eat
vegetables.(suggestion)
Suggests compulsion and the It also suggests that it is the
desire of the speaker. right thing to do. Example:
Example:You must complete You ought to avoid the oily
the project work now. food as you are obese.
Suggests necessity. Example:
The government must ensure
that people follow rule of law.

PERMISSION

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
MAY CAN COULD
Suggests permission which is Suggests permission that is Suggests permission in the
formal in nature and polite. less formal than `may‘. It is past.
Examples: May I come in? informal. Example: Can I More polite than `may‘.
You may come in. borrow your pen? Example: Could you lend me
your scooter for a day?
POSSIBILITY

MAY MIGHT CAN COULD

Indicates a possibility It indicates a weak Indicates general and It is used when there
which is stronger than possibility occasional possibility. is a weak possibility.
might, in other words
a good possibility.
Example: Principal Example: She might Example: I can go Example: The girl is
may be attending a attend the party. with you to see the crying she could be
meeting in his office exhibition. injured.
today.
Past tense of May. Past tense of Can.
Example: I thought he Example: She said she
might come. could join us in the
evening.
CONDITIONAL
Example:
If you come, we could
go to the party.
PROHIBITIONS

MUST NOT OUGHT NOT TO

Indicates that something should not be done Indicates that something should not be done
because it is a rule. because it is a duty.
Example: You must not play loud music while Example: We ought to keep our surroundings
driving. clean.
REQUEST
WOULD WON‘T CAN COULD
Used to make a polite Used to make a It is used to make an Used to make a polite
request. It is more request. informal request. request but it is
polite than `will‘. uncertain whether it
will be accepted.
Example: Would you Example: Won‘t you Example: Can I have Example: Could you
shut the door, please? have a cup of tea after some cold drink come with me to the
a tiring journey? please? market, please?

FORMAT FOR NOTICE

You are Vandita, cultural secretary of St. Xavier Public School. You have been asked by the teacher in
charge to draft a notice for school notice board to inform the students about inter school fancy dress
competition.

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SOCIAL STUDIES
HISTORY …………..THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD

Q:Write in brief
1.GIVE TWO EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF GLOBAL EXCHANGES WHICH TOOK
TH
PLACE BEFORE THE 17 CENTURY, CHOOSING ONE EXAMPLE FROM ASIA AND ONE
FROM THE AMERICAS.

Global exchanges have been taking place as early as 3000BC even during the Indus Valley Civilization.
Costal trade link existed with countries of modern west Asia. Routes have been popular especially the “Silk
Routes‖. These routes were known as the silk routes because of chinese silk cargoes that moved over not
only on land by sea also bringing together various regions of Asia, Europe and northern Africa. Chinese
silk, pottery, spices from India and south east Asia travelled especially to Europe along these routes. The
Christian Missionaries, the Muslim Preachers and the Bhuddist Bhikus also used these routes to spread the
message of their religion. It’s also known that food and crops too travelled vast distances and found homes
in distant lands like spaghetti and pasta.

Where Indian ocean was the focal point of all trade routes for centuries, the discovery of Americas led to
the shift of the trade to the American continents. The vast lands, abundant crops and minerals started
changing trade and lives everywhere. Precious metals from Americas enhanced Europe’s wealth and
financed its trade with Asia.

2.EXPLAIN HOW THE GLOBAL TRANSFER OF DISEASE IN THE PRE- MODERN WORLD
HELPED IN THE COLONISATION OF THE AMERICAS.

Spread of disease had been like the exchange of goods. Some of the lands where the colonists first went,
had been cut off from the rest of the world for generations hence had not developed immunity to diseases
like small pox. The Europeans though had superior firepower but did not conquer the Americas due to the
fire power. When the Spanish conquerors reached the shores of America, it was the small pox germs that

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killed the whole communities deep into the continent even before the European conquerors reached there
thus paving the way for conquest.

3.WRITE A NOTE TO EXPLAIN THE EFFECTS OF THE FOLLOWING:

a) THE BRITISH GOVERNMENTS DECISION TO ABOLISH CORN LAWS:

When the corn laws were scrapped, food could now be imported into Britain more cheaply than it could be
produced within the country. British agriculture was unable to compete with the imports. Vast areas of land
were left uncultivated and men and women flocked the cities or migrated overseas in search of work. As
food prices fell, food consumption rose in Britian. Industrial growth had led to better incomes and
ultimately growth in population. Countries like America, Australia expanded food production to meet the
growing demand of Britain.

b) THE COMING OF RINDERPEST TO AFRICA:

The African continent was a continent covered with evergreen forests. The population was less and they
had huge numbers of cattle. The common African lived a life where the cattle fulfilled most of his needs
and he did not feel the need to work for wages. The Rinderpest disease entered Africa when infected cattle
were imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers invading east Africa. The disease spread like
wild forest fire and within a span of five years reduced the whole population of cattle in Africa to just 10%.
The loss of cattle destroyed livelihoods and ultimately led to the subjugation of Africa.

c) THE DEATH OF MEN OF WORKING AGE IN EUROPE BECAUSE OF WORLD WAR:

The world war was the first industrial war fought in the history of the world. Machine guns, tanks,
aircrafts, chemical weapons etc which were produced in industries were used on a large scale. Millions of
soldiers were recruited to fight the war and the death during the war amounted to nearly 9 million and
about 20 million were injured. The whole number consisted of men of working age who worked in
industries. This resulted not only in a set back for industries but also into the reorganisation of entire
societies where earning of livelihoods was taken up by women.

d) THE GREAT DEPRESSION ON INDIAN ECONOMY:

The effect of great depression had its effect on India especially the agricultural community. The peasants
producing for the world markets felt the effects of great depression. The indebtedness of the peasants
increased. They had to use their savings, mortgage land and sell whatever jewellery they had to make ends
meet. India became an exporter of gold during the depression years that helped speed up British economic
recovery but did not help the Indian peasant. The urban population of India felt the effect of the depression
less especially those who had fixed incomes. Everything now was costless. Industrial investment increased
because of the government protection and because of the pressure of the nationalist leaders.

e) THE DECISION OF THE MNC’S TO RELOCATE PRODUCTION TO ASIAN COUNTRIES:

Post war, the developed countries scrambled for power through economy. They also tried to control the
natural resources of their colonies. But over a period of time the developing countries started facing
problems to uplift their population poverty, unemployment etc. The developing countried prior to 1970s
had to borrow from US but in the later 1970s they started to borrow from western lending institutions. The
industrial world was hit by crisis of unemployment by 1970s and this continued till 1990s. To lower costs,
these MNC’S started shifting their their productions to low-wage Asian countries , for example most of the
electronic goods are manufactured in China because of the low-cost structure of the Chinese economy and

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the low wages that can be given to the chinese workers. This has led to rapid economic transformation in
developing countries like India, China and Brazil.

4.GIVE TWO EXAMPLES FROM HISTORY TO SHOW THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON

FOOD AVAILABILITY.

Advance in Industrial Revolution led to the growth of population which in turn lead to demand for food.
Britain could not produce agricultural goods to meet the demand which led to import of agricultural
products. Technology helped in the faster movement of food products from one place to another. Railways
connected one agricultural centre to another. Steam ships transported men and products from one country
to another at a faster pace. Now agricultural food products were not only secured from the neighbourhood
but also from far off places. Meat was previously exported on ships. The animals were taken from one port
to another and many died or became ill along the way. This lead to increase in price of meat and the poor
could not afford it. The new technology of refrigeration on ships lead to slaughtering of animals in
America, Australia or New Zealand and then exporting to European countries. This lead to fall in the price
of meat and the poor could add meat, butter and eggs to their diet of bread and potatoes.

5.WHAT IS MEANT BY BRETTON WOODS AGREEMENT?

The economic scene during the wars drew home certain lessons for the economist to understand. That
economic stability in the country could be ensured only through government intervention. And also that
this economic stability in the country could be ensured with the economic links with the outside world. The
flow of goods, capital and labour had to be controlled by the government and this agreement came about in
the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire USA in
june 1944. This conference established the IMF to deal Bank for post war reconstruction.

DISCUSS : ———>

7.EXPLAIN THE THREE TYPES OF MOVEMENTS OR FLOWS WITHIN THE

INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC EXCHANGE. FIND ONE EXAMPLE OF EACH TYPE OF
FLOW WHICH INVOLVED INDIA AND INDIANS AND WRITE A SHORT ACCOUNT OF IT.

Three types of flows within the international economic exchange have been identified by economists
worldwide:

1.FLOW OF LABOUR 2.FLOW OF TRADE 3. FLOW OF MOVEMENT OF CAPITAL

Traditionally countries had been self sufficient in food but during Industrial Revolution, the rise in
population led to demand for more food. Britain started importing food and as imports increased, food
prices fell and countries like Eastern Europe, Russia, America, Australia started clearing land to produce
more food to meet the British demand. This needed more labour to not only to clean land but also to
th
improve the means of transport. All these activities needed capital. During the 19 century it was
estimated that huge amount of goods, labour and capital crisscrossed the oceans.

th
FLOW OF LABOUR: In the 19 century indentured labour was hired under contracts to return to India
after 5 years. Labour moved from states of India when land rents rose and the peasants could not afford to
pay the rent. Land was cleared for mines and plantations. These landless labours from UP, Bihar, Central
India and dry districts of Tamil Nadu migrated to Carribiean islands, Maurites, Fiji, Caylon and Malaya.

FLOW OF TRADE: Traditionally Indian cotton textile and dyes had flooded the international market
especially in Europe. With industrialization. India found a competitor in British cotton which was

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th
manufactured in industries and was cheaper. By the 19 century Indian cotton and dye exports fell and the
export of food grain and raw materials to Britain and rest of the world increased. The value of British
exports to India was more than British imports from India leading to a favourable balance of trade for
Britain.

th
FLOW OF CAPITAL: During the 19 century, the Indian, banker financed the export of agricultural
goods to central and south east Asia. They had a sophisticated network through which money travelled
long distances. When means of travel became safe and comfortable, it gave a rise to tourism trade and a
strong base for the Hyderabadi Sindhi traders who established themselves on all important ports
worldwide.

8. EXPLAIN THE CAUSES OF GREAT DEPRESSION.

Great Depression was a world wide business slump of 1930s. It is ranked as the worst and the longest
period of high unemployment and low business activity in modern times. It affected almost all countries
and it had lasting effects on the governments as well as the people. Many causes are attributed to the great
depression:

ST st
1.AFTERMATH OF 1 WORLD WAR: 1 world war had greatly affected the economies of almost
all the countries of the world. Germany had to pay vast reparations (compensation) after the war. The
destruction of economies made it difficult and US decided to lend Germany the money to pay
compensations. Trade strikes affected the economy of Britain and even countries as far as Australia.

2.FARM DEPRESSION OF 1920S: Though the 1920s had been prosperous in general, it had not been so
for the agricultural community. It became worse with further fall of agricultural prices leading to loss of
land by the farmers. To increase incomes, the farmers produced more leading to further fall in prices so
much that tonnes of wheat had to be burnt in US to stop the prices from falling further.

3.UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME: Factory, railway and mine owners increased their profits in
the early 1920s as long as the post war boom continued. Though industry production increased, the wages
of the industrial workers did not increase much leading to very little spending and the amount of money
circulated in the market being very less.

4.DEPENDENCY ON US FOR LOANS: Many of the developing countries depended on US for loans.
In the first sight of trouble, US stopped doling out loans and the countries that depended on US were
affected by this and faced acute crisis.

5.THE STOCK MARKET CRASH: From 1925 to 1929 there was a sharp increase in the share market
th
leading to more and more people to speculate in the hope of more profits. On October 24 , 1929 now
known as the Black Thursday the share prices fell but were steady on Friday and Saturday. But when on
th
Monday the share prices fell further, Tuesday recorded a record sale of shares. Tuesday 29 , 1929 on
Black Tuesday started the Great Depression which lasted on the decade of 1930s.

9. EXPLAIN WHAT IS REFFERED TO AS THE G-77 COUNTRIES. IN WHAT WAYS CAN G-77
BE SEEN AS A REACTION TO THE ACTIVITIES OF THE BRETTON WOODS TWINS?

The Bretton Woods system financed the needs of industrial countries. The IMF and World Bank catered to
the needs of countries like US and Japan. This lead to faster development of these countries. The
developing nations had to compete with these industrial nations and hence invested huge amount of capital
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to import technology. The newly independent nations also faced an urgent need to lift their populations out
of poverty and ironically their past rulers also held vast resources in these newly independent colonies. The
Bretton Woods twins too were under the ageis of these imperial nations. Large corporations from
industrially developed nations often secured rights to exploit the natural resources of developing nations at
throw away prices.

The developing nations never benefitted fully from the Financial Institutions of developed nations. Even
the Bretton Woods twins could not do much for these developing nations in the area of improving industry,
helping create employment, upliftment of poor etc as the developed nations has posed no such problems at
all. The developing nations hence organised themselves into Group of 77 or G-77 to demand a New
International Economic Order (NIEO) to have a control over their natural resources, more assistance in
development, fairer prices for raw materials and better access for their manufactured goods in the markets
of developed nations.

CHAPTER -2 “THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION”

Q: Write in brief

a) WOMEN WORKERS IN BRITAIN ATTACKED THE SPINNING JENNY.

th
In the 19 century work and wages were not progressive. Jobs were hard to find and were seasonal. Once
the season was over, the worker would find himself on streets again. Wars created more hardship for the
workers as the money earned did not get the amount of goods needed. The average wage earned also was
th
very much dismal. The urban population till the mid 19 century was extremely poor. The joblessness and
economic slump made the workers hostile towards the introduction of new technology. The Spinning
Jenny spun the wool into thread and a single worker by operating the machine could churn out several
spindles of thread which was previously done by hand by the women. The introduction of Spinning Jenny
denied labour to several women hence was attacked by the women workers in Britain.

TH
b) IN THE 17 CENTURY MERCHANTS FROM TOWNS IN EUROPE BEGAN EMPLOYING
PEASANTS AND ARTISANS WITHIN THE VILLAGES.

With the expansion of trade and formation of colonies, the demand for goods went up. The cities were
monopolised by urban trade guilds who had the support of the monarchs. They traded only in specific
goods and specialised in hand crafted goods. A new merchant was not encouraged to have any association
with these guilds nor set up businesses in the urban areas. Hence the merchants started taking the
production process to rural areas where common lands were disappearing and the villagers were looking
for alternative sources of income.

TH
c) THE PORT OF SURAT DECLINED BY THE END OF THE 18 CENTURY.

India had a vibrant sea trade and the finances were controlled by a network of trading houses. The trade
inland and also the export of goods was carried on by a network of bankers and businessmen who not only
supplied rawmaterials to the villagers but also collected finished goods and carried to the ports which was
then exported to the European nations. By the 17502 this network had a competition from European traders
who not only secured concessions from local courts but also gained monopoly to trade. Over a period of
time traditional ports like Surat and Hoogly decayed while new ports like Bombay and Calcutta started
gaining prominence.

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d) THE EAST INDIA COMPANY APPOINTED GOMASTHAS TO SUPERVISE WEAVERS IN
INDIA.

India was a major exporter of cotton cloth. Even though the East India Company had consolidated its
power in India, the British industries were not yet established so as to prove competition to Indian cotton
weavers. The company officials found it extremely difficult to trade in cotton as the main strings were held
by the network of Indian traders. Once the company was able to establish power it could bargain for its
benefit. It tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers. It employed gomasthas to help establish
monopoly of trade. A gomastha would place order with the weaver, provide loan for procurement of raw
material and the weaver had to sell to the gomastha at what ever price decided by the company officials.
Over a period of time the weaver was burdened by the loan and was forced to sell the cloth to the gomastha
at a very low price and hence started weaving of cotton cloth.

2) EXPLAIN WHAT IS MEANT BY PROTO - INDUSTRIALISATION?

Proto means first or early form of something. Proto-industrialisation means early form of industrialisation.
Even before factories were producing goods for international markets, Europe was catering to international
th th
markets. In the 17 and 18 centuries when the markets had gone global, it was difficult for new
merchants to enter the trade in the urban areas as the trade scenario was ruled by trade and craftsman guilds
who did not encourage new comers. The merchants who wanted to break in the international markets
started taking the raw materials to the villages and started persuading the villagers to work for them. The
villagers had lost the common lands which provided them free wood and other forest produce were looking
for alternate sources of income and when they were offered work they readily agreed. This was not the
industrialisation where the workers would go to the factories but where the work would come to the
workers and the whole family together produced goods for the international markets. This was the early
form of industrialisation hence is proto- industrialisation.

DISCUSS

TH
1.WHY DID SOME INDUSTRIALISTS IN THE 19 CENTURY EUROPE PREFER HAND
LABOUR OVER MACHINES?

In the Victorian Britain there was no dearth of labour. The labour could be employed seasonally and the
factory setup had not advanced so much as to employ this labour full time. Production fluctuated
seasonally and industrialists preferred hand labour. There were a range of products which were produced
by hand. The products were often goods with intricate designs, specific shapes and required human skill.
These hand made products came to symbolise refinement and class. They were individually produced with
the worker working particularly on the product till it was fully produced and the design was according to
the taste of the customer. No two products were the same and each style and design was unique. The
machine made products were for the colonies and for the soldiers at war. Hence the British industrialists
preferred hand made goods.

2.HOW DID THE EAST INDIA COMPANY PRODUCE REGULAR SUPPLIES OF COTTON
AND SILK TEXTILES FROM INDIAN WEAVERS?

Indian cotton and silk products dominated the world market. Though cotton and silk could be procured
from other countries, Indian cotton and silk were of a finer quality and hence were in great demand. The
network of trade and finance in India was highly intricate making it impossible for Europeans to break
even. Even though the British East India Company had been able to consolidate power it found it difficult
to procure raw material because of high prices. Once the British East India Company was able to establish
political power it could assert monopoly over right to trade. It proceeded to develop a system of
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management and control that would eliminate competition, control costs and ensure regular supplies of
cotton and silk goods. First of all it hired gomasthas to establish a direct link with the weavers. These
gomasthas provided loan to the weaver to procure the raw material, weave the product and sell it to the
company at the rate decided by the company. By these steps the weaver was tied to the company because
of the loan and the company saw that the loan was never written off as it purchased the woven fabric at
ridiculously low prices and thus could establish monopoly of trade in India.

3.WHY DID THE INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION IN INDIA INCREASE DURING THE FIRST
WORLD WAR?

Till the First world war, Manchester cotton dominated the Indian market. It was cheaper when compared to
Indian cotton. But the first world war changed the scene dramatically. The British mills were now busy
meeting the demands of the war. Manchester imports into India too declined. Suddenly the Indian mills
had a vast home market to supply. As the war prolonged, Indian mills were called upon to supply the war
needs like jute bags, uniforms etc. New factories found opportunities to be set up. Workers were employed
with better wages and industrial production production increased three fold. Even after the war came to an
end, Manchester cotton could not re-establish its old monopoly. The British economy which had crumbled
after the war could no longer re-establish its foot hold in Indian Industrial arena thus giving an opportunity
to Indian industries to capture the home marker and substitute the foreign goods with Indian goods.

GEOGRAPHY

CHAPTER-1 “MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES”

Q1. Distinguish between :

a)Ferrous and Non Ferrous minerals

Ferrous minerals are the metallic minerals containing iron.Ferrous minerals account for about
three-fourths of the total value of the production of metallic minerals. They provide a strong base
for the development of metallurgical industries. India exports substantial quantities of ferrous
minerals after meeting her internal demands.For example; iron ore , manganese , nickel , cobalt
etc.

Non -Ferrous minerals are also metallic but they do not contain iron in them .India’s reserves
and production of non- ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory. However, these minerals, which
include copper, bauxite, lead, zinc, and gold, play a vital role in a number of metallurgical,
engineering, and electrical industries. For Example , Mica , limestone etc.

b) Conventionalandnonconventionalsources of energy

• Conventional source of energy has been used since the early times.
• Coal, Petroleum, natural gas, hydroelectricity, thermal power are the source of energy.
• All conventional sources of energy except hydro-electricity are exhaustible.
• These sources cause environmental pollution.
• These sources require huge capital.
• Non- the conventional sources of energy have come into use only recently.
• Wind energy, solar energy, tidal energy, geothermal, biogas are examples of these sources of
energy.
• Most of the non- conventional sources of energy are inexhaustible.
• These sources do not cause environmental pollution.
• Small amount of money is sufficient to have these sources.

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Q2. What is a mineral?

Ans: Minerals can be defined as a homogenous naturally occurring substance with a definable
internal structure.

Q3. How are minerals formed in igneous and metamorphic rocks?

Ans: In igneous and metamorphic rocks the minerals are found in cracks, crevices, faults and
joints. When they are forced upwards from the depth of the earth in molten form, they settle and
solidify in these cracks, crevices, faults and joints. Minerals like tin, copper, zinc, lead etc are
found here.

Q4. Why do we need to conserve mineral resources?

Ans: Our dependency on minerals is so huge that we are extracting them at a rate which is faster
than its renewability. The minerals have taken millions of years to be created and concentrated. If
the mining process is not slowed down, then it can lead to a stage when minerals will not be
found any where on the earth. Hence we have to conserve mineral resources.

Q5. Describe the distribution of coal in India?

Ans: Coal is the most important fossil fuel and it found in abundant quantity in India. It is the
cheapest form of energy both for domestic purposes and also commercial purposes. In India coal
is found in two major geological ages that is Gondwana and Tertiary. Gondwana coal is around
200 million years old which Tertiary is just 55 million years old. The Gondwana variety is found
in the Damodar Valley (West Bengal, Jharkhand), Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro. The Godavari, The
Mahanadi, The Son, The Wardha valleys also have huge deposits of coal.

The Tertiary deposits are found in the North Eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Aruanchal
Pradesh and Nagaland.

Q6. Why do you think that Solar Energy has a bright future in India?

Ans: India is a country which has a rugged terrain that is the Himalayas and the Desert region
that is the Thar desert. India is also becoming a major industrial nation. In far flung areas of the
Himalayas and in the desert where people cannot be dependant on hydro electricity, solar energy
is fast replacing and making life easier for the people. With the high dependency on hydro
electricity and increasing cost, the urban are moving towards the freely available solar energy to
meet their energy requirement.

India has vast areas which have been converted into solar farms. The Thar desert has a solar farm
and the hot water from the solar farm is used to wash to milk cans of the Amul Industry. Cyber
cities like Bengaluru are now becoming totally green energy dependant with more and more
people setting up solar power plants and the government itself setting up solar farm in the
outskirts of the city.

The UT of Ladakh has taken the initiative to become green energy dependant by installing solar
plants in all its government offices and hospitals.

Thus we can say that solar power has a bright future with more and more states turning towards
this freely available green energy.

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CHAPTER -2 “ MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES”

Q1. What is manufacturing?

Ans: Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more valuable
products is called manufacturing. Manufacturing can also be defined as conversion of gifts of
nature into products of utility and thereby increase their value.

Q2. Name any three physical factors for the location of the industry? Ans: The physical factors
responsible for location lof industry include:

• 1) Availability of raw material

• 2) Suitableclimate

• 3) Waterandpowersupply

• 4) Availabilityofsuitabletransportfacilities.

Q3. Name any three human factors for the location of an industry?

Ans: Three human factors which affect the industrial location are

• 1) Availability of cheap labour

• 2) Availabilityofservicessuchasconsultantsandfinancialadvisors

• 3) Availabilityofmarkets

Q4. What are basic industries? Give examples.

Ans: Basic industries are which supply their products or raw materials to manufacture other
goods. Examples of basic industries are : Iron and Steel, Copper smelting, Aluminium smelting.
Etc.

Q5. Name the important raw materials used in the manufacturing of cement?

Ans: The important raw materials used in the manufacturing of cement are limestone, silica,
alumina, gypsum.

Q6. How are integrated steel plants different from mini steel plants? What
problems does the industry face? What recent developments have led to a rise in
the production capacity?

Ans: An Integrated steel plant is large, handles everything in one complex - from putting together
raw material to steel making, rolling and shaping. Mini steel plants are smaller, have electric
furnaces, use steel scrap and sponge iron. They have re rollers that use steel ingots as well. They
produce mild and alloy steel of given specifications.

Though India is an important iron and steel producing country in the world, yet we are not abvle
to perform to our full potential largely due to the following:

• 1) High cost and limited availability of coking coal

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• 2) Lowerproductivityoflabour

• 3) Irregularsupplyofenergy

• 4) Poorinfrastructure.

But the latest policies formed by the government is helping this most important industry.
Liberalisation and foreign direct investement have given a boost to the industry with the efforts
of private entrepreneurs. But the need is felt to allocate resources for research and development
to produce steel more competitively.

Q7. How do industries pollute the environment?

Ans: The industries pollute the environment in many ways. Few of them are as under:

Air Pollution: It is caused by the presence of high proportion of undesirable gases such as sulphur
di oxide and carbon monoxide. This pollution is usually caused when the factories ignore the
norms laid down by the government. Air pollution adversely affects not only human health but
also the health of plants animals and the whole atmosphere.

Water Pollution: It is caused by organic and inorganic industrial waste and affluents discharged
into the rivers. The main culprits are the paper, chemical, textile and dyeing, petroleum
refineries, tanneries, electroplating industries etc. Fly ash, phopo-gypsum and iron and steel
slags are the major solid wastes let in the water.

Thermal Pollution: Thermal pollution affects not only water but also soil. When the water is let go
into the rivers without taking the cooling step, the acquatic life is affected. When the rain water
percolates into the soil, the ground water gets affected which is the main cause for cancers, birth
defects, miscarriages. Dumping of wastes on the land renders the soil useless and unfit for
cultivation.

Noise Pollution: it not only results in irritation and anger, but also can cause hearing impairment
among the young ones, increased heart rate and high blood pressure among other physiological
effects.

Q8. Discuss the steps to be taken to minimise environmental degradation by

industry?
Ans: Few steps have been suggested to reduce environmental degradation by the industries:

1) Recycling of water to be used for processing

2) Userainwaterharvestingmethodsinthefactory

• 3) Treating of hot water and other affluents before they are discharged into the ponds and
rivers.

• 4) Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories.

• 5) Reduction of smoke by using oil and gas instead of coal

• 6) Silencers to be fitted to machinery and other equipment.

• 7) Almost all machinery should be energy efficient and reduce noise.

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With better methods being made available and with the growing concern for environment by
almost all the governments of the world, there are a few industries which have taken the intiative
to reduce environmental degradation and also afforestation steps to bring out a better
environment.

CIVICS

CHAPTER -1 “ OUTCOMES OF DEMOCRACY”

1. HOW DOES DEMOCRACY PRODUCE AN ACCOUNTABLE, RESPONSIBLE AND

LEGITIMATE GOVERNMENT?

Democracy does not only mean that a government is formed by the people, of the people and for the
people but it also brings equality among the citizens, enhances the dignity of the individual, improves the
quality of decision making, provides a method to resolve conflicts and allows room to correct mistakes.

The citizens in a democracy participate in the decision making which affects all of them thus making the
government accountable to the citizens, responsive to the needs and expectations of the citizens. The
decision making process of a democratic government is slow but it looks into all the advantages and
disadvantages before coming to a conclusion. Democracies provide a fair chance for the people to elect a
government of their choice. Sometimes a democratic government can be corrupt and unresponsive to the
needs of the majority but then a non democratic government can be more corrupt. A democratic
government because of the free and fair elections can be legitimate and due to its legitimacy can be more
responsive to its citizens as it derives its power from the citizens of the country.

2. WHAT ARE THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH DEMOCRACIES ACCOMMODATE

SOCIAL DIVERSITIES?

Democracies usually find a way to overcome social differences. Belgium overcome its social differences to
form a government which was accommodative to all. But Sri Lanka proved to be exactly opposite. It is
very important to remember that democracy is not just a rule of majority but the majority must work with
the minority so that the government represents a general view. Rule of majority does not mean any
particular religion or community but that at the time of elections that the different persons and groups
come together to form a majority. Every democracy remains a democracy if every citizen is allowed to join
the majority and not on the basis of birth but on the basis of his/her ideas. If there are barriers then
democratic rule ceases to be accommodative.

ECONOMICS

1) identify places of religious pilgrimage in Jammu and Kashmir

Ans: The places of religious pilgrimage in Jammu and Kashmir are: Hazratbal shrine, Amarnath cave,
Shankaracharya, Shree Mata Vaishno Devi, Shiv Khori, Shahdara sharief, Kailash Yatra, Budha
Amarnath etc.

2) Write down the main principles of PPP?

Ans: PPP is Public Private Partnership in which private enterprise help the government to undertake
development projects by sharing profits.

3) What is the role of Handicraft sector in employment generation in Jammu and Kashmir?
Ans: Handicraft sector occupies a premier position in the economic scenario in Jammu and Kashmir. The
type of handicrafts generated are huge which include shawls( a large variety which include shatoos,
pashmina, kaani,raffel) carpets, namdaas, woodcraft,papermachie, etc. The employment potential

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generated is also huge not only employing artisans but also people belonging to primary sector and also in
the tertiary sector.

4) Write a brief note on micro small and medium scale industries in employment generation?
Ans: Jammu and Kashmir is known for handicrafts sector n in this sector mainly the industries are micro or
small or medium which employs a large number in primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.

5) How employment potential in Jammu and Kashmir can be increased? Ans: The government has
taken many initiatives to encourage the youth of Jammu and Kashmir towards self employment by
providing many schemes which help financially and also skill development programs. It is needed by the
youth of Jammu and Kashmir to utilise these initiatives and create employment opportunities for
themselves and for others.

6) Discuss the role of tourism in generating employment in Jammu and Kashmir?

Ans: Tourism has become the mainstay of the UT of Jammu and Kashmir providing employment not only
to the people directly related to it but also to people belonging to other sectors as well. The UT of Jammu
and Kashmir has many tourist spots which encourages not only tourists but also adventure tourism,
business tourism, and religious tourism. The UT of Jammu and Kashmir can have the potential of tourism
through out the year whether it spring, summer, autumn, or winter. It employs people in the hotel industry,
transport, handicrafts, food n beverages ( the unique cuisine of Jammu and Kashmir) etc. This sector needs
to be tapped in such a way that the political

instability will not create problems and losses for the people
involved. Tourism sector is one sector which encourages self employment among the youth and also
creates opportunity for employing others also. Though it has drawn the youth towards it, lot more needs to
be done in order to tap this sector to its fullest potential.

7)Write down the sectoral initiatives by the government to generate employment in Jammu and
Kashmir.
Ans: The government in order to create employment opportunities has taken the initiative sectorwise so
that no sector is left unattended:
a) livestock: this sector has the opportunity to augment agro income and can employ both skilled n
unskilled labour. This sector has large opportunity and it is labour intensive which can easily employ a
large number of people. Private investment is being encouraged in this sector n the government has been
successful to a great extent where the younger generation is moving into this sector
b) tourism: this sector not only has great potential for self employment but also can employ individuals
creating an employment scenario in the state. This sector has the potential of creating employment in other
sectors as well. The government has taken the initiative by having regular air flights, training youth in
tourism, developing more tourist areas and creating online portal for easy bookings etc.
c) handicrafts: this sector employs a large number of people directly n indirectly in all the three sectors
that is primary, secondary n tertiary sector. Obsolete designs, competition from other states, cheap
imitation products coming from other states have created a disheartening scene because of which the
government has taken up skill development programs for weaving of pashmina kaani n raffel shawls
among the youth and also created cluster areas for carpets in Srinagar.
d) MSME: this sector can do extremely well in creating employment in Jammu and Kashmir but due to
instability in the state, the private investment is not getting encouraged to invest in this state though the
state government has brought in many financial schemes to encourage the youth but a lot needs to be done
especially return of peace
e) IT/BPO: the UT of Jammu and Kashmir is still to spre

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ad its wings in this sector due to lack of educational institutions in IT, poor connectivity, lack of political
stability etc. This sector can bring in more and more youth towards self employment and employment
generation

8) What are the hurdles in economic development?

Ans: a) Poor road connectivity: The UT of Jammu and Kashmir and the UT of Ladakh are situated in the
Himalayan region which is prone to harsh weather conditions which play havoc on road connectivity n the
railways are not yet connected due to the rugged terrain. The UT governments have to spend huge sums of
money to rebuild roads every year.
b) Lack if awareness about various kinds of employment opportunities: there is a preference to government
jobs n less preference to self employment or private jobs. This has created a barricade for economic growth
n needs more and more youth to be encouraged to set up businesses for self employment
c) Security problems: The economy of any place can flourish only if peace prevails in the region. The
growing unrest has lead to the lack of investment generation in the state leading to growing unemployment
scenario

9) Define self employment

Ans: A person is said to be self-employed when he or she earns his or her income directly from customers,
clients, or other organisations. A self employed person is not the employee of anyone but works for
himself or herself.

10) Define workshed cum housing for Handicraft artisans?

Ans: The scheme is designed to improve the working conditions of the artisans. Improvement of quality,
productivity, construction of housing and sheds for working on the handicrafts is the main intention of this
scheme.

11) What is Jammu and Kashmir state self employment scheme?

Ans: This scheme provides financial help for starting a business. Bank loans, margin money, capital
subsidies, interest subsidies are some of the features of this scheme.

12) Write a detailed note on Handicraft industry in our state.

Ans: Handicrafts has been one of the important livelihood earning industry in our state. The important
products of handicrafts are as under:
a) carpets: The practice of carpet weaving in Kashmir is historically linked to Persia and Central Asia. It
employs a lot of people to earn a livelihood.

b) Shawls: The Kashmiri shawls is mainly prepared from Shahtus , Pashmina and Raffel. The costliest of
shawls is Shahtus which comes from the Tibetan Antelope. The Pashmina comes next and the word
literally translates to 'soft gold' . The Raffel is a popular variety which is woven out of Merino wool.
c) Wood Carving: wood carving refers to creating designs on wood and walnut is much preferred for this
purpose.
d) Ladakhi carpets: these carpets are woven mainly for personal use only and not for commercial purposes.
e) Basholi painting: this is basically from a small town Basholi nestled on the banks of Ranjit Sagar Lake.
It takes its themes from Gita Govinda, Rasamanjari and Gagamala. The uniqueness of this paintings have
made it popular there by the paintings are named after the town.

13) Define agriculture. Name the main crops grown in our state. Classify these crops in Kharief and
Rabi.
Ans: Agriculture is defined as cultivation of domesticated plants. It involves growing of crops both for
subsistence and commercial purposes. The UT of Jammu and Kashmir grows crops like Rice, Maize,
Pulses, Wheat and Mustard.

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Rice : it is a Kharief crop. A variety of rice is grown but the most popular is the Basmati variety which is
grown in Ranbirsinghpora in Jammu. Anantnag district is known as the Rice Bowl of Kashmir.
Maize: It is a Kharief crop grown all over the UT. The crop is mainly grown in Udhampur, Doda, Rajouri,
Kupwara and Anantnag districts Pulses: Pulses are largely Kharief crops. The variety include Rajmah.
Moong, Masoor etc

Wheat : it is a Rabi crop. It is grown in Jammu but not for commercial purposes.
Mustard : it is a Rabi crop grown all over the state both for subsistence and commercial purposes.

14) Give the full form of IGNOU

Ans: the full form of IGNOU is Indira Gandhi National Open University

15) Write a brief note on the mineral resources of Jammu and Kashmir.
Ans: UT of Jammu and Kashmir is blessed with the following minerals some of which are of economic
importance to the state n to the country. The minerals found are listed below:
a) Limestone: Being an important ingredient for cement production, it is found in Panthachowk -Zewan-
Khunmoh-Khrew-Awantipora belt
b) Silica: it is the second important ingredient in making of cement
c) Gypsum: it isalso important for cement production
d) Coal: it is important for heating purposes.
e) Sapphire: it is extracted in Padder area of Kishtwar district in Jammu. The stone found here is unique
and hence the cost of it easily crosses $100,000/carat

16) Explain the economic importance of Secondary sector

Ans: The importance of this sector can be understood from the fact that it helps in converting raw material
into finished products thereby employing a large number of population even from primary and tertiary
sectors. This sector mainly involves manufacturing and construction.
( write the same answer as importance of Handicraft sector)
Chenab Textile Mills: it was set up in 1970s in Kathua district by the K K Birla group. It is the largest
factory of the Sutlej Textiles and Industries Ltd.

The new generation is now venturing into bottled water, pharma and cement there by diversifying the
burden on a single area.

17) ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE PRIMARY SECTOR

Ans: The economic importance of the primary sector can be understood from the fact that this sector
provides livelihood to nearly 80% of the population in the state. The primary sector includes agriculture,
horticulture, livestock, forestry, floriculture, sericulture, fisheries and mining. The population of the rural
area directly or indirectly depends on this sector for livelihood and employment. This sector which
involves extraction and processing of goods mainly by utilisation of natural resources is labour intensive.
Agriculture involves growing of both Rabi and Kharief crops like Rice wheat mustard maize and pulses.
Forestry is important as it provides raw material for pharma, perfumary, and construction. Livestock
encourages milk production n wool production. Horticulture encourages the growth of a wide variety of
fresh and dry fruits. Floriculture is the growth of wide variety of flowers. Sericulture is an important sector
because the mulberry variety of silk is reared only in Kashmir and in Karnataka. Kashmir is known as
'Angler's pride' because of the trout fishing.

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PHYSICS

THE HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

Human eye (structure): Human eye is the most important natural optical instrument. The eye is
nearly spherical in shape with a slight bulge in the front part. The Important Parts of the eye are
i. Cornea: The front part of the eye is covered by a transparent spherical membrane called the
cornea. Light enters the eye through cornea. The space behind the cornea is filled with a
liquid called aqueous humour.
ii. Iris: Just behind the cornea is a dark coloured muscular diaphragm which has a small
circular opening in the middle. The iris regulates the amount of light entering the eye. It
regulates the light by adjusting the size of the pupil.
iii. Pupil: Pupil is the small circular opening of iris. The pupil appears black because no light is
reflected from it.
iv. Eye Lens: The eye lens is a convex lens made of a transparent jelly - like proteinaceous
material. The eye lens is hard at the middle and gradually becomes soft towards the outer
edges. The eye lens is held in position by ciliary muscles. The ciliary muscles help in
changing the curvature and focal length of the eye lens.
v. Retina: The inner back surface of the eye ball is called retina. It is a semi-transparent
membrane which is light sensitive and is equivalent to the screen of a camera. The light
sensitive receptors of the retina are called rods and cones. When light falls on these receptors
they send electrical signals to the brain through the optic nerve. The space between the retina
and eye lens is filled with another fluid called vitreous humour.
vi. Blind Spot: It is a spot at which the optic nerve enters the eye and is insensitive to light and
hence the name.

Working of an Eye:The light coming from an object enters the eye through cornea and pupil.
The eye lens converges these light rays to form a real, inverted and diminished image on the
retina. The light sensitive cells of the retina get activated with the incidence of light and
generate electric signals. These electric signals are sent to the brain by the optic nerves and
the brain interprets the electrical signals in such a way that we see an image which is erect
and of the same size as the object. Before we go into the defects of vision let us be familiar
with the terminology used by the ophthalmologists like least distance of distinct vision, far
point and power of accommodation of the eye.
Power of Accommodation:The process by which the ciliary muscles change the focal length of an
eye lens to focus distant or near objects clearly on the retina is called the accommodation of the

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eye. The ability of the eye to focus objects lying at different distances is called the power of
accommodation of the eye. The maximum power of accommodation for a normal human eye is the
ratio of 100 to near point of eye(25 cm).
i.e. Power = 100/25 = 4 cm.

Near point or Least Distance of Distinct Vision: Near point or least distance of distinct vision is
the point nearest to the eye at which an object is visible distinctly.For a normal eye the least
distance of distinct vision is about 25 centimeters.However, it varies with age of the person. For
example, for infants it is only 5 to 8 cm.

Far Point: Far point of the eye is the maximum distance up to which the normal eye can see things
clearly. It is infinity for a normal eye.

Range of Vision:The distance between the near point and the far point is called the range of
vision. For normal human eye it is from infinity to 25 cm.

Defects of vision: A normal eye can see all objects over a wide range of distances i.e., from 25 cm
to infinity. But due to certain abnormalities the eye is not able see objects over such a wide range
of distances and such an eye is said to be defective. Some of the defects of vision are
Hypermetropia or long sightedness, Myopia or short sightedness, Presbyopia and Astigmatism.

i. Myopia: Myopia is an eye defect due to which the eye is not able to see distant objects
clearly. This occurs when the light rays entering the eye converge in front of the retina in the
vitreous body. Myopia is caused due to the elongation of the eye ball, that is, the distance
between the retina and eye lens is increased, decrease in focal length of the eye lens. This
defect is commonly known as nearsightedness.
A myopic eye forms the image of a far off object in front of the retina because
of the increase in converging power of the eye lens. Therefore myopia can be rectified by
using a suitable divergent or concave lens. The ray diagram shows how a concave lens helps
in focusing the light on the retina.

ii. Hypermetropia: Hypermetropia or hyperopia is an eye defect in which distant vision is clear
while near vision is blurred. This occurs when the light rays entering the eye converge behind
the retina. The main causes of Hypermetropia are Shortening of the eyeball, that is, the
eyeball becomes smaller and Increase in focal length of the eye lens.
A long sighted eye forms image of a nearby object behind the retina.
Thus, long sightedness is due to the decreased converging power of the lens. Therefore

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hypermetropia can be rectified by making the eye lens more convergent. This is done by
placing a convex lens of suitable focal length before the eye lens as shown in the figure.

iii. Presbyopia: Presbyopia is caused when the centre of the eye lens hardens making it unable
to accommodate near vision. This condition generally affects almost everyone over the age of
50 - even those with myopia. In this defect the eye may be suffering partly from myopia and
partly from Hypermetropia. Eyeglasses with bifocal or progressive lenses are prescribed to
correct or improve the condition.
iv. Astigmatism: This defect arises due to the lack of symmetry in the curvature of the eye lens.
Astigmatism is the most common vision problem resulting in distorted images, as light rays
are prevented from meeting at a common focus. Astigmatism may accompany Hypermetropia
or Myopia. Normally the cornea is spherical in shape, but in an astigmatic eye the cornea is
shaped more like an oblong Rugby ball, The oblong shape causes light rays to focus on two
points, rather than on just one point, This can be corrected by using cylindrical lenses.
Refraction of light through a glass prism: A glass prism is a triangular optical instrument with
two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces. It is a transparent object with all the
three lateral surfaces inclined at an angle of 60o with each other. The refraction of light through a
glass prism can be verified as
Place a prism on a white sheet of paper with the triangular face on the sheet and trace its
boundary ABC. Fix two pins T and S on one side. Place the prism on the boundary ABC. Looking
through the other side fix two more pins Q and R in such a way that the all four pins appear to be
in the same line. Remove the pins and mark their positions. Join TS and RQ and extend them to
meet the faces of the prism at P and O respectively and join PO.TP represents the incident ray. PO
represents the refracted ray and OR represents the emergent ray which is bent towards the base.
Let PN and ON be the normal at the points P and O respectively and let i be the angle of incidence
and r the angle of refraction. If the incident ray TP is extended forward and the emergent ray RO
backwards, they meet at M, forming the angle OML. Measure the angle OML. This angle is called
the angle of deviation. Angle of deviation is the angle through which an incident ray deviates.

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With the help of experimental verification of refraction of light through a glass prism, we
can prove that sum of angle of prism and angle of deviation is equal to the sum of angle of
incidence and angle of emergence.
i.e. A+ D= i+ e

Dispersion of light: The process of splitting of white light into its constituent colours while
passing through a transparent medium like glass prism is called as dispersion of light.
When a polychromatic light (multi coloured or light containing more than one wavelength)
like white light is incident on the first surface of the prism it gets refracted. But each constituent of
the white light gets refracted through a different angle, i.e., white light gets dispersed. When these
colours are incident on the second surface of the prism they again undergo refraction (they get
refracted from a denser to rarer medium) and the colours are separated further. Thus a beam of
white light incident on a prism splits into its constituent colours to form a spectrum.

Each constituent of the white light is deviated towards the base of the prism. Violet colour suffers
the maximum deviation and red the least. The spectrum obtained is impure as the colours in the
spectrum do not have any sharp boundaries.

Atmospheric Refraction: Atmospheric refraction is the shift in apparent direction of a celestial

object caused by the refraction of light rays as they pass through Earth’s atmosphere. The density
of air goes on increasing with the increase in the height, due to which the optical density of air
increases in upper layers of earth’s atmosphere. The light coming from the celestial objects like
stars etc. suffers multiple refractions.

i. Twinkling of stars:Stars do not twinkle but they appear to twinkle. They appear to do so
because the rays of light coming from the stars travel through the layers of air of varying
densities. These rays get refracted continuously and they bend towards the normal as the
refraction is from a rarer to a denser medium. The movements of air and convection currents
cause a change in the density of the layers of air. As a result, the position of the image of the
star goes on changing after every short interval. These different positions of the images
formed at short intervals of time give the impression that the star is twinkling.
ii. Variation in the size of sun (Advanced sunrise and delayed sunset): At dusk or dawn the
Sun appears to be larger than at noon. This is because when the sun is near the horizon the
rays of light coming from the sun have to pass through layers of air of increasing density.
Due to continuous bending of light the sun appears to be larger. At noon, the sun appears to
be smaller than at dusk or dawn. This is because the rays of light that fall normally on the
surface of the earth do not get refracted.
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It is the atmospheric refraction due to which sun is visible to us about 2
minutes before the actual sunset rise and about 2 minutes after the actual sunset because the
sun seems to just be above horizon during sunrise and just below horizon during sunset. It is
because of this atmospheric refraction the sunrise seems to be early and sunset to be delayed.

Scattering of light: The process of change in the direction of light on striking an atom, a molecule,
dust particle, water droplets etc. It involvesthe reflection of electromagnetic radiations by
atoms/molecules of the medium through which they are travelling. The blue colour of the sky,
colour of water in deep sea, the reddening of the sun at sunrise and the sunset are some of the
wonderful phenomenon are quite familiar with scattering of light.

Incident light ray Scattering of

light from a particle

Blue colour of sky: The blue colour of sky is due to the scattering of light, because the molecules
of air and other fine particles present in the atmosphere scatter light of shorter wave lengths at
blue end rather than the light of linger wavelength at the red end.
As the wavelength of the blue colour is roughly half the wave length of red colour,
therefore, intensity of scattered blue light dominates and scatter in the atmosphere and hence the
colour of sky appears blue otherwise it is not blue in colour and appear dark to the passengers
flying at very high altitudes because of non prominent scattering at higher altitudes.

Red colour of sun at sunrise and sunset: At the time of sunset and sunrise the sun is near the
horizon. The light from the sun near the horizon passes through thicker layers of air and larger
distance in the earth’s atmosphere before reaching our eyes. Hence most of the blue light is
scattered. The red colour which has the largest wavelength is scattered the least. At this time the
light that reaches our eyes is of longer wavelength i.e.red. Thus the sun appears to be reddish at
the time of sunrise and sunset.

Tyndall effect: The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles. These
particles include smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and molecules of air.
When beam of light strikes such air particles, the path of the beam becomes visible. Similarly the
path of a beam of light passing through a true solution is not visible. However, its path becomes
visible through a colloidal solution where the size of the particles is relatively larger. The
phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect.The main
postulates of Tyndall effect are:

i. When a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke filled air, smoke particles become visible due to
scattering of light by these particles.

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ii. When sunlight passes through a canopy of dense forest, tiny water droplets in the mist scatter
light.
iii. The atmosphere of earth contains a very large number of atoms/molecules of dust particles,
tiny water droplets etc. The sunlight reaches to us after being reflected diffusely by these
particles, that is why the path of light beam becomes visible.

According to Tyndall effect the colour of the scattered light deepens upon the size of scattering
particles (scatter). Finer particles produce blue light and larger particles scatter light of larger
wavelengths.

Experimental verification of Tyndall effect: In order to have an experimental verification, we

have to make the following experimental setup.
1. We will place a strong source of light at the focus of a converging lens, which provides a
parallel beam of light. Now we will place transparent glass tank behind the lens filled with
clear water.

2. Now, put cardboard behind the water tank with a hole such that the beam of light is
allowed to pass through it to fall on another convex lens behind the cardboard to obtain a
sharp image on the screen.

3. Now, we dissolve about 200 grams of sodium thiosulphate in about 2 liters of clean water in
the tank. Add 1 to 2 ml of concentrated sulphuricacid to the water.

We will observe that fine microscopic sulphur particles precipitating in about 2 to 3 minutes.
As the sulphur particles begin to form, we can observe that blue light from the three sides of the
glass tank. This is due to the scattering of short wavelengths by minute colloidal sulphur particles.
The colour of the transmitted light from the fourth side of the tank facing the circular hole at first
observed to be orange red and then bright crimson red on the screen. Hence we conclude that very
fine particles scatter mainly blue light of smaller wavelengths, and the light transmitted contains
longer wavelengths only.

ELECTRICITY
Electric charge: A property of some elementary particles that gives rise to an interaction
between them and consequently to the host of a materialphenomenon described as
electrical. Charge occurs in nature in two forms, conveniently described as positive and
negative in order to distinguish between two kinds of interactions between particles. Two

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particles that have similar charges (botheither negative or both positive) interact by
repelling each other, while as the two particles that have dissimilar charges (i.e. one
negative and one positive) interact by attracting each other. The natural unit of
negative charge is the charge on an electron which is equal but opposite in effect to the
positive charge on a proton. Large scale matter that consists of equal number of electrons
and protons is electrically neutral. If there is an excess of electrons, the body is negatively
charged and an excess in protons result in positive. A flow of charged particles,
especially a flow of electrons constitutes an electric current. Charge is measured in
coulombs, the charge on an electron being 1.602x10-19 coulombs.
Electric current: An electric current is defined as
the ordered motion of electric charges. i.e. The rate
of flow of charge is called electric current or in
other words the magnitude of the current 'I' is the
charge flowing in the circuit in one second.
Mathematically current is expressed as
Current (I) = Charge (coulomb) / Time (Second)
OR I = Q/t
Where 'Q' is charge and ‘t’ stands for time. The unit of electric current is 'ampere' (A).
1 ampere = 1coulomb/second
One ampere is defined as the current flowing through a conductor when the flow
of one coulomb of charge flows in one second. One coulomb is defined as the quantity of
charge flowing through a conductor per unit second.
Electrostatic Potential: The electrostatic potential is defined as
the work done in bringing a single positive charge from
infinity to a point in the electric field. Any point outside the
electric field or space is called infinite point. The unit of
potential is volt (V). Electric potential is a physical
quantity, the value of which at different points tells us the
direction of the electric current. Electric current flows from a higher potential to lower
potential. If work is done by the charge, then the potential at that point is negative. If
work is done by the charge, then the potential at that point is negative. The amount of
work done does not depend on the path chosen.
If the amount of work done in bringing 1 coulomb of charge from infinity to a
given point in the electric field is 1 joule, then the potential at that point is said to be 1
volt. Thus 1 volt= 1 joule/ 1 coulomb
Thus if a body is given Q coulomb of charge to raise its
potential by V volt then the amount of work done will be VQ joule.
W = VQ
Electric potential difference: Electric potential difference between any two points is A
and B through a conductor is defines as the amount of work done to move a unit charge
from A to B. If W is the work done to move a charge Q from a point A to point B on a
conductor, then potential difference between A and b is given by

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Potential Difference = Work done / Quantity of charge transferred.
Or V = W / Q
The S.I. unit of potential difference is volt (V) and is a scalar quantity. It is
measured by using voltmeter.

Electric circuit: The closed path through which electric current flows is known as an
electric circuit. The circuit is called 'closed' when the current flows in the circuit, and
when the current does not flow, it is called an 'open circuit'. The switch or key helps to
make or break the circuit, i.e. switches on or switches off the current.
Series and Parallel Circuits: If the components of a
circuit are connected in a single loop, so that the same current flows through all the
loads then the connection is called 'series' circuit. But, if each of the components has a
separate connection with a battery, then the circuit is said to be in parallel. The potential
difference across the elements remains same.

Conductors: Substances which allow electricity to pass through them easily are called
conductors. These are made from materials which have low resistances. Metals like
copper, aluminium, silver, iron, brass and also salt solutions are good conductors of
electricity.
Insulators: Substances which do not allow electricity to pass through them easily are
called insulators. These are made from materials which have a high resistance. Some
substances like air, plastic, cotton, rubber, wood, paper, glass, pure water, etc are
insulators.

Ohm’s Law: The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference between its ends at constant temperature.
Mathematically, V ∞ I
OR, V = R. I => V/I = R
Where V is the potential difference, I is the current and R is the constant of
proportionality, called as resistance. It is also expressed as
I=V/R
This equation implies that the current flowing through a circuit is directly
proportional to potential difference and inversely proportional to the resistance, thus if
the potential difference across the ends of a conductor is doubled and if the potential
difference is halved the current also gets halved and if the resistance is halved the
current gets doubled.
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Experimental verification of Ohm’s Law: To verify Ohm’s law, the arrangement of the
apparatus is to be made as per the given diagram.
The potential difference across a
conductor, say XY for different values of current I
passing through it is measured with the help of a
voltmeter and then it shows that the ratio V/I remains
constant. The arrangement of the electrical circuit
contains a battery of two to three cells (B), a rheostat
(Rh), an ammeter (A) and a key (K) are connected in series with a conductor (XY) whose
ends X and Y are connected to a voltmeter (V). In the circuit the ammeter measures the
current I passing through the conductor and the voltmeter measures the potential
difference V across the conductor. The current through the conductor is varying by
adjusting the variable resistance. The resistance and the corresponding values of the
potential difference are recorded in order to verify the Ohm’s law.

Resistance: The resistance of a conductor may be defined in terms of current passing

through it and the potential difference across its ends. Resistance of a wire is the ratio of
the potential difference 'V' across its ends and the current 'I' flowing through it.
R= V/I
The unit of resistance is called the ohm, named after
George Simon ohm, who found the relationship between current and potential difference.
This law is called 'ohm's law'.Ohm is the SI unit of resistance. The Greek letter
omega(Ω) is used to represent resistance. One ohm is the resistance of a
conductor through which a current of 1 ampere flows when the potential difference
across its ends is 1 volt.

Factors on which resistance of a conductor depends: The resistance of a conductor is

affected by the following factors:
i. Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length of the wire i.e.,
longer the wire greater will be the resistance and shorter the wire smaller will be the
resistance. If L represents the length of the uniform wire, then

ii. Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area of the cross-section of

the uniform wire. That means thinner the wire greater the resistance and thicker the
wire lowers the resistance. If A is the area of cross-section of the uniform wire, then

Resistivity: Resistivity of a material is the resistance between the ends of a conductor of

length one meter and area of cross-section of one square - meter. Unit of (resistivity) is
Ohm-meter (Ωm). In other words, resistivity of a material is the resistance between the
opposite faces of a unit cube of that material. By combining both the factorson which
resistance of a conductor depends, we get

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where is the constant of proportionality called the resistivity of the material of the wire.

Combination of resistances: The resistors (resistances) can be joined together in two

ways i.e. in series and parallel combinations.
i. Series combination of resistors: Let us consider two
resistors 'R1' and 'R2' connected in series. A battery of
'V' volts is applied to the ends of this series
combination. Let us name the potential difference
across R1 as V1, and that across R2as V2. Since 'V'
represents energy, according to the law of conservation
of energy
V = V1+ V2 ____(1)
i.e., the total potential difference across the two resistors should be equal to the
voltage of the battery. Using Ohm's law,
V = IR ----------- (2)
V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2
where I is the current flowing through the circuit and 'R' represents
the equivalent resistance of the two resistances. Substituting (2) in (1) we get
IR = IR1 + IR2
R = R1+ R2
The equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances connected in
series. The above result can be generalized for 'n' number of resistances of different
values as R = R1+ R2 +............ + Rn.
ii. Parallel combination of resistors: Connect two
resistors 'R1' and 'R2' in parallel to one another
between the points A and B. Connect this
combination to a battery of potential 'V'. Here the
potential difference across R1and R2 will be equal
to battery voltage. But the total current I flowing in
the circuit branches as I1 through R1and I2 through
R2. Since there cannot be accumulation of charges at any point
I = I1+ I2 ______(1)
Using Ohm's law,

I= ______(2)
Substituting the above set of equations (2) in equation (1) we get

______ (3)

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Divide equation (3) throughout by V we get

If the resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent

resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of all the individual resistances.
This result can be generalized for any n resistors.

Heating effect of electric current: According to the law of conservation of energy, energy
can be transformed from one form to another. When an electric current is passed
through a metallic wire like the filament of an electric heater, oven or geyser, the
filament gets heated up and here the electrical energy is converted into heat energy. This
is known as the 'heating effect of current'. A potential difference is a measure of
work done in moving a unit of charge across a circuit. Current in a circuit is equal to the
amount of charge flowing in one second. Therefore, the work done in moving 'Q'
charges through a potential difference 'V' in a time 't' is given by
Work done = potential difference x current x time
W = VIt
The same can be expressed differently using ohm's law. According to ohm's law V
= IR Therefore work can be expressed as
W = VIt
or W = (IR) It = I2Rt
The work done 'W' gets dissipated in the resistors as heat energy H

Thus, heat produced is directly proportional to the resistance, to the time and
to the square of the current.

This is also known as joule’s law of heating and it states that heat
produced in a conductor (resistor) is directly proportional to product of square of
current, resistance of conductor and the current flowing through it.

Power: Power is the rate of doing work or in other words, it is the work done in one
second. If a current of 'I' amperes flows through a conductor of resistance 'R' ohm for a
time 't' seconds when the potential difference across its ends is 'V' volt, then the electric

power consumed P= OR P=

Using Ohm's law, 'Power' can also be expressed as

P=I2R Or P= V2 /R

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The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). It is the power consumed by a device that
carries 1 A of current when operated at a potential difference of 1 V. Thus,1 W = 1 volt x
1 ampere = 1 V A

One watt is defines as the work done of 1 joule in an electric circuit for 1 second.
i.e. 1 watt = 1 joule / 1 second.

Electrical energy: The electrical energy consumed in an electric circuit is the total work
done by the electrical circuit or energy supplied by the source of electromagnetic force
(e.m.f) in maintaining the current in an electric circuit for a given time period.
Therefore, Electrical energy (E) = W= V x I x T
Or, E=PxT
(because P= V x T) i.e. Electric Energy = Electric
power x time. The S.I. unit of electric energy is joule.
Since the joule is a very small unit for measuring electric energy used commercially. So it
is generally measured in watt-hour or kilowatt-hour.
i.e. 1 watt-hour (Wh) = 1 watt x 1 hour
= 1 joule / second x 3600 seconds
= 1 x3600 joules.
1 kilowatt-hour = 1000 watt-hour
= 1000 watt x 3600 seconds
= 3600000 joules
= 3.6 x 106 joules.
Biology
How Do Organisms Reproduce
Topics in the Chapter

• Introduction • Types of Reproduction → Asexual Reproduction → Sexual Reproduction

• Modes of Asexual Reproduction
→ Fission → Fragmentation → Regeneration → Budding
→ Vegetative Propagation → Artificial methods of Vegetative Propagation → Benefits of Tissue culture
• Sexual Reproduction → Sexual Reproduction in Plants → Types of Flowers → Structure of Flower
• Process of Seed Germination • Reproduction in Human Beings
→ Changes at Puberty in Male and Female
• Male Reproductive System → Testes and its functions → Vas deferens → Urethera→ Associated glands
• Female Reproductive System
→ Ovary → Oviduct or Fallopian Tube → Uterus
• Fertilisation of egg → When egg is fertilised → When egg is not fertilised
• Reproductive Health → Sexually Transmitted Diseases → Methods of contraceptions
• Female Foeticides

Introduction
→ Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals similar to themselves.
It ensures continuity of life on earth.
→ Nucleus of the cell contains DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) which is the heredity material.
→ DNA replicates and forms new cells causing variation. So, these new cells will be similar but may not
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be identical to original cell.
→ Variations are useful for the survival of the individual and species over time as well as basis for
evolution.

Types of Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
→ A single individual give rise to new individual. → Gametes are not formed.
→ New individual is identical to parent.→ It is extremely useful as a means of rapid multiplication.
→ Adopted by lower organisms.

Sexual Reproduction
→ Two individuals i.e., one male and one female are needed to give rise to new individual.
→ Gametes are formed.
→ New individual is genetically similar but not identical to parents.
→ It is useful to generate more variations in species.
→ Adopted by higher organisms.

Modes of Asexual Reproduction

Fission
→ The parent cell divides into daughter cells.
• Binary fission: 2 cells are formed. Example: amoeba.

• Multiple fission: Many cells are formed. Example: Plasmodium.

Fragmentation

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→ The organism breaks-up into smaller pieces upon maturation, each piece develops into new individual.
Example: Spirogyra.

Regeneration
→ If organism is somehow cut or broken into many pieces, each piece grows into a complete organism.
Example: Planaria, Hydra.

Budding
→ A bud is formed which develops into tiny individual. It detaches from parent body upon maturation and
develops into new individual. Example: Hydra

Vegetative Propagation → In many plants, new plants develops from vegetative parts such as:

• By roots: Example: dahlias, sweet potato.

• By stem: Example: potato, ginger.
• By leaves: Example: bryophyllum (leaf notches bear buds which develop into plants).

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Artificial methods in Vegetative Propagation

(i) Grafting: Example: Mango
(ii) Cutting: Example: Rose
(iii) Layering: Example: Jasmine
(iv) Tissue culture: New plants are grown by using growing tip of a plant.
→ These growing cells are kept in a culture medium leads to the formation of callus. Callus is then
transferred to hormone medium which causes growth and differentiation.
Example: ornamental plants, orchid.

• Benefits of tissue culture

→ We can grow plants like banana, rose, jasmine etc. that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
→ New plants are genetically similar to parents.
→ Helps in growing seedless fruits.

(v) Spore Formation: Spores are small bulb like structures which are covered by thick walls. Under
favourable conditions, they germinate and produce new organism.
Example: Rhizopus

Sexual Reproduction
→ When reproduction takes place as a result of the fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual
reproduction.
→ Fusion of gametes is called fertilization which results in variation.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

→ Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants.
→ A typical flower consists of four main whorls namely sepals, petals, stamen and pistil.

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Types of Flowers

• Bisexual flower: Both male and female reproductive parts are present.
Example: Hibiscus, mustard.
• Unisexual flower: Either male or female reproductive part is present.
Example: Papaya, watermelon.

Structure of Flower

Process of Seed Formation

→ Pollen grains, produced in the anther, are transferred to the stigma of same flower (self pollination) or
stigma of another flower (cross pollination) through agents like air, water or animals.
→ Pollen grains germinate and form pollen tubes which pass through style to reach upto the ovules present
in ovary.
→ The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization. Zygote is produced inside the ovary.
→ Zygote divides to form embryo. Ovule develops thick coat and changes into seed gradually.
→ Ovary changes into fruit and other parts of flower fall off.

→ The seed germinates to form a plant under suitable conditions such as air, moisture etc.

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Reproduction in Human Beings

→ Humans use sexual mode of reproduction.

→ Sexual maturation: The period of life when production of germ cells i.e. ova (female) and sperm
(male) start in the body. This period of sexual maturation is called puberty.

Changes at Puberty

• Common in male and female

→ Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area.
→ Skin becomes oily, may result in pimples.

• In girls → Breast size begin to increase. → Girls begin to menstruate.

• In boys → Thick hair growth on face. → Voice begin to crack.

These changes signals that sexual maturity is taking place.

Male Reproductive System

(i) Testes
→ A pair of testes are located inside scrotum which is present outside the abdominal cavity.
→ Scrotum has a relatively lower temperature needed for the production of sperms.
→ Male germ cell i.e. sperms are formed here.
→ Testes release male sex hormone (testosterone).

Function of testes:
→ Regulate production of sperms.
→ Bring changes at puberty.

(ii) Vas deferens→ It passes sperms from testes upto urethera.

(iii) Urethera→ It is a common passage for both sperms and urine. Its outer covering is called penis.

(iv) Associated glands

→ Seminal vesicles and prostate gland add their secretion to the sperms. This fluid provide
nourishment to sperms and make their transport easy.
→ Sperm along with secretion of glands form semen.

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Female Reproductive System

(i) Ovary
→ A pair of ovary is located in both sides of abdomen.
→ Female germ cells i.e. eggs are produced here.
→ At the time of birth of a girl, thousands of immature eggs are present in the ovary.
→ At the onset of puberty, some of these eggs start maturing.
→ One egg is produced every month by one of the ovaries.

(ii) Oviduct or Fallopian tube

→ Receives the egg produced by the ovary and transfer it to the uterus.
→ Fertilisation i.e. fusion of gametes takes place here.

(iii) Uterus
→ It is a bag-like structure where development of the baby takes place.
→ Uterus opens into vagina through cervix.

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Fertilisation of egg

• When egg is fertilised

→ The fertilized egg called zygote is planted in uterus and develops into an embryo.
→ The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called placenta.
It provides a large surface area for the exchange of glucose, oxygen and waste material.
→ The time period from fertilization upto the birth of the baby is called gestation period. It is about 9
months.

• When egg is not fertilised

→ The uterus prepares itself every month to receive fertilized egg.
→ The lining of the uterus becomes thick and spongy, required to support the embryo.
→ When fertilisation had not taken place, this lining is not needed any longer.
→ This lining breaks and comes out through vagina as blood and mucus.
→ This cycle takes around 28 days every month and called menstruation.

Reproductive Health

→ Reproductive health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproduction i.e. physical,
emotional, social and behavioural.

• Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

→ Many diseases can be sexually transmitted such as:
(i) Bacterial : Gonorrhoea and syphilis
(ii) Viral : Warts and HIV-AIDS
→ Use of condom prevents these infections to some extent.
→ Contraception: It is the avoidance of pregnancy, can be achieved by preventing the fertilisation of
ova.

• Methods of contraception
(i) Physical barrier
→ To prevent union of egg and sperm.
→ Use of condoms, cervical caps and diaphragm.

(ii) Chemical methods

→ Use of oral pills
→ These change hormonal balance of body so that eggs are not released.
→ May have side effects.

(iii) Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD)

→ Copper-T or loop is placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy.

(iv) Surgical methods

→ In males the vas deferens is blocked to prevent sperm transfer called vasectomy.
→ In females, the fallopian tube is blocked to prevent egg transfer called tubectomy.

Female Foeticide
→ The practice of killing a female child inside the womb is called female foeticide.
→For a healthy society, a balanced sex ratio is needed that can be achieved by educating people to
avoid malpractices like female foeticide and prenatal sex determination.
→ Prenatal sex determination is a legal offence in our country so as to maintain a balanced sex ratio.

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Biology
Control & Co-Ordination
Topics in the Chapter

• Introduction • System for control and coordination in animals • Nervous System

→ Receptors
• Neuron → Functioning of Neuron→ Parts of Neuron→ Synapse
• Reflex Action→ Types of Responses→ Need for Reflex Action
• Human Nervous System
• Human Brain→ For-Brain→ Mid-Brain
→ Hind-Brain→ Protection of Brain and Spinal Cord
→ Coordination between Nervous and Muscular Tissue
→ Limitation of Electric communication/Nervous System→ Chemical combination
• Coordination in Plants→ Independent of growth→ Dependent of growth
• Plant Hormones
• Hormones in Animals→ Endocrine gland and their functions
• Importance of iodine
• Diabetes→ Cause of Diabetes→ Treatment of Diabetes→ Feedback Mechanism

Introduction
→ All the living organisms respond and react to changes in the environment around them.
→ The changes in the environment to which the organisms respond and react are
called stimuli such as light, heat, cold, sound, smell, touch etc.
→ Both plants and animals respond to stimuli but in a different manner.

Systems for Control and Coordination in Animals

→ Control and Coordination in animals is done with the help of two main systems:
(i) Nervous system (ii) Endocrine system

Nervous System
→ Control and coordination are provided by nervous and muscular tissues.
→ Nervous tissue is made up of an organized network of nerve cells or neurons which is specialized
for conducting information via electrical impulses from one part of the body to another.

Receptors
→ These are specialized tips of some nerve cells that detect the information from the environment.
`These are located in our sense organs.
(i) Ear: It acts as phonoreceptors (receiving sound). It helps in hearing and maintaining the balance of
body.
(ii) Eyes: It acts as photoreceptors (receiving light). It helps in seeing
(iii) Skin: It acts as thermoreceptors (feels temperature). It helps in feeling heat or cold and touch.
(iv) Nose: It acts as olfactory receptors (sense of smell). It helps in the detection of the smell.
(v) Tongue: It acts as Gustatory receptors (sense of test). It helps in the detection of taste.

Neuron

It is the structural and functional unit of nervous system.

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Functioning of Neuron
→ The information from receptors is acquired at the end of the dendritic tip of a nerve cell as
chemical reaction that creates an electrical impulse.
→ This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body and then at the end of the axon.
→ Chemicals are released at the end of the axon by the effect of electrical impulse.
→ These chemicals cross the gap (synapse) and start a similar electrical impulse in a dendrite of the
next neuron.
→ The similar synapse finally allows delivery of such impulses from neurons to other cells, such as
muscles cells or gland.

Parts of Neuron
(i) Dendrite: It acquires information.
(ii) Cell body: The information acquired by it travels as an electrical impulse.
(iii) Axon: It is the longest fibre on the cell body is called axon. It transmits electrical impulse from cell
body to dendrite of next neuron.
Synapse: It is the gap between the nerve ending of one neuron and dendrite of the other neuron.
Here, electrical signal is converted into chemical signal for onward transmission.

Reflex Action
→ Reflex action is quick, sudden and immediate response of the body to a stimulus.
Example: Knee jerk, withdrawal of hand on touching hot object.
→ Stimulus: It is observable or detectable change in the external or internal environment to which an
organism reacts.
→ Reflex arc: The pathway through which nerve impulses pass during reflex action is called reflex
arc.

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→ Response: It is the final reaction after the reflex action.

Three types of responses:

(i) Voluntary: Controlled by fore brain. Example: talking, writing.
(ii) Involuntary: Controlled by mid and hind brain. Example: heart beat, vomiting, respiration.
(iii) Reflex action: Controlled by spinal cord. Example: withdrawal of hand on touching a hot object.

Need for Reflex Actions

→ In some situations such as touching a hot object, pinching etc. we need to act quickly, otherwise
our body would be harmed. Here response is generated from spinal cord instead of brain. In this way,
time for taking action is reduced which save us from injury.

Human Nervous System

→ Human nervous system consists of two parts, Central nervous system (CNS) and Peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
→ Central nervous system consists of Brain and Spinal Cord.
→ Peripheral nervous system consists of Cranial Nerves which arise from the brain and Spinal
Nerves which arise from the Spinal cord.

Human Brain
→ Brain is the main coordinating centre of the body. It has three major parts:
(i) Fore-brain (ii) Mid-brain (iii) Hind-brain

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Fore-brain
→ It is the most complex or specialised part of the brain. It consists of cerebrum.
→ Functions of Fore-brain:
(i) Thinking part of the brain.
(ii) Control the voluntary actions.
(iii)Store information (Memory).
(iv) Receives sensory impulses from various parts of the body and integrate it.
(v) Centre associated with hunger.

Mid-brain
→ Controls involuntary actions such as change in pupil size and reflex movements of head, neck and
trunk.

Hind-brain
It has three parts:
(i) Cerebellum : Controls posture and balance. Precision of voluntary actions. Example: picking pen.
(ii) Medulla : Controls involuntary actions. Example: blood pressure, salivation, vomiting.
(iii) Pons : Involuntary actions, regulation of respiration.

Protection of Brain and Spinal Cord

→ Protection of Brain: Brain is protected by a fluid filled balloon which acts as shock absorber and is
enclosed in cranium (skull or brain box).
→ Protection of Spinal Cord: Spinal cord is enclosed in vertebral column.

Coordination between Nervous and Muscular Tissue

→ For taking place the voluntary actions, the brain has to send messages to muscles.
→ The communication between the central nervous system and the other parts of the body is
facilitated by the peripheral nervous system consisting of cranial nerves arising from the brain and
spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord.
→ The brain thus allows us to think and take actions based on that thinking. This is accomplished
through a complex design, with different parts of the brain responsible for integrating different inputs
and outputs.

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22

Limitations of Electric communication/Nervous system

(i) Electric impulse will reach only to those cells that are connected by nervous tissue.
(ii) After generation and transmission of an electrical impulse, the cell takes some time to reset its
mechanism before transmitting another impulse. So cells cannot continually create and transmit
impulse.
(iii) Plants do not have any nervous system.

Chemical communication
→ It helps in overcoming the limitations of electric communication.

Coordination in Plants

→ There are three types of movements in plants.

(i) Independent of growth

(ii) Dependent on growth

Independent of growth
→ Independent growth has immediate response to the stimulus.
• Plants use electrical-chemical means to convey information from cell to cell.
• For movement to happen, cells change their shape by changing the amount of water in them,
resulting in swelling or shrinking of cells.
Example: Drooping of leaves of ’Touch-me-not’ plant on touching it.

Dependent on growth
→ These movements are tropic movements i.e., directional movements in response to stimulus.
• Tendrils: The part of tendril away from the object grows more rapidly as compared to the part near
the object. This causes circulating of tendril around the object.
• Phototropism: Movement towards light.
• Geotropism: Movement towards/away from gravity.
• Chemotropism: Growth of pollen tube towards ovule.
• Hydrotropism : Movement towards water.

Plant Hormones
→ These are chemical compounds which help to coordinate growth, development and responses to
the environment.
→ Main plant hormones are:

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
• Auxin: This hormones synthesized at shoot tip. It helps the cells to grow longer and involved in
phototropism (response towards light).
• Gibberellin : It helps in the growth of the stem.
• Cytokinins: It promotes cell division. This is present in greater concentration in fruits and seeds
• Abscisic Acid: It inhibits growth. It also cause wilting of leaves and also known as stress hormone.

Hormones in Animals
→ Hormones are the chemical substances which coordinate the activities of living organisms and
also their growth.
• Endocrine glands : These glands secrete their product (hormone) into the blood and the main organ
for releasing the hormones.
• The list of endocrine gland with the hormones names and their functions are given below:

(i) Thyroxine: This hormone is secreted by Thyroid. The Thyroid is located in Neck/Throat region. It
regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
(ii) Growth hormones: This is secreted by Pituitary (master gland). This gland is located in Mid-
brain. It regulates growth and development.
(iii) Adrenaline: This hormone is secreted by Adrenal. The adrenal gland is located above both
kidneys. It regulates blood pressure (increasing), heart beat, carbohydrate metabolism (during
emergency).
(iv) Insulin: This hormone is secreted by Pancreas. The pancreas is located below stomach. It
reduces and regulates blood sugar level.
(v) Sex hormones:
(a) Testosteron in males: This hormone is secreted by testis. The testis is located in genital area. Its
changes associated with puberty (Sexual maturity).
(b) Estrogen in females: This hormone is secreted by Ovaries. The ovaries are located in lower
abdomen area. Its changes associated with puberty (Sexual maturity).

Importance of iodine
Iodised salt is necessary because iodine mineral is essential part of thyroxine hormone secreted by
thyroid gland. Thyroxine regulates metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. So, we must
consume iodised salt which is necessary for proper working of thyroid gland. It’s deficiency causes a

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
disease called goiter (Swollen neck).

Diabetes
Diabetes is a disease in which blood sugar level increases.

Cause of Diabetes
The disease is caused due to the deficiency of insulin hormone secreted by pancreas that is
responsible to control blood sugar levels.

Treatment of Diabetes
Injections of insulin hormone can help in the treatment of diabetes.

Feedback Mechanism
→ The excess or deficiency of hormones has a harmful effect on our body. Feedback mechanism
makes sure that hormones should be secreted in precise quantity and at right time.
Example: Feedback mechanism to control the sugar level in blood is as follows:

MATHS
Practice questions

TRIGONOMETRY

Q1: If sec θ + tan θ = 7, then evaluate sec θ – tan θ.

𝑎 𝑥
Q2: If tan θ = 𝑥 , find the value of .
𝑥 2 +𝑎 2

Q3: if 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 450 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 300 = 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛450 cos 450 , then x =

a) 2 b) -2 c) -1/2 d) ½
Q4: If x = p sec θ + q tan θ and y = p tan θ + q sec θ, then prove that x2 – y2 = p2 – q2.

Q5: tan 40°  tan 50°

OR

If cos A = sin 42°, then find the value of A.

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
Q6: A man in a boat rowing away from a lighthouse 100 m high takes 2 minutes to change the angle of
elevation of the top of the lighthouse from 60° to 30°. Find the speed of the boat in metres per minute. [Use
√3 = 1.732] .
5 sin 𝜃 −4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Q7: if 5 tan 𝜃 - 4 =0 , then the value of is
5 sin 𝜃+4 cos 𝜃

a) 5/3 b) 5/6 c) 0 d)1/6

Q8: The value of cos 0°. cos 1°. cos 2°. cos 3°… cos 89° cos 90° is
1
(a) 1 (b) -1 (c) 0 (d) 2

Q9: 19. If in ΔABC, ∠C = 90°, then sin (A + B) =

1
(a) 0 (b) ½ (c) (d) 1
2

Q10: The angle of elevation of the top of a tower from two points distant s and t from its foot are
complementary. Prove that the height of the tower is √st.

Q11: A flagstaff stands at the top of a 5m high tower. From a point on the ground, the angle of elevation of
the top of the flagstaff is 60° and from the same point, the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 45°.
Find the height of the flagstaff.

Q12: A straight highway leads to the foot of a tower. A man standing at the top of the tower observes a car
at an angle of depression of 30°, which is approaching the foot of the tower at a uniform speed. Six
seconds later, the angle of depression of the car is found to be 60°. Find the time taken by the car to reach
the foot of the tower from this point.

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
1−𝑝 1−2𝑝
Q13: Find the common difference of the AP 1/p , , , -----------?
𝑝 𝑝

Q14: The angles of a triangle are in A.P., the least being half the greatest. Find the angles.

Q15: The 4th term of an A.P. is zero. Prove that the 25th term of the A.P. is three times its 11 thterm.

Q16: How many two-digit numbers are divisible by 3?

Q17: Find the number of natural numbers between 101 and 999 which are divisible by both 2 and 5.

Q18: Find the middle term of the A.P. 6, 13, 20, …, 216.

Q19: How many terms of the A.P. 65, 60, 55, … be taken so that their sum is zero?

Q20: Find the sum of the first 25 terms of an A.P. whose nth term is given by t n = 2 – 3n

Q21: Find the sum of all three digit natural numbers, which are multiples of 11

Q22: If the seventh term of an AP is 1/9 and its ninth term is 1/7, find its 63rd term.

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
Q23: The sum of the first seven terms of an AP is 182. If its 4th and the 17th terms are in the ratio 1 : 5, find
the AP.

Q24: The digits of a positive number of three digits are in A.P. and their sum is 15. The number obtained
by reversing the digits is 594 less than the original number. Find the number

Q25: A thief runs with a uniform speed of 100 m/minute. After one minute a policeman runs after the thief
to catch him. He goes with a speed of 100 m/minute in the first minute and increases his speed by 10
m/minute every succeeding minute. After how many minutes the policeman will catch the thief.

HINDI
पर्व तप्रदे शमेंपार्स

उत्तर) वर्षा ऋतु में पवातीय प्रदे श में प्रकृतत प्रततपल नयष वेश ग्रहण करती तदखषई दे ती है । इस ऋतु में
प्रकृतत में तनम्नतलखखत पररवतान आते हैं -
1. बषदल ों की ओट में तिपे पवात मषन ों पोंख लगषकर कहीों उड़ गए ह ों तथष तषलषब ों में से उठतष हुआ
क हरष धुएँ की भषँतत प्रतीत ह तष है ।
2. पवात ों से बहते हुए झरने म ततय ों की लतड़य - ों से प्रतीत ह ते हैं ।
3. पवात पर असों ख्य फूल खखल जषते हैं ।
4. ऊँचे वृक्ष आकषश की ओर एकटक दे खते हैं ।
5. बषदल ों के िष जषने से पवात अदृश्य ह जषतष है ।
6. तषल से उठते हुए धुएँ क दे खकर लगतष है , मषन आग लग गई ह ।
7. आकषश में तेजी से इधर-उधर घू मते हुए बषदल, अत्योंत आकर्ाक लगते हैं ।

2. 'मेखलाकार' शब्द का क्या अर्व है? कवर् ने इस शब्द का प्रयोग यहााँ क्योों वकया है?
उत्तर:- 'मेखलषकषर' शब्द कष अथा है - करधनीके आकषर के समषन। मेखलषकतट भषग में पहनी जषती
है । पवात भी मेखलषकषर की तरह ग ल लग रहे थेजैसे उसने पूरी पृथ्वी क अपने घे रे में ले तलयष ह । कतव
ने इस शब्द कष प्रय ग पवात की तवशषलतष तदखषने और प्रकृतत के स द ों या क बढ़षने के तलए तकयष है ।

3. 'सहस्र दृग-सुमन' से क्या तात्पयव है? कवर् ने इस पद का प्रयोग वकसके वलए वकया होगा?
उत्तर:- कतव ने इस पद कष प्रय ग सजीव तचत्रण करने के तलए तकयष है । 'सहस्र दृग-सु मन' कष अथा है
- हजषर ों पुष्प रूपी आँ खें। कतव ने इसकष प्रय ग पवात पर खखले फूल ों के तलए तकयष है । वर्षाकषल में
पवातीय भषग में हजषर ों की सों ख्यष में पुष्प खखले रहते हैं । कतव ने इन पुष्प ों में पवात की आँ ख ों की कल्पनष
की है । ऐसष लगतष है मषन ों पवात अपने सुों दर नेत्र ों से प्रकृतत की िटष क तनहषर रहष है ।

4. कवर् ने तालाब की समानता वकसके सार् वदखाई है और क्योों?

उत्तर:- कतव ने तषलषब की तुलनष दपाण से की है क् तों क तषलषब कष जल अत्योंत स्वच्छ व तनमाल है । वह

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
प्रतततबोंब तदखषने में सक्षम है । द न ों ही पषरदशी ह ते हैं औरद न ों में ही व्यखि अपनष प्रतततबोंब दे ख सकतष
है । तषलषब के जल में पवात और उस पर लगे हुए फूल ों कष प्रतततबोंब स्वच्छ तदखषई दे रहष थष। कषव्य
सद
ों या क बढ़षने के तलए, अपने भषव ों की पूणा अतभव्यखि के तलए कतव ने ऐसष रूपक बषँधष है ।

5. पर्व त के हृदय से उठकर ऊाँचे-ऊाँचे र्ृ क्ष आकाश की ओर क्योों दे ख रहे र्े और र्े वकस बात को
प्रवतवबों वबत करते हैं?
उत्तर:- पवात के हृदय से उठकर ऊँचे-ऊँचे वृक्ष आकषश की ओर अपनी उच्चषकषोंक्षषओों के कषरण दे ख रहे
थे । वे तबल्कुल म न रहकर खथथर रहकर भी सों देश दे ते प्रतीत ह ते हैं तक उद्धे श्य क पषने के तलए अपनी
दृति खथथर करनी चषतहए और तबनष तकसी सों देह के चुपचषप, म न रहकर अपने लक्ष्य की ओर अग्रसर ह नष
चषतहए। आकषोंक्षषओों क पषने के तलए शषोंत मन तथष एकषग्रतष आवश्यक
है

6. शाल के र्ृ क्ष भयभीत होकर धरती में क्योों धाँस गए?
उत्तर:- कतव के अनुसषर वर्षा इतनी तेज़और मूसलषधषरथी तक ऐसष लगतष थष मषन आकषश धरती पर टू ट
पड़ष ह । चषर ों ओर क हरष िष जषतष है , पवात, झरने आतद सब तिप जषते हैं । ऐसष लगतष है मषन तषलषब
में आग लग गई ह । चषर ों तरफ धुआँ-सष उठतष प्रतीत ह तष है । वर्षा के ऐसे भयोंकर रूप क दे खकर
उच्च-आकषोंक्षषओों से युि तवशषल शषल के वृक्ष भयभीत ह कर धरती में धोंसेहुए प्रतीत ह ते हैं ।

7. झरने वकसके गौरर् का गान कर रहे हैं? बहते हुए झरने की तुलना वकससे की गई है?
उत्तर:- झरने पवात ों की उच्चतष और महषनतष के ग रव कष गषन कर रहे हैं । कतव ने बहते हुए झरन ों की
तुलनष म ततय ों की लतड़य ों से की है ।

8. वनम्नवलखखत का भार् स्पष्ट कीविए -

1. है टू ट पडा भू पर अोंबर
उत्तर:- वर्षा इतनी तेज़ और मूसलषधषर है तक ऐसष लगतष है मषन आकषश धरती पर टू ट पड़ष ह । बषदल ों
ने सषरे पवात क ढक तलयष है । पवात अब तबल्कुल तदखषई नहीों दे रहे । पृथ्वी और आकषश एक ह गए हैं ,
अब बस झरने कष श र ही शे र् रह गयष है ।

2. -योों िलद-यान में वर्चर-वर्चर

र्ा इों द्र खेलता इों द्रिाल।
उत्तर:- इसकष भषव है तक पवातीय प्रदे श में वर्षा के समय में क्षण-क्षण ह ने वषले प्रषकृततक पररवतान ों तथष
अल तकक दृश्य क दे खकर ऐसष प्रतीत ह तष है , मषन वर्षा के दे वतषइों द्र बषदल रूपी यषन पर बैठकर जषदू
कष खे ल तदखष रहे ह ।ों आकषश में उमड़ते-घु मड़ते बषदल ों क दे खकर ऐसष लगतष थष जैसे बड़े -बड़े पहषड़
अपने पोंख ों क फड़फड़षते हुए उड़ रहे ह ।ों बषदल ों कष उड़नष, चषर ों ओर धुआँ ह नष और मूसलधषर वर्षा
कष ह नष, ये सब जषदू के खे ल के समषन तदखषई दे ते हैं ।

3. वगररर्र के उर से उठ-उठ कर
उच्चाकाों क्षाओों से तरुर्र

वृक्ष भी पवात के हृदय से उठ-उठकर ऊँची आकषों क्षषओों के समषन शषों त आकषश की ओर दे ख रहे हैं । वे
आकषश की ओर खथथर दृति से दे खते हुए यह प्रतततबों तबत करते हैं तक वे आकषश की ऊँचषइय ों क िूनष चषहते

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TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
हैं । इसमें उनकी मषनवीय भषवनषओों क स्पि तकयष गयष है तक मनुष्य भी सदष आगे बढ़ने कष भषव अपने मन
में तलए रहतष है । वे कुि तचोंतततभी तदखषई पड़ते है

सपनोोंकेसे वदन

क ई भी भषर्ष आपसी व्यवहषर में बषधष नहीों बनती−पषठ के तकस अोंश से यह तसद्ध ह तष हैं ?
ANSWER:

1)बच्चे जब तमलकर खे लते हैं त उनकष व्यवहषर, उनकी भषर्ष अलग ह ते हुए भी एक ही लगती है । भषर्ष
अलग ह ने से आपसी खे ल कूद, मेल तमलषप में बषधष नहीों बनती। इस पषठ में भी लेखक ने बचपन की
घटनष क बतषयष है तक क ई बच्चष हररयषणष से , क ई रषजथथषन से है । सब अलग-अलग भषर्ष ब लते हैं
परन्तु खे लते समय सब की भषर्ष सब समझ लेते थे । उनके व्यवहषर में इससे क ई अोंतर न आतष थष।
2)पीटीसषहबबहुतहीअनुशषसनतप्रयव्यखिथे।ि टीसीभीगलती उनके तलए असहनीय थी। प्रषथानष सभष की कतषर भी यतद
सीधी न ह त वे बच्च ों क कठ र सजष दे ते थे। इसतलए जब कभी वे बच्च ों क शषबषशी दे ते थे त बच्च ों क यह
तकसी फ जी तमग ों से कम नही ों लगती थी।

3) नयी श्रे णी में जषने और नयी कषतपय ों और पुरषनी तकतषब ों से आती तवशेर् गोंध से लेखक कष बषलमन उदषस ह
उठतष थष क् तों क उनके पररवषर की आतथाक खथथतत अच्छी न ह ने के कषरण उन्हें हेडमषस्टर सषहब द्वषरष प्रबोंध की
गयी पुरषनी तकतषबें ही तमलती थी। वे भी अन्य बच्च ों की तरह नयी श्रे णी में नयी कषतपयषँ और तकतषबें चषहते थे ज
उन्हें नही ों तमल पषती थी इसतलए वे उदषस ह जषते थे।

4)स्कषउटपरे डमें लेखकसषफ़सु थरे ध बीकेघुलेकपड़े , पॉतलशतकएहुएबूट , जुरषब क

ों पहनकरजबलेखकठक-
ठककरकेचलतषथषत वहअपनेआपक फ़ जीसे कमनही ोंसमझतषथष।उसकेसषथहीजबपीटी मषस्टर परे ड करवषयष करते और उनके
आदे श पर लेफ्ट टना, रषइट टना यष अबषऊट टना क सु नकर जब वह अकड़कर चलतष त अपने अोंदर एक फ़ जी
जैसी आन-बषन-शषन महसू स करतष थष।

5) एकतदनमषस्टरप्रीतमचोंदनेकक्षषमें बच्च क
ों फ़षरसी के शब्द रूप यषद करने के तलए तदए। परन्तु बच्च ों से यह शब्द रूप
यषद नही ों ह सके। इस पर मषस्टर जी ने उन्हें मु गषा बनष तदयष। बच्चे इसे सहन नही ों कर पषए कुि ही दे र में लुढ़कने
लगे। उसी समय नम्र ह्रदय हेडमषस्टर जी वहषँ से तनकले और बच्च ों की हषलत दे खकर उत्तेतजत ह गए और इस प्रकषर
की क्रूरतष क बच्च ों के प्रतत सहन नही ों कर पषए और पीटी मषस्टर क उन्ह न ों े तत्कषल मु अत्तल कर तदयष।

6) लेखक के अनुसषर उन्हें स्कूल जषनष तबल्कूल अच्छष नहीों लगतष थष परन्तु जब स्कूल में रों ग तबरगें झों डे
लेकर, गले में रूमषल बषँधकर मषस्टर प्रीतमचोंद परे ड करवषते थे , त लेखक क बहुत अच्छष लगतष थष। सब
बच्चे ठक-ठक करते रषइट टना , लेफ्ट टना यष अवषउट टना करते और मषस्टर जी उन्हें शषबषश कहते त
लेखक क पूरे सषल में तमले 'गुड् 'ों से भी ज़्यषदष अच्छष लगतष थष। इसी कषरण लेखक क स्कूल जषनष अच्छष
लगने लगष।
ANSWER:

7) लेखक के स्कूल की िु तियषँ ह ती और उसमें ज कषम करने के तलए तमलतष उसे पूरष करने के तलए
लेखक समय सषरणी बनषतष। क न-सष कषम, तकतनष कषम एक तदन में पूरष करनष है । लेतकन खे ल कूद में
लेखक कष समय बीत जषतष और कषम न ह पषतष। धीरे -धीरे समय बीतने लगतष त लेखक ओमष नषमक
तठगने और बतलष्ठ लड़के जैसष बहषदु र बननष चषहतष थष ज उद्दों ड थष और कषम करने के बजषए तपटनष
सस्तष स दष समझतष थष

8)पषठ में वतणा त घटनषओों के आधषर पर पीटी सर की चषररतत्रक तवशेर्तषए तनम्नतलखखत हैं - 1) पीटी सर शरीर से दु बले -
पतले, तठगने कद के थे, उनकी आँ खे भू री और तेज़ थी ों। वे खषकी वदी और लम्बे जूते पहनते थे। 2) वे बहुत

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 Burn Hall Hr. Sec. School
Gupkar Road, Sonwar, Srinagar, Jammu& Kashmir - 190 001
www.burnhallschool.ac.in
TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
अनुशषसन तप्रय थे। बच्चे उनकष कहनष नही ों मषनते त वे दों ड दे ते थे।3) वे कठ र स्वभषव के थे, उनके मन में दयष
भषव न थष। बषल खी ोंचनष, ठु डढे मषरनष, खषल खी ोंचनष उनकी आदत थी।

9)इस पषठ में अनुशषसन बनषए रखने के तलए बच्च ों क कठ र यषतनषएँ दी जषती थी सषथ ही उनके उत्सषह बढ़षने के
तलए शषबषतसयषँ भी जषती थी परन्तु वतामषन पररवेश में तशक्षक ों क बच्च ों के सषथ मषरपीट कष अतधकषर नही ों तदयष गयष
है। आजकल बच्च ों के मन तवज्ञषन क समझने के तलए तशक्षक ों क पररक्षण तदयष जषतष है तक वे बच्चे की भषवनषओों
क समझें , उनके दु व्यावहषर के कषरण क समझे, उन्हें उनकी गलती कष एहसषस करषए तथष उनके सषथ तमत्रतष व
ममतष कष व्यवहषर तकयष जषए तजससे वे बच्च ों क ठीक से समझ कर उनके सषथ उतचत व्यवहषर कर सके।

10)हर एक बच्चे की स्कूली जीवन से जुड़ी कुि खषस यषदें ह ती हैं ज उसके जीवन की अमू ल्य तनतधयषँ ह ती हैं।
मे रे बचपन से जुड़ी ऐसी अनेक यषदें है परन्तु उनमें से इस यषद कष अपनष तवशेर् थथषन है। हुआ कुि यूँ थष तक
जब मैं पषँचवी ों क्लषस में थष त बड़ष शरषरती हुआ करतष थष। सभी तशक्षक मु झसे परे शषन रहष करते थे। हमषरे स्कूल
के आहषते में जषमु न के कुि पेड़ थे परन्तु हेडमषस्टर और मषली के डर से क ई इन जषमु न के वृक्ष ों क हषथ भी
नही ों लगषतष थष परन्तु एक तदन मैं ने और कुि तमत्र ों ने जषमु न त ड़ने कष तनश्चय कर ही तलयष। तय यह हुआ तक मैं
पेड़ पर चढूँगष और सब नीचे तनगरषनी रखेंगे। जैसे ही मैं पेड़ की एक डषली पर पहुँचष डषली टू ट गयी और मैं धम
से एक लड़के के ऊपर तगर पड़ष सषथ ही मे रष तसर एक नुकीले पत्थर से टकरषने के कषरण फट गयष और मैं बेह श
ह गयष और मे रे सषथी क भी च ट लग गयी थी तुरोंत हेडमषस्टर क बुलवषयष गयष। हेडमषस्टर तुरोंत मु झे दवषखषने ले
गए और मे रष उपचषर करवषयष और मु झे समझषयष तक जषमु न कष वृक्ष बड़ष कमज र ह तष है आज यतद समय रहते
मे रष उपचषर न करवषयष गयष ह तष त मे रे सषथ कुि भी ह सकतष थष, मषतष-तपतष स्कूल के अध्यषपक सभी क मैं ने
परे शषनी में डषल तदयष थष। अत: मे रष यह कषया उतचत नही ों थष। आज भी जब जषमु न क दे खतष हँ त मु झे अपने
हेडमषस्टर की बषतें यषद आ जषती है

11(क) खेल मे रे तलए तदनभर की मषनतसक थकषन क दू र करने के तलए जरुरी है। इससे मु झे नी ोंद अच्छी आती है
और दू सरे तदन मैं अपने आप क तर तषजष महसू स करतष हँ। ये मु झमें सहय ग, प्रततस्पधषा और लगन की भषवनषओों
कष भी तनमषाण करते है।

ख)मे रे खेल-कूद से मे रे अतभभषवक ों क आपतत्त न ह इसतलए मैं उनके द्वषरष बनषए गए समय-सषररणी के अनुसषर
कषया करूँ गष। खेल के सषथ पढषई भी उतनी ही तन्मयतष से करूँ गष तषतक उन्हें मु झसे क ई तशकषयत न रहें।

मधुरमधुरमेरेदीपकिल

तनम्नतलखखत प्रश्न कष उत्तर दीतजए −

1.प्रस्तु त कतवतष में 'दीपक' और 'तप्रयतम' तकसके प्रतीक हैं ?

ANSWER:

प्रस्तु त कतवतष में 'दीपक' ईश्वर के प्रतत आथथष एवों आत्मष कष और तप्रयतम उसके आरषध्य ईश्वर कष प्रतीक
है ।

Question 2:
दीपक से तकस बषत कष आग्रह तकयष जष रहष है और क् ?
ों
ANSWER:

महषदे वी वमषा ने दीपक से यह प्रषथा नष की है तक वह तनरों तर जलतष रहे । अथषात इसकी आथथष बनी रहे ।
वह आग्रह इसतलए करती हैं क् तों क वे अपने जीवन में ईश्वर कष थथषन सबसे बड़ष मषनती हैं । ईश्वर क
पषनष ही उनकष लक्ष्यहै ।

Question 3

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 Burn Hall Hr. Sec. School
Gupkar Road, Sonwar, Srinagar, Jammu& Kashmir - 190 001
www.burnhallschool.ac.in
TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
'तवश्व-शलभ' दीपक के सषथ क् ों जल जषनष चषहतष है ?
ANSWER:

'तवश्व-शलभ' अथषात पतोंगष दीपक के सषथ जल जषनष चषहतष है । तजस प्रकषर पतोंगष दीये के प्रतत प्रेम के
कषरण उसकी ल के आस-पषस घू मकर अपनष जीवन समषप्त कर दे तष है , इसी प्रकषर सों सषर के ल ग भी
अपने अहों कषर क समषप्त करके आथथष रुपी दीये की ल के समक्ष अपनष समपाण करनष चषहते हैं तषतक
प्रभु क पष सके।

Question 4:
आपकी दृति में 'मधुर मधुर मेरे दीपक जल' कतवतष कष स द
ों या इनमें से तकस पर तनभार है −
(क) शब्द ों की आवृतत पर।
(ख) सफल तबोंब अोंकन पर।
ANSWER:

इस कतवतष की सुों दरतष द न ों पर तनभार है । पुनरुखि रुप में शब्द कष प्रय ग है − मधुर-मधुर, युग-युग, तसहर-
तसहर, तवहँ स-तवहँ स आतद कतवतष क लयबद्ध बनषते हुए प्रभषवी बनषने में सक्षम हैं । दू सरी ओर तबोंब य जनष
भी सफल है । 'तवश्व-शलभ तसर धुन कहतष', 'मृदुल म म सष घु ल रे मृदु तन' जैसे तबोंब है
Question 5:

कवतयत्री तकसकष पथ आल तकत करनष चषह रही हैं ?

ANSWER:

कवतयत्री अपने मन के आथथष रुपी दीपक से अपने तप्रयतम कष पथ आल तकत करनष चषहती हैं । उनकष
तप्रयतम ईश्वर है ।
Question 6:

कवतयत्री क आकषश के तषरे स्नेहहीन से क् ों प्रतीत ह रहे हैं ?

ANSWER:

कवतयत्री क आकषश के तषरे स्नेहहीन नज़र आते हैं । अथषात मनुष्य में एक दू सरे से प्रेम और स हषदा की
भषवनष समषप्त ह गई है । उनमें आपस में क ई स्नेह नहीों है । इसतलए उसे आकषश के तषरे स्नेहहीन लगते
हैं ।
Question 7: .....पतोंगष अपने क्ष भ क तकस प्रकषर व्यि कर रहष है ?

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 Burn Hall Hr. Sec. School
Gupkar Road, Sonwar, Srinagar, Jammu& Kashmir - 190 001
www.burnhallschool.ac.in
TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
ANSWER: ....तजस प्रकषर पतोंगष दीये की ल में अपनष सब कुि समषप्त करनष चषहतष है पर कर नहीों
पषतष, उसी तरह मनुष्य अपनष सवास्व समतपात करके ईश्वर क पषनष चषहतष है परन्तु अपने अहों कषर क नहीों
ि ड़ पषतष। इसतलए पितषवष करतष है

Question 8:....'मधुर-मधुर, पुलक-पुलक, तसहर-तसहर और तवहँ स-तवहँ स, कवतयत्री ने दीपक क हर बषर अलग-
अलग तरह से जलने क क् ों कहष है ? स्पि कीतजए।

ANSWER:......कवतयत्री अपने आत्मदीपक क तरह-तरह से जलने के तलए कहती हैं मीठी, प्रेममयी, खु शी के
सषथ, कषँपते हुए, उत्सषह और प्रसन्नतष से । कवतयत्री चषहती है तक हर पररखथथततय ों में यह दीपक जलतष रहे
और प्रभु कष पथ आल तकत करतष रहे । इसतलए कवतयत्री ने दीपक क हर बषर अलग-अलग तरह से जलने
क कहष है ।

Question 9:

नीचे दी गई काव्य-पंक्तियों को पढ़िए और प्रश्नों के उत्तर दीक्तजए −

जलते नभ में देख असंख्यक,
स्नेहहीन क्तनत ढकतने दीपक;
जलमय सागर का उर जलता,
क्तिद्युत ले क्तघरता है बादल!
क्तिहँस क्तिहँस मेरे दीपक जल!
(क) 'स्नेहहीन दीपक' से क्ष तषत्पया है ?
(ख) सषगर क 'जलमय' कहने कष क्ष अतभप्रषय है और उसकष हृदय क् ों जलतष है ?
(ग) बषदल ों की क्ष तवशे र्तष बतषई गई है ?
(घ) कवतयत्री दीपक क 'तवहँ स तवहँ स' जलने के तलए क् ों कह रही हैं ?
ANSWER:

(क) स्नेहहीन दीपक से तषत्पया तबनष तेल कष दीपक अथषात प्रभु भखि से शू न्य व्यखि।
(ख) कवतयत्री ने सषगर क सों सषर कहष है और जलमय कष अथा है सषोंसषररकतष में तलप्त। अत: सषगर क
जलमय कहने से तषत्पया है सषोंसषररकतष से भरपूर सों सषर। सषगर में अथषह पषनी है परन्तु तकसी के उपय ग
में नहीों आतष। इसी तरह तबनष ईश्वर भखि के व्यखि बेकषर है । बषदल में पर पकषर की भषवनष ह ती है । वे
वर्षा करके सों सषर क हरषभरष बनषते हैं तथष तबजली की चमक से सों सषर क आल तकत करते हैं , तजसे
दे खकर सषगर कष हृदय जलतष है ।
(ग) बषदल ों में जल भरष रहतष है और वे वर्षा करके सों सषर क हरषभरष बनषते हैं । तबजली की चमक से
सों सषर क आल तकत करते हैं । इस प्रकषर वह पर पकषरी स्वभषव कष ह तष है ।
(घ) कवतयत्री दीपक क उत्सषह से तथष प्रसन्नतष से जलने के तलए कहती हैं क् तों क वे अपने आथथष रुपी
दीपक की ल से सभी के मन में आथथष जगषनष चषहती हैं ।
Question 10:

क्ष मीरषबषई और आधुतनक मीरष 'महषदे वी वमषा ' इन द न ों ने अपने-अपने आरषध्य दे व से तमलने तक तलए ज
युखियषँ अपनषई हैं , उनमें आपक कुि समषनतष यष अतोंर प्रतीत ह तष है ? अपने तवचषर प्रकट कीतजए?

57 | P a g e
 Burn Hall Hr. Sec. School
Gupkar Road, Sonwar, Srinagar, Jammu& Kashmir - 190 001
www.burnhallschool.ac.in
TERM 1 TUTORIALS FOR CLASS 10th ABC – SESSION 2021-22
ANSWER:....महषदे वी वमषा ने ईश्वर क तनरषकषर ब्रह्म मषनष है । वे उसे तप्रयतम मषनती हैं । सवास्व समपाण
की चषह भी की है लेतकन उसके स्वरुप की चचषा नहीों की। मीरषबषई श्री कृष्ण क आरषध्य, तप्रयतम मषनती
हैं और उनकी से तवकष बनकर रहनष चषहती हैं । उनके स्वरुप और स द ों या की रचनष भी की है । द न ों में
केवल यही अोंतर है तक महषदे वी अपने आरषध्य क तनगुाण मषनती हैं और मीरष सगुण उपषसक हैं ।

Question 1:
भार् स्पष्ट कीविए-
दे प्रकषश कष तसों धु अपररतमत,
तेरे जीवन कष अणु गल गल!
ANSWER:.....कवतयत्री कष मषननष है तक मेरे आथथष के दीपक तू जल-जलकर अपने जीवन के एक-एक
कण क गलष दे और उस प्रकषश क सषगर की भषँतत तवस्तृ त रुप में फैलष दे तषतक दू सरे ल ग भी उसकष
लषभ उठष सके।

Question 2
युग-युग प्रतततदन प्रततक्षण प्रततपल,
तप्रयतम कष पथ आल तकत कर!
ANSWER: .......इन पोंखिय ों में कवतयत्री कष यह भषव है तक आथथष रुपी दीपक हमेशष जलतष रहे । युग -ों
युग ों तक प्रकषश फैलषतष रहे । तप्रयतम रुपी ईश्वर कष मषगा प्रकषतशत करतष रहे अथषात ईश्वर में आथथष बनी
रहे ।

Question 3: .........मृदुल म म सष घु ल रे मृदु तन!

ANSWER: ....इस पोंखि में कवतयत्री कष मषननष है तक इस क मल तन क म म की भषँतत घु लनष ह गष तभी

त तप्रयतम तक पहुँ चनष सों भव ह पषएगष। अथषात ईश्वर की प्रषखप्त के तलए कतठन सषधनष की आवश्यकतष
है ।

व्याकरण- पयाायिाचीशब्द
अंग-अंश, अियि अक्ति–आग, पािक अधम - पक्ततत, दुष्ट
असुर- दानि, दनुज अनुचर - दास, सेिक अनुपम - अपूिा, अद्भुत
अमृत- सुधा, अक्तमय अरण्य – जंगल, कानन अश्व - घोडा, घोटक
अहंकार - दपा, घमण्ड आंख – नयन, नेत्र आकाश – अन्तररक्ष, व्योम
आम-रसाल, आम्र, क्तपकबन्धु, अलंकार - भूषण, गहना, आनन्द - हषा, आमोद,
इच्छा - कामना, लालसा ईश्वर – परमात्मा, प्रभु उद्यान – उपिन, िारटका
ऊंच-उष्ट्र, महांग कपडा- अम्बर, िस्त्र कमल – नीरज, अम्बुज
ढकरण - कर, रक्तमम,
पत्रएवों तनबों धस्वयों करे -

58 | P a g e
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry

Introduction:-There are two main classes of chemical compounds, inorganic and organic. More than a century
ago, the compounds which were of mineral origin were known as inorganic and those of vegetable or animal
origin were known as organic. For example, table salt, marble and CO2 are inorganic, whereas acetic acid,
alcohol, tartaric acid, sucrose were organic.
It was assumed that the organic compounds could be produced only by living matter, as living matter
was thought to possess a vital force.
In 1828, the German Chemist Friedrich Wohler heated ammonium cyanate, derived from inorganic
substance, and obtained the organic compound urea.

KOCN + NH4Cl KCl + NH4OCN
Potassium cyanate
O

NH4OCN NH2  C  NH2
Ammonium cyanate Urea

Thus in 1850, the vital force theory was finally disproved.

Organic chemistry:- Organic chemistry is defined as the study of carbon compounds. However, there are
several exceptions:
Carbon monoxide (CO), carbonates (Na2CO3),Carbon dioxide(CO2), Bicarbonates (NaHCO3),Carbides (CaC2),
carbon disulphide (CS2), etc.

Q#1 What are organic and inorganic compounds of carbon?

Ans. Organic Compounds: are defined as compounds or carbon containing usually hydrogen and one or
more additiona1 elements oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens etc. and the branch or Chemistry which
deals with the study of organic compounds is called organic Chemistry.
Inorganic Compounds: Compounds in which carbon is linked to other atoms such as oxygen,
halogens, metals etc. and do not have C-C-bonds are called inorganic compounds of carbon.

Q#2 Differentiate between Organic and Inorganic Compounds.

Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds
1. They are generally covalent in nature. They are ionic compounds.
2. Their reaction is molecular. Their reaction is ionic.
3. They show isomerism. They do not show isomerism.
4. They have low M.P and B.P and they They have high M.P. and B. P. and they do
decompose on heating. not decompose on heating.
5. The usually do not dissolve in water. They dissolve in water.
6. The total number of Organic The total number of inorganic compounds is
Compounds exceeds five million. 50,000 approximately.
7. They have high molecular mass and They have low molecular mass and simple
complex structures. structures.
8. Aqueous solutions of organic Aqueous solutions of Inorganic Compounds
compounds possess low electrical high electrical conductivity.
conductivity.
9. They generally dissolve in organic They generally do not dissolve Inorganic
solvents like ether, alcohol, benzene and solvents.
chloroform.
10. They are highly combustible. They are non-combustible except H2, Co etc.
11. Certain classes possess characteristic They are generally colourless and odourless.
colours and odours.

1
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
Q#3 How does carbon occur in nature?
Ans. Carbon is widely distributed in nature both in the Free State and in the combined state. In the Free State,
it occurs as diamond Graphite and Buckminister fullerence In the combined state, it occurs in form of:
1. Carbonates i.e., Limestone (CaCO3)
Magnesite (Mg C03), dolomite (CaCO3 MgCO3), malachite [CuCO3. Cu (OH)2], Siderite (FeCO3),
Calamine (ZnCO3)
2. Coal, petroleum and natural gas.
3. Proteins and fats.
4. CO2 in the air.
5. All living things, plants and animals contain organic compounds.

Q#4 What is the position of carbon atom in the periodic table. Give its electronic configuration.
Ans. Carbon is a normal element having four electrons in the outer most shell of its atom. Since carbon has 4
electrons in the outermost shell of its atom, it has been placed in-group IV of the periodic table. Carbon
is the first member of the group IV A of the periodic table, which includes Silicon, Germanium, Tin and
Lead besides Carbon.
The electronic configuration of Carbon is 1S 2, 2s2, 2p2 or [He], 2s2, 2p2 or K L
2 4
It is a non metal but as the atomic number of group IV elements increases, they begin to show some
properties of metals. For example Si and Ge are semiconductors whereas Sn and Pb are metals.

Q#5 What is allotropy? Give the allotropic forms of carbon.

Ans. When an element exists in two or more forms having different physical properties but identical
chemical properties, it is called allotropy and the different forms are called allotropes, allotropic forms
or allotropic modifications.
Carbon exists in two allotropic forms: -
i. Crystalline and ii. Amorphous or Microcrystalline forms of carbon iii.Buckminster fullerene
1. Crvstalline allotropic forms of carbon: -
Two naturally occurring allotropes of carbon having well defined crystal structures are: -
i. Diamond and ii. Graphite. Due to different structures they have different properties.
2. Amorphous or Microcrvstalline forms of carbon: -
The various amorphous forms of carbon are coal, coke, charcoal, bone, blood or animal charcoal lamp
black, carbon black, gas carbon and petroleum coke.

Q#6 What is diamond? How diamonds occur? How diamonds are formed in nature? Give the
properties and
uses of diamond.
Ans. Diamond is the purest form of carbon. It is represented by the symbol C. It derives its name from Greek
word diaphane meaning transparent.
Occurance: - They are found chiefly in South Africa, Congo, Angola and Brazil. The famous
'Kohinoor' diamond was found in Wajrakarur. Diamonds are described in terms of carats (l carat =
200mg).

How diamonds are formed: - They are formed from the carbon present in the upper mantle at a depth
of over 150kms inside the Earth, under the conditions of high temperature (1500°c) and high pressure
(70,000 atm). They are brought to the surface of the earth by Kimberlite rock. Diamonds can also se
made artificially. They can be made when graphite is subjected to a high temperature (100000
atmospheres) and a very high temperature (about 37000C)
Properties of Diamond: -
1. It is the purest form of carbon.
2. It is the hardest substance known.
3. It has very high melting point 3843k and high-density 3.5 g/cm3.
4. It is a bad conductor of electricity, but good conductor of heat.
5. It has a very high refractive index (2.5), it can reflect and refract light. Therefore, it is a transparent
2
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
substance.
6. It is insoluble in all solvents.
7. It is a colourless solid.
8. If heated strongly without excess of air it changes to Graphite.

Uses Of Diamond:
1. It is used in Jewellary as precious stone.
2. It is used for cutting glass.
3. It is used in rock drilling equipments.
4. It is used for making highly accurate thermometers because of sensitivity to heat rays. 5. It is used
for making dies for drawing thin wires from metals.
5. It is used for making dies for drawing thin wires from metals.
6. It is used for grinding hard materials.
7. It is used by eye-surgeon as a tool to remove cataract from eyes.
8. It is used for making protective windows for space satellites.

Q#7 Describe the structure of diamond.

Ans. A diamond crystal is giant molecule of C-atoms. Each carbon atom is linked to four other C-atoms by
strong covalent bonds to form tetrahedral structure.

Q#8 What is graphite? How does it occur? How can it be prepared? Give the properties and uses of
graphite.
Ans. Graphite is black and soft substance, which possess metallic lusture and has a soapy touch. Its symbol is
c. It derives its name from the Greek word Graphein meaning to write.
Occurrence:- It is found in Orissa, Rajasthan, Bihar, J&K, Sri lanka, Andhra Pradesh,
Karanatka, Canada, Tamil Nadu, and United State of America. Its occurrences is common
because formation does not require extreme conditions like excessive heat and temperature.
Preparation:- It is prepared by Acheson's process by heating powdered Coke mixed with little sand
and ferric Oxide to 3237k in an electric furnace.

Properties of graphite:
1. It is also the purest form of carbon (90-97%) of carbon)
2. It is soft and good lubricant.
3. It is dark grey having a metallic luster.
4. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
5. It density is 2.25gcm-3)
6. It is insoluble in water and organic solvents.
7. It can mark paper.
8. It burns on strong heating (7000C) to form CO2.

Uses of Graphite:
1. It is used as a lubricant in heavy industry.
2. It is used for making electrodes for dry cells.
3. It is used for making cores of lead pencils.
4. It is used for the manufacture of crucibles, which can withstand high temperature.
3
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
5. It is used as moderator in atomic reactors.
6. It is used in electrotyping and electroplating.
7. It is used as covering of plaster casts.
8. Its fibres are strong, so it is used to reinforce plastic.

Q#9 Describe the structure of graphite or arrangement of C-atoms in graphite.

Ans. Graphite consists of C-atoms or sheets of C-atoms. Each carbon atom is linked to three other C-atoms
directly In the same plane by covalent bonds to form flat hexagonal rings. These rings constitute huge
sheets or layers of atoms as shown in fig. The C-C bond length in rings is 1.42A0 while different sheets
of C-atoms are held by weak Vander Waal's force at a distance of 3.4 A0

Q#10 What is Buckminster fullerene? What are their uses in future?

Ans. In 1985, scientists created a new allotrope of carbon element by heating graphite to extremely high
temperature. This is called Buckminster fullerene. It is an allotrope of carbon containing clusters of 60
carbon atoms joined together to form spherical molecules. Its formula is C60. Buckminster fullerene is a
football shaped spherical molecule in which 60 carbon atoms are arranged in interlocking hexagonal
and pentagonal rings of Catoms. There are 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal rings of c-atoms in its
single molecule. The structure of this allotrope resembles the frame work of dome shaped halls
designed by American architect Buckminster fullerene for large international exhibitions.
Buckminster fullerene is a dark solid at room temperature. It is a spherical carbon molecule containing
60 carbon atoms joined together which was discovered in 1985. Other spherical molecules of carbon
made up of 70, 90 and 120 carbon atoms have now been discovered . They are written as C 70 , C90 and
C120 respectively.
The fullerenes have been found to be present in interstellar clouds in outer space. They have also been
found to exist in nature in the meteorite which had fallen in Germany and in ancient rocks which occur
in New Zealand and Russia.
The researches which have been done so far has suggested that in future, fullerenes and their
compounds may prove to be of great use as semiconductors, superconductors, lubricants, catalysts
electric wires and as fibres to reinforce plastic. Some of the compounds of fullerenes appear to be
active against diseases like cancer and AIDS. This can lead to finding cure for cancer and AIDS.

4
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry

Q#11 What are hydrocarbons? How are they have been classified.
Ans. The simplest organic compound containing carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons are of two types
i. Saturated and ii. Unsaturated

Saturated hydrocarbons: are those in which all the carbon atoms are linked to one another by only
single bonds. i.e. the carbon valences are fully satisfied. These compounds contain only C-C and C-H
types of bonds. Since they are relatively inert towards most of the chemical reagents under ordinary
conditions, they are called paraffin‟s (Latin parum-little affins-affinity) The IUPAC name for these
compounds is alkanes and they are represented by a general formula CnH2n+2 where
n = 1,2,3,4…

N. Formula Common Name IUPAC Name

1 CH4 Methane Methane
2 C2H6 Ethane Ethane
3 C3H8 Propane Propane
4 C4H10 n- Butane Butane
5 C5H12 n- pentane Pentane
6 C6H14 n-Hexane Hexane
7 C7H16 n-Heptane Heptane
8 C8H18 n-Octane Octane
9 C9H20 n- Nonane Nonane
10 C10H22 n-Decane Decane

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons : A hydrocarbon in which the two c-atoms are connected by a “double
bond” or a “triple bond” is called an unsaturated hydrocarbon. These are further classified into two
types.
i. Alkenes or Olefins (containing "double bond")
ii. Alkynes or Acetylenes (“triple bond” )
Alkenes or Olefins: - Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing C=C bond in their molecule are called
alkenes. They are also called olefines (Latin, oleun = oil, ficare = to make) because their lower members
form oily products on treatment with chlorine or bromine.
They are represented by a general formula Cn H2n, where n=2,3,4...........

Names of alkenes:
1. Common name:- Alkane-ane+ylene= Alkylene.
2. IUPAC name: Alkane - ane+ene= alkene
The molecule formula, common name and IUP AC name of first six alkenes are –

Formula Common Name IUPAC Name

N
1 CH2( Unstable) Methylene Methene
2 C2H4 Ethylene Ethene
3 C3H6 Propylene Propene
4 C4H8 Butylene Butene
5 C5H10 Pentylene Pentene
6 C6H12 Hexylene Hexene

5
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
Alkynes or Acetylene
Unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a Carbon-Carbon triple bond are called alkynes. They are also
called acetylenes after the name of the first member of this series called acetylene, HCCH, and a triple
bond is often referred to as the acetylenic linkage.
They are represented by a general formula CnH2n-2 , where n = 2,3,4 ...

Names of alkynes:
1. Common names: Acetylene and its alkyl derivatives.
2. IUPAC name: Alkane- ane+yne= Alkyne.
The common and IUPAC names of a few simple alkynes are given below :
N Formula Common name IUP AC Name
2 C2H2 Acetylene Ethyne
3 C3H4 Methyl-acetylene Propyne
Or Allylene
4 C4H8 Ethyl Acetylene Butyne
5 C5H8 Propyl acetylene Pentyne
6 C6H10 Butylacetylene Hexyne

Alkyl group :- The group formed by the removal of one H-atom from an alkane molecule is called an
alkyl group. e.g methyl group CH3 and Ethyl group C2H5-. They are formed by the removal of one H-
atom from methane and ethane.
The general formula of alkyl group is Cn H2n + 1. Thus alkane-ane + yl = alkyl
Alkane Alkyl group Common Name
Methane CH4 CH3___ Methyl
Ethane C2H6 C2H5___ Ethyl
Propane C3H8 C3H7____ Propyl
Q#12 Write down the molecular, structural and electronic formula of Mcthane, Ethane, Propane,
Butane, Pentane, Hexane, Heptane.
Name Formula Cn H2n+2 Structural Formula Electronic Formula
H H
Methane CH4  ..
HC H
 H : C : H
H ..
H

H H
H H
.. ..
 
H : C : C: H
Ethane C2H6 HC C  H
.. ..
 
H H
H H

H H H H H H
Propane C3H8    .. .. ..
HC C C  H
   H : C : C: C: H
H H H .. .. ..

H H H
H H H H
Butane C4H10     H H H H
HC C C C  H
.. .. .. ..
   
H H H H
H : C : C: C: C: H
.. .. .. ..

H H H H

6
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry

H H H H H H H H H H
C5H12      .. .. .. .. ..
Pentane HC C C C C H
     H : C : C: C: C: C: H
H H H H H .. .. .. .. ..

H H H H H

H H H H H H
H H H H H H .. .. .. .. .. ..
     
Hexane C6H12 HC C C C CC H H : C : C: C: C: C: C: H
      .. .. .. .. .. ..
H H H H H H
H H H H H H

1. Combustion (burning): All the alkanes are combustible. They burn in air or oxygen producing
CO2 and H2O and also liberate heat in this process i.e.
CH4+ 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O, ∆ H = 890kj/mole
2. Reactivity: Alkanes are comparatively un-reactive with other chemicals because they are
saturated compounds having only single covalent bonds.
3. Substitution: Alkanes give substitution reactions due to their structural stability. They involve
the replacement of one or more H-atoms by the atoms of other elements like halogens (F,CI, Br, )

Sunlight
CH4 + CL2 CH3Cl + HCl
∆
Methyl chloride
. ∆
CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
Methylene Chloride
∆
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl
Chloroform
∆
CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl
Carbon tetra Chloride
Q13. What is homologous series? Write the characteristics of the member of a homologous series?
Ans. A homologous series is series of compounds in which adjacent members differ by a CH 2 unit. The
individual members are called homologous. For example the homologous series of alkanes can be
represented as CnH2n + 2 while for alkenes and alkynes are CnH2n and CnH2n - 2.

General Characteristics of a homologous series:

1. All compounds in the series contain the same elements and the functional group.
2. All compounds in the series can be represented by a general formula.
3. All two consecutive members differ in their formula by a common difference of - CH2.
4. All compounds in the series can be prepared by similar methods.
5. All compounds in the series have similar chemical properties.
6. There is a gradual variation in physical properties with increasing molecular weight.
7. The difference in the molecular mass of any two adjacent homologous is 14 a.m.u.

7
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry

Q#14. a. What do you understand by Isomerism? Illustrate with examples.

b. Write the possible isomerism of butane and pentane.
Ans. There are many organic compounds that have same molecular formulae but differ in their physical and
chemical properties due to the different structural arrangement of atoms in them are called isomers or
isomerides. (Greek iso-equal, moros - parts) while the phenomenon or the process is known as
isomerism.
There two main types of isomerism -:
1. Structural or Constitutional isomerism.
2. Stereo-isomerism or Space Isomerism

Characteristics of Isomerism:
1. They have the same molecule formula.
2. They have different structural formula.
3. They have different physical and chemical properties.

Possible Isomerism of Butane (C4H10). Butane can have two structural formula as
(i) (ii)
H H H H H H H
      
H C  C  C  C H HC C CH
     
H H H H H H
HC H

H

n- butane CH3  CH  CH3


CH3
Iso butane (2 methyl propane)
Possible Isomers in pentane (C5H12)
There are three isomers of pentane named n-pentane, Iso-pentane and neo-pentane.
(i)
H H H H H
    
H C  C  C  C C  H
    
H H H H H

Or CH3  CH2  CH2  CH2  CH3 pentane (n-pentane)

(ii)
H H H H
   
H  C  C  C  C H or CH3  CH  CH2  CH3
   
H H H CH3

8
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
H C H

H Iso – pentane or 2 – Methyl butane

H

H  C H
H H CH3
  
H  C C CH OR CH3  C  CH3
  
H H CH3

HC H Neo - Pentane

 2,2 dimethyl propane
H
With an increase in the no. of C-atoms in a molecule, the number of possible structural isomers
increases. Thus there are two butanes, three pentanes, five haxanes and 75 docanes and so on.

Q#15 What are addition reactions? Give an example.

Ans. The reaction in which an unsaturated compound reacts with another substance to give a single product is
called an addition reaction. Addition reactions are given by all unsaturated hydrocarbons like alkenes
and alkynes which contain double bond or triple bond. In fact, addition reaction is the characteristic
property of unsaturated hydrocarbons e.g.
Ethene reacts with one molecule of chlorine to form a saturated compound dichlororo ethane.
C2H4 + Cl2 CH2Cl  CH2Cl.
In this addition reaction, one Cl atom adds to each Catom and the double bond is reduced to single
bond.
Q#16 How do Alkenes reacts with hydrogen?
Ans. The Alkenes react with hydrocarbon when heated presence of catalyst like nickel to form saturated
hydrocarbons called Alkanes. For example, ethane reacts with hydrogen when heated in the presence of
nickel catalyst to form ethane.
Ni
C2H4 + H2 C2H6
Heat

This is called hydrogenation. It is used to prepare vegetable ghee (Vanaspati) from vegetable oils.

Q#17 What is meant by functional group? Explain with ann example.

Ans. A functional group is an atom or group of atoms in a molecule that gives the molecule its characteristic
chemical properties.
The alcohol group  OH group present in ethanol C2H5OH is an example of a functional group the
functional group is the action group while the hydrocarbon portion remains inert. Some of the
important functional groups present in organic compounds are Halo group, Alcohol group, Aldehyde
group, Ketone group, Carboxylic group, Alkene group, Alkyne group, ether group, ester , amino and
amide group.

Q#18 Write down the IUPAC system of Nomenclature.

Ans. In early days of organic chemistry, each new compound was given an individual name. Such a name
was based on the source, some property or some other common reason.
With the rapid growth of organic chemistry, the number of compounds increased fantastically (about 3
million). It became impossible to give common names to such a large number of compounds.

9
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
In 1957, the international union of pure and applied chemistry evolved a scheme for giving systematic
names to organic compounds on the basis of their structure. This is known as IUPAC system
(pronounced as eye-you-pack)
One organic compound can have only one IUPAC name. Knowing the IUPAC name of a compound,
we can at once write its structural formula.

Q#19 Write the IUPAC rules for naming Alkanes.

Ans. Rule1:- Select the longest continuous carbon chain.

Rule2:- Name the longest chain.

CH2 CH2  CH  CH3


CH3

The longest chain is butane

Rule3:- Number the longest chain:- The numbering is started from that end which will give
lowest value to substituent.
CH3  CH2  CH  CH3 and not CH3  CH2  CH  CH3
 
CH3 CH3

Rule4:- Identify the substituent:-

Name the substituent and indicate its position by the number of the C-atom to which it is attached.

Rule5:- Perfix the position number and name of the substituent onto the parent name.

CH3  CH2  CH  CH3


CH3

2- methyl butane

Rule6:- Identify the substituent by names and position number. Use prefix di, tri, tetra etc.

CH3 CH3
 
CH3 CH  CH2  CH  CH3 CH3  CH2  C  CH2  CH3
 
CH3 CH3

2,4- dimethyl pentane 3, 3 – dimethyl pentane.

Rule 7:-When two or more different substituents are present. These names are arranged in alphabetic
order

CH3  CH2  CH  CH2  CH  CH2  CH2  CH3

 
CH3 C2H5

5- ethyle-3-methyloctane

IUPAC RULES For Alkene C = C

10
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
The alkene group is a carbon – carbon double bond. The compounds containing alkene group are known as
alkenes. For example.

CH3

CH3  CH = CH2 CH3  C = CH2

Propene 2-methyl propene

CH3

CH3  CH2  CH = CH2 CH3 C = CH CH2  CH3

1-Butene 2-methyl -2- pentene

CH2 = C =CH2
1,2-propadiene

IUPAC Rules for Alkynes:-

The alkynegroup is a carbon-carbon triple bond. The compounds containing alkyne group are known as
alkynes.
H H
 
HC  CH H C C  C C H
 
H H

Ethyne 2- Butyne

CH3 C C  CH2  CH  CH3


CH3

5- methyl – 2-hexyne

CH  C  C  CH
1,3- Butadiyne

Nomenclature of Haloalkanes or Alkyle halides

Haloalkanes are compounds which contain carbon- halogen bonds. When one hydrogen atom of an alkane is
replaced by a halogen atom, we get haloalkanes. i.e.
-H
CH4 CH3Cl -
+Cl
Methane Chloromethane
(methyl chloride)

The general formula of haloalkanes is CnH2n+1 – X where X represents Cl, Br or I. In the IUPAC method,
haloalkanes are named after the parent alkane by using a prefix to show the presence of the halo group such as
chloro (-Cl), Bromo(-Br) and Iodo (-I) group.
11
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
H

The IUPAC name of (CH3Cl) is chloromethane CH3Cl or CH3 Cl or H  C  Cl

H
The common name of CH3Cl is methyl chloride. The IUPAC name of (C2H5Cl) is chloroethane

C2H5Cl or CH3 CH2  Cl or

H H
 
H  C  C  Cl
 
H H
The common name of C2H5Cl is ethyle chloride.

Br CH 3
 
CH3 CH  CH3 CH3  CH2  CH  CH2 Cl

2- Bromo propane 1- chloro – 2-methyl butane

Nomenclature of Alcohols:- Alcohols are compounds in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is bonded to a
saturated carbon. When one hydrogen atom of an alkane is replaced by a hydroxyl group, we get alcohol.
-H
CH4 CH3OH or ROH
+OH
Methane Methyl alcohol (or methanol) Where R is the alkyl group.

The general formula of alcohols is CnH2n+1 – OH

In the IUPAC method, the last „e‟ of the parent alkane is replaced by „ol‟ to indicate the presence of OH group.

i.e. Alkane-e +ol Alkanol

The IUPAC name of CH3OH is methanol while as the common name is methyl alcohol. Similarly the IUPAC
name of C3H7OH is propanol and the common name is propyl alcohol.

OH CH3
 
CH3  CH CH3 CH3  CH  CH2  CH2 OH

2-propanol 3- methyl – 1- butanol

Nomenclature of aldehyde:- Aldehydes are carbon compounds in which an aldehyde group (-CHO) group is
attached to a carbon atom. The general formula of aldehyde is CnH 2nO, when n=1,2,3…….
In the IUPAC method, the last „e‟ of the parent alkane is replaced by „al‟ to indicate the presence of aldehyde
group.
i.e. Alkane – e + al = Alkanal.
O

The IUPAC name of HCHO is methanal HCHO or H  CHO or H  C  H
12
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry

The common name of methanal is formaldehyde. The IUPAC name of CH 3CHO is ethanal whereas its
common name is acetaldehyde. Similarly, the IUPACname of C2H5CHO is propanal and its common name is
propionaldehyde.
H H O
  
CH3CH2 CHO or CH3  CH2 CHO or H C CC H
 
H H

Nomenclature of ketones:-
Ketones are compounds in which the carboxyl group (C=O) is bonded to two organic groups. A ketone must
contain at least 3-carbon atoms in its molecule. The simplest ketone is CH3COCH3 (propanone) the general
formula of ketone is CnH2nO.
Where n= 3, 4, 5………
In the IUPAC method, the last „e‟ of the parent alkane is replaced by „one‟ to indicate the presence of a ketone
group.

The IUPAC name of CH3COCH3 is propanone and its common name is Acetone (dimethyl ketone)

O H O H
   
CH3COCH3 or CH3 C  CH3 or H  C  C C  H
 
H H

The IUPAC name of CH3 CO C2H5 is butanone and its common name is Ethyl methyl ketone. Similarly, for
CH3COC3H7, the IUPAC name is pentanone and the common name is methyl propyle ketone.

Nomenclature of carboxylic acids:-

Carboxylic acids are compounds which contain the carboxylic acids are compounds which contain the carboxyl
group(-COOH). They are also called organic acids.

They occur in fatty acids, butter, ghee etc. the general formula of organic acid is Cn H 2n+1 COOH or
RCOOH. Where R is an alkyl group. The name carboxyl is derived from carboxyl (C=O) and hydroxyl (-OH)

In the IUPAC system, the carboxylic acids are named as alkanoic acids. The IUPAC name of an
organic acid is obtained by replacing the last electron of the parent alkane by „oic‟ and adding the word „acid‟
to the name.

The IUPAC name of HCOOH is methanoic acid and its common name is formic acid.

The first five organic acids are given below:

Formula Common name IUPAC

n=0 HCOOH Formic acid Methanoic acid

n=1 CH3COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid

n=2 C2H5COOH Propanoic acid Propanoic acid

n=3 C3H7COOH Butyric acid Butanoic acid

n=4 C4H9COOH Valeric or Camroic acid Pentanoic acid.

13
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry

Chemical properties of carbon compounds

Combustion:- The process of burning of a carbon compound in air to give carbon dioxide, water heat and light
is known as combustion.

All the alkanes are combustile. When they are ignited in the presence of excess oxygen, they burn to
form CO2 and H2O with the liberation of large amount of heat energy.

CH4 + 2O2 Heat CO2 + 2H2O + Heat + light

When alkanes are burnt in insufficient supply of oxygen, they form carbon monoxide and carbon. For example:

2CH4 + 3O2 2CO + 4H2O

CH4 + O2 C + 2H2O

The unsaturated hydrocarbons (Alkanes and alkynes) do not undergo complete combustion and hence burn with
luminous, yellow sooty flame and produce carbon monoxide and water because they contain higher parentage
of carbon which does not get oxidized completely in the insufficient oxygen present in air.

However, if unsaturated hydrocarbons are burned in pure oxygen, then they will burn completely and
produce extremely high temperature. For example, when acetylene burn in pure oxygen, it produces extremely
high temperature (30000C) which is used for welding and cutting of metals.

Substitution reaction:- Alkanes are comparatively uncreative due to their structural stability. They however,
undergo substitution reaction. In the substitution reaction, one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon are
replaced by the atoms of other elements like halogens (F , Cl , Br, I)

For example methane reacts with chlorine to give methyl chloride and HCl in presence of ultraviolet light or
diffused sunlight or at a temperature of 300 – 4000C.
Sunlight
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl

Methyl chloride

(Chloro methane)

CH3Cl + Cl2  CH2Cl2 + HCl

Methylene chloride

(Di chloro methane)

CH2Cl2 +Cl2  CHCl3 + HCl

Chloroform

(Trichloro methane)

CHCl3 + Cl2  CCl4 + HCl

Carbon tetrachloride

(Tetra chloro methane)

14
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
Addition reaction:- The reaction in which an unsaturated compound reacts with another substance to give a
single product is called an addition reaction. Addition reactions are given by all unsaturated hydrocarbons like
alkenes and alkynes which contain double bond or triple bond. In fact, addition reaction is the characteristic
property of unsaturated hydrocarbons-. For example,

Ethene reacts with one molecule of chlorine to form a saturated compound dichloroethane

C2H4 + Cl2 CH3 Cl  CH3 Cl

1,2 dichloro ethane

In this addition reaction, one Cl atom adds to each C-atom and the double bond is reduced to single bond.

Addition reaction of ethene with hydrogen:- Ethene reacts with hydrogen, when heated under pressure and
in the presence of Ni , Pt , or Pd as catalyst to produce saturated hydrocarbons. A hydrogenation reaction
carried in this process is called catalytic hydrogenation.

CH2 = CH2 + H2 Ni
CH3  CH3

Ethene Ethane

The process of hydrogenation is used to prepare vegetable ghee (vanaspati) from vegetable oils.

Hydrogenation of oils:- Hydrogenation reaction is used in the manufacture of vanaspati ghee from vegetable
oils. The vegetable oils such as groundnut oil, cotton seed oil and mustard oil contain double bonds in their
molecules. When reacted with hydrogen in the presence of nickel as catalyst, they are converted into vanaspati
ghee which is solid at room temperature like butter or ghee.

Vegetable oil + H2 Ni Vegetable ghee

(Unsaturated hydrocarbon) Vanspati ghee or

(Saturated hydrocarbon)

Oxidation reaction:- When alkenes react with cold dilute alkaline solution of potassium permanganate
(KMNO4), ethyle glycol is formed.

i.e. C2H4 KmnO4

CH2  CH2

Ethane H2O
 

OH OH

Ethylene glycol.

Since the bright purple colour of Kmno 4 disappears during the reaction. It is used as a test for the presence of a
double bond.

Q#20 Give the preparation, properties and uses of ethanoic acid (Acetic acid).

Ans. Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) is well known in the form of vinegar. Vinegar contains about 5-8 % of
ethanoic acid. It is present in biological fluids and plant extracts.

Preparation:- Ethanoic acid can be prepared by several methods.

i) By enzymatic oxidation of ethanol:- It can be obtained by the oxidation of ethanol by air in the
presence of acetobactor enzyme.
acetobactor
CH3 CH2OH (l) + 2[O] CH3COOH (aq) + H2O(l)

15
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
Ethanol From air Ethanoic acid

( 5 – 8%)

ii) It can be prepared by the hydrolysis of alkyl cyanide

CH3CN + 2H2O CH3COOH + NH3

iii) Methanol when reated with carbon monoxide in the presence of iodine-rhodium catalyst gives ethanoic
acid.
I2 –Rh
CH3OH(l) + CO(g) CH3COOH

Methanol Carbon monoxide Ethanoic acid

Physical properties:- Some common physical properties of ethanoic acid are described below:-

1). At ordinary temp, ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a strong pungent smell and sour taste.

2). On cooling below 16.50C it forms ice-like crystals that is why, it is named as glacial acetic acid.

3). It has a corrosive action on the skin and causes blisters.

4). It is miscible with water due to the formation of hydrogen bonds with water molecules.

5). It dissolves sulphur, iodine and many other organic compounds.

Chemical properties:- The main chemical reactions given by ethanoic acid are described below:

1) With water:- In aqeous solutions it ionizes to produce H3O+ and CH3COO- ions.
CH3COOH(l) + H2O (l) CH3COO- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
Ethanoic acid Ethanoate ion Hydronium ion

2) Action on ltmus:- Ethanoic acid is acidic in nature being acidic in nature, ethanoic acid terms blue
litmus solution red.

3) With sodium hydroxide:- It reacts with strong alkali such as NaOH giving sodium ethanoate and
water.

CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O (l)

Ethanoic acid Sodium hydroxide Sodium ethanoate Water

4) With metals:- Ethanoic acid reacts with active metals to form metal ethanoates and H- gas.

2CH3COOH(aq) + 2Na(s) 2CH3COONa (aq) + H2(g)

Ethanoic acid Sodium Sodium ethanoate Hydrogen gas

5) With sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate:-

Ethanoic acid decomposes sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate with a rapid evolution of CO 2 gas.

Na2CO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) 2CH3COONa(aq) + H2O (l) +CO2 (g)

Sodium carbonate Ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate Water Carbon dioxide

6) Reaction with alcohols:- Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols in the presence of dehydrating agents e.g.
concentrated H2SO4 to form ester.
16
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l) CH3COOC2H5 + H2O

Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate.

The reaction of carboxylic acid with an alcohol to form an ester is called esterification.

Tests for carboxylic acids:-

1) Sodium bicarbonate test:- The organic compound to be tested is put in a test tube and a little amount
of sodium bicarbonate is added to it. Evolution of CO 2 gas shows that the given compound is
carboxylic acid.

2) Ester test for acids:- The organic compound is warmed with some ethanol and few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid. A sweet smelling ester shows that the organic compound is a
carboxylic acid.

Uses of ethanoic acid:-

1) Ethanoic acid is used in the manufacture of various dyes, perfumes and a rayons.

2) Salts of ethanoic acid are used in paints and also in certain medicines.

3) It is used for making synthetic vinegar which is used in pickles etc.

4) It is used as a solvent.

5) It is used for coagulating the latex.

6) It is used for making white lead.

7) It is used for making cellulose acetate.

8) It is used for making acetone.

Q.21 Give the preparation, properties and uses of ethyl alcohol (ethanol).
Ans. Ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) is the second number of the homologous series of alcohols. Ethyl alcohol is
the alcohol of wine, bear, whisky and similar beverages. Ethyl alcohol is also known as grain alcohol,
since it can be prepared from starchy grains.

Preparation:- It is prepared on a large scale by the fermentation of sugars present in molasses (cheap
source of glucose, fructose and sucrose) in the presence of yeast. The enzymes invertase and zymase
present in the yeast act as catalyst in converting sugar into ethanol and C0 2.

Invetase
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O12
Sucrose Glucose Fructose
(in molasses)
zymase
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 (g)
Glucose/Fructose Ethyl alcohol

1. It is obtained by reacting ethene with water in the presence of phosphoric acid (H 3PO4) at a
temperature of 3000C and 60 -70atm.

H3PO4
C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH
0
Eyhene water 300 c, 60-70 atm Ethanol

17
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
Physical properties:-
1. It is a colourless, volatile liquid with a characteristic pleasant odour and
burning taste.
2. It boils at 78°C and freezes at -1180C.
3. Its specific gravity is 0.789
4. It is soluble in water as well as in all organic and inorganic solvents.
5. It is a neutral compound and has no effect on the colour of litmus.
6. It is lighter than water.
7. It is poisonous in nature.
8. It is a covalent compound and hence does not conduct electricity.

Chemical Properties of Ethanol:

1. Reaction with Na or K :- Ethyl alcohol reacts with sodium to form the corresponding
ethoxides and H - gas.

2 C2 H5OH + 2 Na 2C2H5ONa + H2 (g)

Sodium Ethoxide

2. Reaction with Phosphorus halide:- It reacts with phosphorus halide to give ethyl halide.

C2H5OH + PCl5 C2H5Cl + POCl3 + HCl

Ethyl chloride phosphorous oxychloride

3. Combustion:-It burns in air with a blue flame to form CO2 and water vapour.
Combustion
C2 H5 OH + 3O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + Heat + light

4. Oxidation:- Alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified dichromate

solution oxidizes ethanol to ethanoic acid ( acetic acid)
CH3CH2OH + 2[O] Alkaline KmnO4 CH3COOH + H2O
Or acidified K2Cr2O7 Ethanoic acid.

5.reaction with ethanoic acid (Esterification reaction):- Ethanol when

heated with ethanoic acid in the presence of concentrated H2SO4 to form a
sweet smelling ester (ethyl ethanoate).

CH3COOH + C2H5OH Conc.H2SO4 CH3COOC2H5 + H2O

Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate Water
In this reaction, conc. H2SO4 acts as a catalyst as well as a dehydrating
agent.
6.Dehydration:- When ethanol is heated with excess of conc. Sulphuric
acid at 1700 C, it gets dehydrated to form ethane.

CH3 CH2OH Conc H2SO4 CH2 =CH2 +H2O

Ethanol 1700 C Ethene Water
Tests for an alcohol
1. Sodium metal test:- Add a small piece of sodium metal to the organic
liquid , taken in a dry test tube. If bubbles of hydrogen gas are
produced , it indicates that the given organic liquid is an alcohol.
2. Ester tests for alcohol:- The organic compound is warmed with some
ethanoic acid and a few drops of conc. Sulphuric acid. A sweet smell
indicates that the given organic compound is an alcohol.
Uses:
1. It is used in the manufacture of alcoholic drinks, like whisky, wine, bear etc.
2. It is used in the manufacture of drugs and perfumes.
18
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
3. It is used in thermometers and spirit lamps.
4. It is used as a preservative for biological specimens.
5. It is used in the manufacture of acetaldehyde, acetic acid, ethyl chloride and ethyl acetate.
6. It is used as an industrial solvent.
7. It is used in hospitals as an antiseptic to sterilize wounds and syringes.
8. It is used in varnishes.
9. It is used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber.
10. It is used as a substitute of petrol in scooters and cars.
11. It is used as antifreeze for automobile radiators.
Q.22 What are soaps? How will you manufacture the soap?
Ans. Soaps are the substances that are used for cleaning and washing actions. They are sodium or potassium
salts of fatty acids like oleic acid. stearic acid, palmitic acid, lauric acid and myristic acid. Ordinary
soaps are the products of hydrolysis of oils and fats with sodium hydroxide.

1. Sodium Stearate (CI7H35COONa): It is the sodium salt of fatty acids (saturated acids called
stearic acid CI7H35COOH). A higher portion of saturated salts gives hard soaps.
2. Sodium Palnitate (CI5H31COONa): It is the sodium salt of long chain saturated fatty acids called
Palmitic acid C15H34COOH.
3. Sodium Oleate (CI7H33COONa): It is a sodium salt of a long chain unsaturated fatty acids called
Oleic acid CI7H33COOH. Higher proportion of this salt yields soft soaps.

Preparation of Soaps:- Soap is prepared by heating fats or oils with sodium or potassium hydroxide
solution (Lye). The process of making soaps by the alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is called
sapnofication.
Heat
Oil or fat + Alkali Soap + Glycerol

C3H5(COOC17H35)3 + 3NaOH 3C17H35COONa (Soap) + C3H5(OH)3 (Glycerine)

During heating and boiling the mixture should be constantly stirred. A punch of NaCl and few
flower petals should be added, the mixture is heated until thick paste is obtained. The soap separates
out from the solution and thus the crust of soap is removed and allows to set and harden. The harden
mass is then cut into desired shapes and sizes and are thus packed for marketing.

Preparation of soap at home or in the laboratory: Add 10ml of a 40% NaOH solution to 10ml of
cotton seed oil in a beaker. Boil the mixture with continuous stirring till a thick paste is obtained.
Add some hardening agent i.e. Na2CO3 to harden the soap.

Heat
Oil (fat) + Base Soap + Glycerol

When the reaction is complete, both the products are in the form of aqueous solution. To precipitate
out the soap, add some NaCl, the soap thus obtained is dried and cut into bars and cakes.

Cleansing action of soap or how soap works: Cleansing soap function by acting amulsifying agents
which means that oil and grease to be removed from the surface of skin or fabric are broken into smaller
droplets. Each one of the small droplets is surrounded by a film of soap which is washed away with
water.
The soap consists of two parts i.e., the long hydro carbon part (C 17H35) of the soap that is oil
soluble (liphopholic) and the other charged end (COONa) is water soluble (hydrophilic). As soap water
is poured over the skin or a dirty garment, the hydro-carbon tails of the soap molecules per into the oil,
while the negative head is held in water. The grease layer is then separated from skin by rubbing or
from garment by tumbling and stirring.

19
Class: 10th Carbon And Its Compounds Chemistry
Advantages of Soap:
1. Soap is an excellent cleansing agent having 100% bio degradability.
2. Micro –organisms present in sewage water easily oxidize soap to CO2 and water and hence
there can be no pollution problem.

Disadvantages of soap:
1. It can be used in soft water but not in hard water, because a large amount of soap is wasted
in reacting with calcium and magnesium ions in hard water to form a scum.
2. It cannot be applied in acetic medium as it sticks to the fabrics and hence causes problem
during dyeing and drying.
Q.23 What are synthetic detergents and write advantages of synthetic detergents over soaps?
Ans. Soaps are good cleansing agents yet they become ineffective if the water is hard. Scientists have
developed synthetic cleansing agents and which are not prepared from vegetable oil. These cleansing
agents are called detergents.
Synthetic detergent ions of the sodium salt of a long chain benzene sulphonic acid or the sodium
salt of a long chain alkyl hydrogen Sulphate.
Sodium Lauryl sulphate (C12H25OSO3Na) is an example of synthetic detergent. It does not form
Scum with the ions Ca2+ or Mg2+ and hence washes well even in hard water.
Advantages of detergents over Soaps:
1. Synthetic detergents are used even with hard water whereas soaps are not suitable for use with hard
water.
2. Synthetic detergent is prepared from hydrocarbons of petroleum so they help us save vegetable oils
for human consumption.
3. Detergents can be used in acidic solutions whereas soaps cannot be used in the acidic medium
4. Detergents have more cleaning action than soaps.
5. Detergents are more soluble in water than soaps.
6. Detergents may be used for cotton as well as woolen clothes.

Q24. Give the differences between soap and synthetic detergents.

Soaps Detergents
1.
1. Soaps are the salts of the long chain fatty They are the sodium salts of long chain
acids and the ionic group is COO - Na+. benzene sulphonic acids and ionic
group in a detergent is SO3Na+
2. Soaps are not suitable for washing with 2. They can be used both in hard and soft
hard water. water.
3. They are prepared from animal fats or 3. They are prepared from the
vegetable oils. hydrocarbons of petroleum.
4. Soaps are biodegradable. 4. They are non-biodegradable.

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