NAME OF SCHOOL: DEEPER LIFE HIGH SCHOOL

WEBSITE: [Link] ; [Link]

E-MAIL: deeperlifehighschool@[Link]
CONTACT PHONE:
SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTE
SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE CLASS: SS ONE

WEEK TOPIC
1 Revision of last term work/Agro-Allied industries and Relationship
between Agriculture and Industry: (a)Agro –based Industries and raw
materials(i)Paper industry-pulpwood (ii)Beverage industry-cocoa, tea,
etc. (iii)Soap industry-oil seeds, etc. (b)Relationship between
agriculture and industries: agriculture provides market for industrial
products e.g. farm machinery, chemicals.

2 Environmental factors affecting Agricultural production:

Environmental factors affecting crops and production (a)Climatic
factors e.g. rainfall, temperature, light, wind etc. (b) Biotic factors e. g
predators, parasites, soil micro-organisms, etc. Inter relationship such
as competition, parasitism, mutualism (symbiosis)etc. (c) Edaphic
factors: soil pH, soil texture, soil structure, soil type etc.

3 Rock formation: (a) Process of Rock formation (b)Types of Rock

(i)Igneous (ii)Sedimentary (iii)metamorphic.

4 Soil formation and profile development (a)Factors of soil formation

(the parent rock, organisms, climate topography and time) (b)Outline
of soil formation process e.g. weathering process;(c)Soil profile
development.

5 Types, composition and properties of soil:(a)Types of soil (b)Chemical

and biological composition of soil (i)soil macro and micro nutrients
(ii)soil water (iii)macro- organisms (iv)soil microbes (v)soil air (c) Soil Ph
(d)Physical properties of soil (i)soil texture (ii)soil structure (e)Soil
classification systems.

6 Simple farm tools Uses and Maintenance: (a)Meaning of simple farm

tools (b)Types of simple farm tools-cutlass, hoe, spade, shovel etc.
(c)Identification and description of each of the tools (d)Identification
of various accessory tools and their uses (e)General maintenance of
simple farm tools

7 Mid-term break
8 Farm Machinery and Implements: (a)Farm machinery (i)Tractor (ii)Bull
dozer (iii)Sheller (iv)Dryers (v)Incubators (vi)Milking machines etc.
(b)Tractor-coupled implements : ploughs, harrows, ridgers ,
planters ,harvesters, sprayers etc.

9 Maintenance Practices and Precautionary Measures: (a)Reasons for

maintaining farm machines.(b)Maintenance of farm machinery (i)check water
and oil levels regularly (ii)carry out routine service (iii)keep the machines
clean etc.
10 Agricultural Engineering and Mechanization
a. Definition and Meaning of Farm Mechanization
b. Mechanized Agricultural Operations ( Farm activities involving machinery)
c. Advantages and Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization
11 Agricultural Engineering and Mechanization (continued) d. Limitation/Problems of
Farm mechanization, e. Prospect of Farm Mechanization

12-13 Revision and Examination

REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Essential Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary School by O.A Iwena Tonad Publishers Ltd
4. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.
WEEK 1:
DATE:
SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SSI
TOPIC: AGRO-ALLIED INDUSTRIES AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY
CONTENT: i. Meaning of Agro-based industry.
ii. Agro-based industries and their raw materials.
Iii .Relationship between Agriculture and industry
Sub topic 1: Meaning of agro-allied industry

Agro-allied industries are industries that make use of agricultural produce or products as raw
material to produce other finished products. It also refers to the produce that the farmers use as an
input in the farm. the continuous existence of these industries is made possible through the raw
material derived from agriculture. These industries help;
1. To provide market for agricultural products
2. Provide employment opportunities ,
3. Generate income for the government and
4. Influence or enhance development of rural areas.

Sub topic 2: Agro allied industries and their raw materials:

The following industries make use of agricultural produce or products as raw materials:

Agro-based industries and their raw materials

Agro-based industries Raw materials used
Textile/Ginnery Cotton, wool, fur
Oil Mill Oil( from oil seeds)
Beverage industry Cocoa ,coffee ,tea
Paper mill/industry Pulp wood
Cigarette/tobacco industry Tobacco leaves
Soap industry Palm oil (from oil seeds)
Fruit canning industry (Orange, apple, pineapple, strawberry)
Tyre and tube industry Latex(from rubber tree)
Sugar industry Sugarcane
Livestock feed mill Grains (maize, groundnut, soyabeans, etc.)
Plastic industries Latex (from rubber tree)
Confectioneries Cocoa ,butter etc.
Flourmills Maize, wheat etc.
Pharmaceutical industries Neem, Eucalyptus, cotton, insulin from pigs
Foam industry Latex (from rubber tree)
Breweries Maize, wheat, rice, millet, guinea-corn etc.
Leather industry or tannery Hide and skin
Plywood industry Timber wood
Meat/Fish canning industry Meat and fish
Perfume industry Oil (from oil seeds)
Sack, Rope, Mat, and Bag industries Jute, sisal, kenaf, kapok
Milk industry Raw milk from cattle
Sawmill Timber(logs)
EVALUATION: I. list ten (10) agricultural produce used as raw materials by agro-based industries.
ii. Mention ten (10) agro-allied industries in Nigeria.
Some of the industries that produce farm inputs are:
1. Fertilizer industry, e.g. NAFCON
2. Agro-chemical industries
3. Machine/tools industries
4. Vaccine industries
5. Drug making (pharmaceutical industries)
6. Fabrication workshops

SUB TOPIC 3: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIES

Agriculture and industry have a strong relationship and these include the following:

1. Agriculture is the major source of raw materials for agro-based industries, while agro-based
industries provide ready market for agricultural products such as cocoa, cotton, latex, hides
and skin, palm produce etc.
2. Agriculture provides market for industries such as agro-chemicals, vaccines, drugs, fertilizers and
farm machinery, industries on the other hand, supply agriculture inputs.
3. Through agricultural development we can be able to shift from factors of production such as land,
capital, and labour to industries.
4. Industries create employment opportunities for the farmer’s children while the farming
community also supplies labour to the industries.
5. Agro-based industries help to provide processing/storage facilities for agricultural sector to
prevent wastage such as silos, grinders, and shellers.
6. Agriculture provides food for industrial workers while industries provide agro-chemicals such
pesticides, vaccines, herbicides, fertilizers for agricultural use.
7. Development of agriculture is facilitated by the presence of raw materials in an area .this
transforms rural communities in terms of social amenities.
8. Due to industrial development agriculture is now made easy through fabrication of energy-saving
tools and machinery provided by industries. such tools and machinery include cutlasses ,hoes,
ploughs, tractors etc.
9. Labour is competed for by both agriculture and industries.
10. Industrial development leads to rural development and enhances agricultural development.

Evaluation:
I. List 10 agro-allied industries and their raw materials.
2. Mention 10 industries that make use of agricultural produce as their raw materials.
Week end assignment: Read pages 51-53 of Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools
Bk 1 by M. O. Adeniji e tal. and answer all the revision questions.
Pre-reading assignment: Read about Environmental Factors Affecting Agricultural Production.
Week end Activity. Visit tuck-shops in your school and identify the different agricultural produce
used in making the finished products found in the [Link] ( 15) of them.
Weekend Test:
Essay Questions: 1. List 10 agro-based industries and their raw materials.
2. Define agro-based industry.
3. List ten industries that use agricultural produce as their raw materials to produce finished
products.
4. State 5 relationships between agriculture and industries in terms of agricultural raw materials.
Objectives test:
1. All the following make use of maize as raw material in their industries except (a)flour
mills (b)ginnery. (c) feed mills. (d)breweries.
2. Which of the following agro-allied industries supply inputs to agriculture?(a)sugar
industry (b)fertilizer industry. (c) beverage industry (d) confectioneries.
3. Jute, Sisal ,Kenaf and Kapok are used for making (a) soap. (b) sack. (c) paper .(d) foam.
4. Agricultural material used in a tannery is (a)cocoa beans. (b)hides and skins (c) tobacco
leaves (d)timber wood.
5. Which of the following is not an agro-based industry? (a)mining industry. (b) ginnery (c)
feed mill (d)perfume industry.
References: Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools 1 [Link] Eta l.
2. Comprehensive Agricultural Science For S ENIOR Secondary Schools by Ogieva E rebor.
3. C omprehensive Certificate Agricultural science For Senior Secondary Schools by La Are
et tal.

WEEK 2 DATE:
AGRICULTURE SCIENCE
TOPIC: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
SUB TOPIC:
(i) Climate factors
(ii) Biotic factors
(iii) Edaphic factors
Agricultural activities such as crop and livestock production are affected by several
environmental factors.
These environmental factors determine and influence the distribution of crops and
livestock as well as the performance and productivity of crops and livestock.

SUBTOPIC: CLIMATIC FACTORS

Climate can be defines as the average weather condition of a place measured over a
long period of time( over 35yrs) . Elements of climate include temperature, sunlight,
wind, rainfall, relative humidity, pressure, radiant energy and cloud cover.
(a) Temperature: this is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place at a given time. The
effects on plants and animals include;
 It is essential for germination
 It is essential for growth of plants.
 It is necessary for photosynthesis
 It affects distribution of crops and animals.
 It affects maturity of crops i.e; ripening of fruits.
 It also determines the rate of evapo-transpiration.
(b) Sunlight:

 Sunlight is necessary for germination and maturity of seeds.

 It is the major source of energy for all living things.
  It is the major ingredients for photosynthesis.
 Sunlight account for the opening and closing of the petals of certain flowers
e.g sunflower.
 Sunlight affects the length of day, this is refered to as Photoperiodism.
Classification of crops base on day length includes:
(i) Long-day plants which require longer day light. For example, most cereal like
millet, sorghum, etc , spinach.
(ii) Short-day plants which require shorter day light. For example cocoa, kola,
tobacco, okro, soyabean and oil palm.
(iii) Day-neutral plants which require equal period of day and night, that is about
12 hours of sunlight and darkness respectively for example tomato, sun
flower, maize, garden egg, etc.
Sunlight is equally essential for the performance and production of poultry. It affects evapo-
transpiration. Absence of light lead to etiolation in which the plants leaves becomes pale
and the stem elongated.
(c) Wind: Wind refers to air in motion and account for the different seasons in the
tropic.

 It helps in the ripening of some fruits like cotton.

 Wind affects the level of rainfall.
 It can either increase or reduce evap-transpiration.
 Wind is essential for the dispersal of fruits and seeds.
 It is one of the agents of pollution.
 It can cause erosion
 it also causes serious damages to our crops in form of lodging.
 Wind can spread diseases by carrying air borne spores and other pathogens.
 It determines seasons in Nigeria. For example, south west trade wind brings
rain while north east trade wind brings harmattan or dry season.
(d) Rainfall: this is defined as the released of excess condensed water vapour in the
atmosphere in to the earth, it has the highest effect on agricultural production in
Nigeria .
 Rainfall supplies drinking water for animals especially in the desert areas.
 It determines the distribution and types of crops and animals that can be
found in an area.
 Rainfall also determines the different types of vegetation. For example forest
(south) and savannah regions (north).
 Rainfall is essential for seed germination and helps to dissolve soil nutrients.
 Excessive rainfall can cause soil erosion and leaching.
 It helps to dissolve nutrient in the soil, thereby making nutrient available to
crop in the soil.
 It determine the season in Nigeria, raining and dry season
 It also determines when plant should be planted
 It also determines the types of crops to be grown
 It determines the type of livestock that can be raised in the different
ecological zone
 Insufficient rainfall causes crop failure and poor yield.
 (e) Relative Humidity: This refers to the amount of moisture in the atmosphere.
 Relative humidity results in the formation of rain.
 High relative humidity can reduce temperature leading to coldness, and
reduces evapo-transpiration.
 High relative humidity leads to mouldiness of feeds in the poultry house.
 High relative humidity affects food intake and production of farm animals.
 High relative humidity also aids the growth of disease pathogens.
 Relative humidity determines the type of crops growing in an area. For
example cocoa will not grow well under low relative humidity while low
humidity encourages the growth of grains and grasses.
(f) Cloud Cover:
 This influences temperature.
 It can determine rainfall of a place.
 It reduces evapo-transpiration.
 It affects growth of plants and feeding in poultry
 It affects sunlight intensity

EVALUATION: (i) Make a list of climatic factors that affect agricultural production. (ii)
Explain briefly how sunlight affects classification of crop plants. (iii) Describe four
effects each of: (a) Wind (b) Rainfall (c) Temperature on agricultural production.

SUB TOPIC 2: BIOTIC FACTORS

These are living organism that affects agricultural production. They include
predators, parasite, soil organism ( macro and micro-organisms) pest , disease
pathogens and weeds.
(i) Predators: These are organisms that feed on other organism. Predators may
include lizard, toad, hawk, tiger and lion while prey includes goat, chicks, and
insects.
 Some of them cause a great loss in livestock industry.
 Some predators are used to control some pests of crops and
animals.
(ii) Parasites: A parasite is an organism that live in or on other organism called
host.
o It derives nourishment from the host while the host is injured
during the association.
o It transmits certain diseases to the host eg babesiosis which is
transmitted by tick
o Parasites can live inside the host as endo-parasites such as
tapeworm, roundworm and liver fluke.
o They may also live outside the host as ecto parasites such as
ticks, lice and mite.
o Parasites can also be plants such as parasitic weeds/ epiphytic
like dodder and mistotle.
 o They reduce the quantity and quantity of agricultural products.
They may eventually lead to the death of plants and animals if
not controlled on time.
(iii) Soil Organisms: these are living organism inhabiting the soil. They include
micro organisms like bacteria, fungi and viruses and macro organisms such as
earth worms, rodents,cricket, millipedes, termites and snails etc.
Some of them cause diseases in farm animals and crop plant. For example
bacteria and fungi cause diseases. Their activities can reduce the quality and
quantity of agricultural yields.
Some of them are also beneficial in agricultural production. For
example
o Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil.
o Fungi can help in humus formation and the
decomposition of plant materials.
o Some soil organisms also aid soil aeration, water
percolation and fertility of the soil.
o They help to breakdown organic matter in the soil and
help in microbial digestion.
(iv) Pests: Pests are those organisms that cause physical damages to crop plants.
They include birds, rodents
o They can attack crops while still growing on the field or during
storage.
o They can reduce yields of crops and animals.
o They may increase cost of production
o They reduce farmer’s income due to their effects on animals
and crop yield.
o Some pests are vectors of diseases.
(v) Weeds: weeds are plants growing where they are not desired.
o They compete with crops for water, space, light and food
nutrients. Some weeds are poisonous to livestock.
o They increase cost of production
o it can also act as hosts for certain crop pests.
(vi) Pathogen: these are diseases causing organism e.g. bacteria, viruses, fungi,
protozoa, nematodes.
o It increase the cost of production
o It reduce production yield
o It reduce farmers income
o It can lead to death of plants and animals

EVALUATION
1. Enumerate the biotic factors that affect agricultural production.
2. Differentiate with 2 examples each between ectoparasites and endoparasites.
3. State three effects of weeds on agricultural production.
4. Mention four beneficial effects of soil living organisms in agricultural production.
SUB TOPIC 3: EDAPHIC FACTORS
These are soil related factors that affect agricultural production. The major soil
factors include soil types, soil texture, soil structure, soil PH, and topography, etc.
(i) Soil types: this is a serious factor in crop production.
 It determines the kind of crop to be grown and
 It determines the irrigation type to be employed where needs
be.
 It affects the performance of the crops.
Soil types include sandy, loamy and clay soil.
(ii) Soil Texture: This refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in a
soil sample.
o It determines the type of soil in an area.
o Nutrient availability is also determined by soil texture.
o It affects water infiltration and retention of the soil.
Erosion and leaching can either increase or decrease based on types
of crops to be cultivated.
(iii) Soil structure: This refers to the arrangement size and stability of soil
aggregate or group.
 Good soil structure aids the survival of soil organism which in
turn aid soil fertility.
 Good structure soil reduces soil erosion and flooding thereby
helps soil conservation.
 It also determines percolation rate and water retention
capacity of the soil.
 It determines the ease with which roots penetrate the soil and
the ability to thrive well.
(iv) Soil pH: This refers to hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the soil.
 It is used to determine whether the soil is acidic, basic or
neutral.
 Soil pH determines the crop species that can grow in a habitat.
For example tea grows well in acidic soil while maize grows in
slightly acidic soil.
 Soil pH determines availability of soil organisms.
The quantity of soil nutrients varies with the soil pH. Aluminium, iron
and manganese dissolve in acid soils, than making them toxic to crop plants.
Most tropical crops thrives well in a soil pH of between 5.5 (slightly acidic)
and 8.0 (alkaline). The color indicator commonly associated with pH,
Acidic soil : red color is commonly use.
Alkaline soil: blue and
neutral : green color color

UNIVERSAL INDICATOR

pH range Description Color

<3 Strong acid Red
3-6 Weak acid Orange or yellow
7 Neutral Green
 8-11 Weak base Blue

(v) Soil Fertility: A fertile soil is the one that contains all essential nutrients and
water at the required proportion.
o A fertile soil aids the production of food crops, cash crops, and forage
crops.
o It minimizes the use of fertilizers and manures.
o It leads to reduction in cost of production.
(vi) Topography/ Land Relief: Topography refers to the shape of the land in
relation to the underlying rocks of the earth’s surface.
 Steep and gentle slope give rise to soil erosion
 It also aid weathering of rocks.
 Flat, gentle slopes land can be better site for intensive farming.
EVALUATION
1. Itemise the edaphic factors that affect agricultural production.
2. Explain briefly how land relief feature can affect agricultural production.
3. How do soil texture and soil structure influence agricultural production.

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The use of land for agriculture is not influenced by (a) labour (b) climate (c) topography
(d) soil pH.
2. The most important micro-organism causing decay and nutrient recycling are (a)
bacteria and algae (b) bacteria and fungi (c) Algae and actinomycetes (d) fungi and
algae.
3. The relative proportion of each fraction of soil in a soil sample determines (a) texture
(b) structure (c) profile (d) catena.
4. A piece of land can be considered more suitable for livestock production than for crop
production when it is (a) stormy (b) fertile (c) moderately marshy (d) infected with
weeds.
5. The total land area of a country available for farming depends on the (a) climate of the
area (b) level of literacy of farmers (c) number of houses and structure (d) sex
distribution of the population.

ESSAY TEST
1. Explain five ways in which high rainfall affects agricultural production.
2. (i) List six environmental factors affecting agricultural production. (ii) explain hoe
three of the factors in (i) can affect agricultural production in Nigeria.
3. Discuses five economic importance of pests and disease in agricultural production.
4. Explain briefly how the following affect crop production: (i) soil texture (ii) soil pH
(iii) soil living organisms.
5. State two each of (i) climate (ii) biotic, and (iii) edaphic factors affecting production
of crops and animals in your country.

WEEK – END ASSIGNMENT

Read Evans Agricultural science for senior secondary schools, Book 1 by M.O Adeniji. Et al
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about Rock formation and type of rock.

WEEK END ACTIVITY: (a) list 3 types of rock (b) describe the process of their formation

REFERENCE TEXT
1. Evans Agricultural science for SS Book 1 by M.O Adeniji et al: Evans Brother
Nigeria.
2. Agricultural science for SSS book 1 by Ashimolowo et al; Melrose Books and
Publishers.

WEEK 3 :
DATE:
SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SS1
TOPIC: ROCK FORMATION:
CONTENT:
1. Meaning/process of rock formation
2. Types of rock
Sub topic 1: Meaning /process of rock formation:
Rock is defined as any minerals materials of the earth. Rock can also be defined as the
aggregates of minerals made up of hard and soft materials like stone, sands etc. Rock constitutes the
significant of earth crust. The earth crust consists of rocks which is the combination of different
mineral elements such as silica which contain silicon and oxygen. Rocks are aggregates (mixtures) of
minerals.
ROCK FORMATION (PROCESS OF ROCK FORMATION)
Rocks are formed as a result of volcanic eruptions from earth’s crust. During the volcanic
eruption the molten material or magma may remain within or escape to the surface . The magma or
lava subsequently cools and solidifies to form glassy crystalline textured mass. In Nigeria rocks are
found in Benue, Bauchi, Zaria, Plateau,
llorin, Ondo , Ado-Ekiti , Abakiliki and Ogoja in Cross River State , etc.
Some of the magma may cool before reaching the surface of the earth thus forming
plutonic rocks (intrusive rocks) while some may reach the surface to form volcanic rocks (extrusive
rocks)
Examples of plutonic (intrusive) rocks are granite, diorite, gabbro, etc.
Examples of volcanic (extrusive) rock are basalt, andesite, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, scoria and tuff.
Rapid cooling gives rise to fine grained rocks, while slow cooling gives rise to larger grained rocks.
Rock contains primary and secondary minerals. The Primary Rock Minerals that exist in the
natural form consist of quartz, biotite, olivine, magnesium, iron, and aluminium, sulphate and
carbonate of iron, magnesium and calcium, clay minerals such as the silicate and hydrous oxide.
Secondary Rock Minerals are:
(a) Oxides of metal e.g. sodium oxide (Na₂O).
 (b) Mortmorilonite.

Evaluation:
1,Define rock or what is rock?(b) explain the following with examples (i) plutonic rock (ii) extrusive
rock
2 . Enumerate the primary and secondary minerals found in rocks.

Sub topic 2: TYPES OF ROCK.

Rocks are grouped according to their mode of formation, appearance and minerals composition.
Based on this analysis, there are three types of rock. They are as follows:
1. Igneous rock
2. Sedimentary rock
3. Metamorphic rock
Igneous rock: This is formed as a result of high temperature and pressure beneath the earth’s crust
which causes the liquid material (molten magma) below the earth surface to solidify or erupt in the
form of a volcano. There are two types of igneous rock;
(a) Intrusive or plutonic
(b) Extrusive or volcanic
Examples of igneous rock rocks include: granite, diorite, gabbro, (they contain minerals like quart,
feldspar, and mica) –plutonic,
While basalt and andesite are extrusive.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCK:

1 .They are coarsely crystalline in nature.
2. They are glassy in appearance.
3. They are usually hard and impervious.
4. They are resistant to erosion and other elements of climate
5. They do not contain fossil.
6. Their colours vary from pink, green, grey, or black.
7. They do not form layers i.e. they are non-stratified rocks
SEDIMENTARY ROCK:
They are formed when weathered particles are carried from their place of origin and deposited in
another area as solid particles or when the pre-existing rocks are broken down by geological
denudation agents. The materials carried are usually laid down in strata/sediments/ layers. They are
usually cemented together by organic matter, cemented agents or pressure.
Example of sedimentary rocks are
limestone,sandstone,coal,dolomite,clay,shale,mudstone,peat,lignit,and gypsum.
Types of sedimentary rock
[Link] sedimentary rocks
[Link] sedimentary rocks
[Link] formed sedimentary rocks.

Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks are known as secondary [Link] are formed as a result
of accumulation and cementation of weathered materials over a period of [Link] are
dolomite,conglomerates,sandstone,limestone and quarzites.
Organically formed sedimentary rocks are formed as a result of deposition and hardening shell sand
skeleton of aquatic organisms such as fish, oyster shells and snails [Link] are coal,peat,graphite and
lignit. The remains of plants and animals found in sedimentary rocks are known as fossils.
Chemically formed sedimentary rocks are as a result of chemical reaction of minerals in the rocks,
precipitates are formed and deposited in layers over time .e.g sodium chloride, gypsum and nitrate.

Characteristics of sedimentary rocks :

1They occur in layers(stratified).
[Link] contains fossils (dead plants and animals).
3. They are prone to erosion.
4. They formed precipitates.
5. They react with weak acids.
6. They are soft.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
These are derived from pre-existing sedimentary or igneous rocks by the agents of metamorphism
such as heat,pressure and chemical change.
Examples include: Gneiss, Schist, Quartzite,marble,Slate.

METAMORPHIC ROCK.

Importance Of Rocks In Agriculture:

1 . For soil formation.
2. Plants nutrients which are utilized by plants are derived from rocks. Examples are Magnesium,
calcium, manganese, silicon, sodium and Potassium.
3. For road construction and farm building.
Other uses of rocks include:
1. Domestic use- as grinding stone.
2. Source of metals- granite, silver, copper, diamond etc.
3. Source of fuel- petroleum and coal
4. As an ornamentals-
5. Exportation
6. As raw materials (e.g. limestone, dolomite, marble) for our industries
7. Sources of minerals (food) rock salt such as sodium chloride (table salt).

Evaluation: 1. List 3 types of rock and give 3 examples in each.

Weekend assignment: Classify the following into Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock:
Gabbro, Marble, Dolomite, Slate, Coal and Limestone.
Pre-reading assignment: Read on soil formation as the next topic.
Weekend activity: Go round your school premises and gather some samples of rock and identify
each of the following rock samples Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Write down 5
features each of the identified rocks:

General evaluation:
Essay questions:
[Link] the primary and secondary minerals found in rocks.
[Link] three major types of rocks . (b)Describe the process by which the various types of rocks listed
in (2a) above are formed.
3. Give 3 examples each of the following types of rocks: (i) Igneous (ii) sedimentary rock
(iii) Metamorphic rock.
Objectives test:
[Link] of the following is NOT a primary rock mineral. A. Quartz B. Mica C. Feldspars D. Sand E.
Olivine.
[Link] the following are organically formed sedimentary rocks Except A. Lignite. [Link]. D.
Petroleum. [Link].
[Link] of the following is formed from the cooling of molten magma.A. Igneous rock B. C. Which of
the following is an example Igneous rock? [Link] B. Limestone [Link] C. Granite E. Quartzite.
[Link] is a metamorphic rock formed from A. Sandstone B. Slate [Link] D. Clay E. Granite
[Link] most common soil mineral found in all crystalline rocks and a main constituent of sand stone
is A. Biotite. B. Quartz C. Mica D. Granite E. Basalt
Reference texts: 1. Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by [Link] e tal.
[Link] Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by Ogieva
3. Round-Up Agricultural Science-A complete Guide by S. [Link] e tal.

WEEK 4:
SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
DATE:
CLASS: SS1
TOPIC: SOIL FORMATION AND PROFILE DEVELOPMENT.
CONTENT:
 1. FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION
2. PROCESS ES OF SOIL FORMATION
3. SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT

Introduction: soil is very important factor for agricultural activity and survival of man. Soil is the
loose weathered materials covering the surface of the earth, which supports life. It can also be
defined as the outer most part of the earth that is formed from mixture of minerals and decaying
organic matter which extends from the surface down to the limit of biological forces.
Sub topic 1:
Factors of soil formation:
The transformation of rocks into soil is referred to as soil formation. The first stage in the process of
soil formation is the Weathering Of Rocks which involves the breaking of rocks into smaller particles
and eventually into individual minerals that the rock is composed of. Weathering of rock can either
be Physical such as through water, wind, Pressure, ice and temperature, or Chemical which involves
changes in the chemical composition of the rock. There are a number of factors that influence the
rate, type and quality of soil formed in a location.
F ACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION:
There are five factors that determine or influence soil formation, namely:
1. Parent material
2. Climate
3. Topography
4. Living organisms
5. Time
Parent material: The type of materials, that is structure, texture, and mineral composition present in
the parent rock will also determine the type of soil formed Parent materials are important in the
following ways:
1. Determining the properties of the soil e.g coarse, grain soils are formed from
granite or gneiss
2. Coarse parent materials form coarse-textured and well-drained soils.
3. Rocks containing calcite, feldspar will produce deep heavy soils like clayey soils.
4. Quartz, Hornblende and mica will form poor soils like sandy soils.
5. Shale and limestone parent materials produce soils that are fine-textured, poorly
drained and with high mineral content.

Climate:- This the average weather condition of a place over a long period of time.
Climatic factors include the following:
i. Rainfall
ii. Temperature
iii. Wind
iv. Relative humidity
v. Pressure
vi. Cloud cover
vii. Sunlight
Rainfall: Helps in the dissolution of chemicals from the parent materials and also in transporting
broken down [Link] determine the types of soil to be formed
Temperature: Effect of temperature leads to expansion and contraction of rocks. Rock mineral with
low expansively will break away to form soil. Also rock holes may retain water which freezes up at
night and melts during the day, leading to disintegration of rocks and eventually soil formation.
Wind: wind can carry materials which collide with rock surfaces leading to breaking of rocks into tiny
particles.
Relative humidity: This can supply moisture thereby encouraging the breaking of rocks particles into
soil.
Pressure: This can lead to the breaking of large rock particles into tiny soil particles.
High pressure on a rock may cause such rock to fall down and break into tiny pieces, resulting in the
formation of soil.

TOPOGRAPHY:
Relief or topography refers to the surface features of the earth crust such as hills, valleys or flat land.
It may also mean the shape of the land in relation to the underlying rocks of the
earth surface. The effect may include the following:
1. The shape of the land affects the movement and amount of water in the soil.
2. Hilly and sloppy surfaces support erosion and encourage soil formation. A flat land exposes the
surface to equal environmental factors and therefore delays soil formation. However there maybe
rapid accumulation of soil in the valley.
LIVING ORGANISMS:
This refers to the activities of plants, microbes, rodents, man. Their effects will help to encourage soil
formation in the following ways;
Animals such as rodents, earthworms, termite, etc burrow into the rocks, thereby leaving the holes
or cracks in the rocks; they exert pressures which break off fragments of rock.
The activities of man during farm operation and construction contribute to the breaking down of
rocks into smaller particles especially when ploughing machines are employed.
The root of higher plants exert prying effect on rock to cause break down. Also plant’s root exude
certain substances which may cause dissolution of rock minerals, hence resulting in soil formation.

TIME:
This constitute an important factor to soil formation, the breaking down of rocks and
decomposition of organic materials takes some time, the time may be short or long. Time determine
the age of the soil, that is, a young or an old soil. Young soils have poor water-holding capacity,
mineral content and life sustenance. Old soil are rich in everything because all the factors like
climate, parent material, topography and living organisms take time to register their effects on the
soil formed. Also it takes time for plants to decay and become part of the soil.

Evaluation: 1. List and discuss four factors that affect formation of soil.

Sub topic 2:
Processes of soil formation:
This refers to all the activities that will lead to the weathering of rocks. Weathering of rocks is the
disintegration / breaking down of rocks into tiny particles to form soil. Weathering is a complex
series of changes or processes which take place in transformation of rocks and their constituent
minerals into soil. The changes or process of soil formation include the following:
1. Physical process
2. Biological process
3. Chemical process
Physical processes: Are mostly climatic factors like temperature, running water , ice, wind and
pressure.
Temperature- temperature changes bring s about different expansion and contractions of minerals.
Day and night variation of the temperature in the desert can lead to alternate expansion and cooling
of rocks, as rocks that cannot withstand these changes peels off or flake off. thus creating stress in
the rocks, leading to the eventual break down of the rocks.
Running water/ Rainfall –Rain water may form flood, rivers and streams which Carries small rock
particles (stone) and pebbles which collide and get broken into smaller particles. Through the
erosional forces by the running water, portions of rock could be cut off and crushed which later form
soil minerals.
Ice- ice is an important agent of weathering in temperate regions, extremely low temperatures
brings about frozen of water which is collected in the crevices of rock. The increase volume of the ice
exerts considerable pressure on its surrounding leading to the breakdown of the rock.
Wind- Wind is important in arid regions and in tropical areas, especially during the dry weather.
Wind is air in motion .In the tropical areas especially during the dry weather, wind can be laden with
sand particles and dunes which result in abrasive forces and expose massive rock thereby resulting in
disintegration.

Biological processes: This involves the activities of plants and animals in the breaking down of rocks
to form soil. Plant roots penetrate mineral rock cervices which crack and cause physical splitting of
the rocks and minerals Animals help in weathering by burrowing into the rock. Human beings also
help through cultivation and ploughing.

Chemical weathering/ process : Chemical weathering is the reaction of rock minerals with water.
The processes include hydrolysis, hydration, solution, carbonation, oxidation and reduction.
Hydrolysis- Is the process by which the hydrogen ions from water molecule are used to replace the
metallic elements in a rock mineral. This is otherwise known as the reaction of water with rock
minerals catalyzed by hydrogen to form a strong alkaline, this disintegrates the rock minerals
KAlSi₃O₈ + H2O HAlsi3O8 +KOH

Hydration: This the rigid attachment of water molecules to a rock mineral e.g the changing of
haematite (red) to limonite (yellow). The newly formed rock will disintegrate due to instability.
Fe2O3+ 3H2O ___________ Fe2O3. 3H2O
Red (haematite) yellow (limonite)

Solution: This is the process by which a solvent (water) dissolves a solute (rock minerals or salts) to
form solution. The substances formed will be carried away and deposited elsewhere to form soil.
Carbonation: This is the process by which certain atmospheric gases react with water molecules to
form weak acids leading to the disintegration of rocks.
e.g
1. Carbondioxide reacts with water to form weak trioxocarbonate iv acid.
CO2 +H2O _____ H2CO3(trioxocarbonate iv acid).

2. Sulphur dioxide reacts water to form weak trioxosulphate iv acid.

SO2 + H2O ______ H2SO3. (trioxosulphate iv acid)

Oxidation: This is the addition of oxygen to a rock mineral or removal of hydrogen from a rock mineral or the process

of electron loss. During weathering ,the most significant e.g of oxidation is the conversion of iron ii to iron iii. Rock

minerals
-Siderite is changed to haematite.
Reduction: This simply means the addition of hydrogen to a rock mineral or the removal of oxygen
from a rock mineral or the process of electron gain.

Evaluation: [Link] is rock weathering? (b) state two factors of agricultural importance of
weathering.
[Link] five factors of soil formation and any four.

Subtopic 3:
SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT:
This refers to the vertical section of the soil from the surface into the underlying unweathered
materials these soil layers can be differentiated by their color, organic matter content, porosity and
depth. There are four (4) distinct layers or horizons or strata.
The top soil is referred as A- horizon while the sub soil is B-horizon. Parent material is C-horizon and
the bed rock is D-horizon.

A—Horizon: This consists of two layers:

The organic matter layer and top soil. The organic matter layer contains dead plants and animals
materials, decayed, decaying organic matter (Humus). This is usually dark in colour. The top soil is
the upper layer of the soil immediately after organic matter layer. It contains bacteria, worms and
fungi .It is rich in soil nutrients.
B_Horizon: The B- Horizon is the sub soil. It is greyish or brownish in colour. The sub soil can be
divided into two layers based on its colour. The upper layer is dark in colour and contains coarse
sandy loam, fibrous branches, taproots, bacteria, fungi, worms, termites. The second layer is
yellowish in colour. It contains sandy loam, little of humus, taproots and is the richest part of the sub
soil.
C-- Horizon: The horizon – c or parent materials layer is reddish orange, gravelly and contains sandy
clay soils. The clay content is very high and taproots can be seen here occasionally.
D--- Horizon: This is the bed rock, and an area in which rocks had not been transformed .It consists
of unweathered rocks.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL PROFILE

1. It helps to determine the level of soil fertility.
2. It determines the types of crop to be grown in a particular area.
3. The level of parent material determines the type of mineral salt available to plants.
4. It determines the level of drainage and irrigation of the soil.
5. It determines easy penetration of roots of crops.
6. A loosely packed subsoil reduces erosion and soil run-off

General evaluation:
1. Explain briefly the processes of formation of:
(i) Igneous rocks. (ii) Sedimentary . (iii) Metamorphic rocks. (b) Give 3 examples of
each.
2. Discuss briefly five factors which affect soil formation.
3. Discuss the role of climate in soil formation .(b) explain briefly four types of chemical
weathering.
 4. What is “ soil profile”? Give two example of places it could be found. (a) State in detail the
effect of humus on either sandy or clay soils. (c) Why is it important that soil profile should
be studied?
5. Write an essay on soil organisms and their role in soil formation and fertility.

Objective questions:
1. The physical components of the soil are derived mainly from the (a) subsoil (b) topsoil
(c) dead organic materials. (d) marbles (e) rocks.
2. All of these are factors of soil formation except (a) rain (b) day length (c) soil organisms
(d) erosion (e) temperature.

A mineral element which combines with oxygen and causes rocks to disintegrate is (a) copper
(b)ferrous iron (c) ferric iron (d) calcium (e) silicon.
3. An organism which is not regarded as helpful during soil formation process is (a)
earthworm (b) termite (c) rat (d) snail (e) moses
4. What part of soil profile exerts a significant influence on the properties of the soil? (a) B-
horizon (b) horizon A (c) horizon –C (d) horizon D. (e) horizons A and B.
5. Which soil fraction first settled down at the bottom(a) organic material (b) sand (c) silt
(d) clay (e) colloids.
Weekend assignment:write short note on the following : (1) horizon-A, B, C and D.
2. Describe briefly six ways in which soil organisms aid the formation of soil.
[Link] weathering state two types of weathering.
4. A vertical section was made through a piece of virgin land by means of a labeled
diagram, illustrate what would be observed from the vertical section (ii) What is the
name given to the diagram in (4i)?
Pre-reading assignment: Read about the types of soil ,composition and properties of soil.
Weekend activity: Read from pages 63-69 of Evans Agricultural Science for more
information and attempt all the revision questions on pages 70-71.

Reference texts: Comprehensive Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by

OgievaErebor
[Link] Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools 1 by [Link] e tal.
3. Prescribed Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by [Link] tal.
4. Melrose Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools1 by B O Ahimolowo e tal.

WEEK 5
TOPIC: TYPES, COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF SOIL
CONTENT:
1. Types of soil
2. Soil composition (chemical and biological composition)
3. Soil pH
1. Soil properties- physical properties of soil (texture, structure).

SUB TOPIC: Soil types or Types of soil

Soil is the loose weathered material covering the earth surface which supports the growth
Of plants and sustains human and animal life.
Soil consists of mineral materials e.g sand, clay, silt and gravel, organic materials which are made of
plants and animals, H2O (water), air and microbes.
Types of Soil
There are three types of soil formed as a result of the breakdown of rocks that is weathering. They
are as follows:
1. Clay Soil: this is a type of soil that has clay constituting the major proportion about 40% and
above while the other part contains silt and sand. Types of crops that can grow on clay soil:
rice, sugarcane, etc. It possesses the following characteristics.

PROPERTIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAY SOIL

1. The relative range in diameter is 0.002mm
2. It is fine grained
3. It is plastic in nature
4. It is sticky when wet
5. It has tiny pore spaces
6. It is poorly drained and aerated
7. It has high water retention capacity
8. It can easily form ribbons or cast when moulded
9. Capillarity is very high
10. When dry, it is hard and cracks thereby leading to deep crevices in the dry season.
11. It is alkaline and there is high proportion of mineral ions in the colloidal clay forms.
12. It supports water – logging and erosion
13. It is heavy, hence it is difficult to cultivate.
14. The colour is usually light brown
15. Percolation is low.
16. The particles are tightly bound together with little pore spaces.
17. It is usually fertile and good for agriculture
18. It has good chemical properties but bad physical properties.
19. It has electrical charges which help to attract large number of mineral ions.

WAYS OR METHODS OF IMPROVING CLAY SOIL:

i. Addition of organic manure
ii. Addition of lime to reduce the acidity in the soil
iii. Proper and adequate drainage

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CLAY SOIL

i. It is use for pottery and crafts making
ii. Building houses
iii. Construction works
iv. Rearing fish

SANDY SOIL: These are loose soils which consist of coarse grain particles. It is a type of soil which
sand particles are much more than the other soil particles (about 85%) and others 15%. Types of
crops that can grow on sandy soil: cowpea, soyabean, groundnut etc.

CHARACTERISTIC OR PROPERTIES OF SANDY SOIL

1. The soil particles are large, coarse, grained and gritty when touched.
2. It is well aerated with loose, large pores or air spaces.
3. It possess low water holding capacity
 4. The water rise by capillary is very low.
5. When wet it is not sticky and hence cannot be moulded into shapes
6. It does not support water-logging and erosion
7. Farmers can easily work on them i.e. it can be tilled
8. Leaching is high
9. Low plant nutrient
10. Highly acidic
11. It is usually white in colour
12. High percolation
13. Micro-organism are discharged because of heat
14. It has poor chemical properties by good physical properties.
15. It is neither suitable for growing tree crops nor for most food crops but it is used for pasture
crops and vegetable.
16. It is made up of quartz, that is S1O2
17. The range in diameter is between 2.00m and 0.02mm

METHODS OF IMPROVING SANDY SOIL

1. By mulching
2. Planting cover crops
3. Application of compost manure
4. Application of farm yard manure
5. Avoidance of bush burning

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SANDY SOIL

1. Sandy Soil: Is very important in building construction when mixed cement for block
moulding, plastering and concreting.
2. Varieties of crops such as cowpea, cotton groundnut, cassava, can be cultivated on it.

Loamy Soil: This is a mixture of sand and clay particles with a higher proportion of organic matter
(humus). It is a combination of both silt and clay without any one dominating the other. This makes
the soil to have features of both silt and clay, the color vary from brown to black. It is also known as
an artificial soil. Types of crops that can grow on loamy soil: best for all crops

Properties or Characteristics of Loamy Soil

1. It is an all round soil
2. It is rich in plant nutrients.
3. It has the drainage of sand and loose particles.
4. It can withstand moderate periods of drought
5. It contains decayed organic matter or humus
6. It is alkaline in nature.
7. It is well aerated
8. Loams are easily worked or cultivated in both dry and wet forms
9. The lumps fall apart easily and so they are friable.
10. They are classified as heavy, light or medium according to the proportion of clay.
11. Has high water-holding capacity.
12. Percolation is low and capillarity is high
13. It is dark in colour
14. It has a good combination of silt, clay and sand fraction.
15. It is the best soil for Agriculture.
 16. Humus is not a soil but the decaying matter in the soil. It is usually black or dark brown in
colour, moderately smooth when touched. It helps in binding the soil particles together. It is
also helps in increasing the soil nutrients.

EVALUATION
(I) List and explain the three types of soil
(II) State 5 properties of each types of soil mentioned in (i) above

SOIL COMPOSITION

SUB TOPIC 2: (CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF SOIL)

Plant foods are the nutrients or mineral elements that a plant requires for growth, maintenance
and development. Soil minerals which is also referred to as inorganic matter constitute about 45% of
the soil composition. Plants nutrients are divided into two groups:
1. Macro nutrients
2. Micro nutrients.
MACRO NUTRIENTS/MAJOR/ESSENTIAL: These are the mineral salts required in large amount and
their deficiency can easily manifest on plants. They include Nitrogen potassium, calcium, magnesium
and sulphur. They are also known as major elements.
MICRO NUTRIENTS OR MINOR OR TRACE ELEMENTS: They are the mineral salts required in small
quantity, and their deficiency does not easily manifest but can manifest on the animals feeding on
such plants.
Micro nutrients are also known as trace elements or minor elements. They include carbon, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, boron, zinc, cobalt, copper and chlorine.
Oxygen and hydrogen can also be grouped as minor elements.
NB: Iron is a traced element in plants but of major elements in animals.

SOIL WATER:
This constitutes about 25% of the soil. It is the amount of water present in the soil and available to
plants.
Source of soil water are ground water rainfall and irrigation.
TYPES OF SOIL WATER
These are three types of soil water
i. Gravitational: The excess water subtended by gravity on soil surface. This water is not
available to plants. It is often pulled down beyond the reach of roots. It helps to prevent
water logging in soil.
ii. Capillary water: This is the form of water which rises above the water table in the soil. It
can be held by surface tension in the pores. This water can rise to the root zone of plants
especially in clay soils of the soil. The finer the pores, the greater the force binding the
water and higher the rise of water. This form of water is easily available to plants.
iii. Hygroscopic water: This is the form of water which is absorbed on the surface of soil
particles from atmospheric water vapour. It is only available for plant for a short time
before it vapourizes. It can easily get loss when the soil is oven dried at about 105 0C. This
water is not available to the plants for their growth.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN SOIL WATER:
1. Field capacity: Type of water left in the soil after evaporation and drainage have occurred.
The soil will be wet and water left is still available to plant for use.
 2. Water table: Is the reservoir of water that is slightly below the reach of the largest tap root
and above the parent materials. The higher the water table, the higher the amount of water
available to plants.
3. Surface tension: Is a force which holds water molecules in the soil. The cohesion force holds
water molecules together thereby preventing water from falling after rising while adhesion
attaches water molecules to soil particles, and makes water to be available at a particular
point in the soil.
4. Water log: This is when water is too much in a soil covering the whole soil surface. The
excess water can be removed by drainage.
5. Wilting point: Is the point at which the soil has lost so much water or has been lacking water
for a very long time that it cannot absorb water again when eventually supplied.
Importance of soil water to crops
1. Helps in the absorption of mineral salts
2. Helps in the transportation of nutrients to other parts of the plants.
3. It is needed as a raw material during photosynthesis.
4. For hydrolysis of food substances like starch, proteins, fats and oil which are later
transported to other parts of the plants.
5. It is a constituent of plant protoplasm
6. Essential for plant growth
7. Helps in the coding of crops
8. Helps to maintain plant turgor / turgidity
9. Essential for enzymes to work very well in plants.
10. It neutralizes the effect of temperature.
11. Promotes the activities of micro-organisms.

SOIL LIVING ORGANISM: This includes the living organism in the soil. The soil consists of both plants
and animals. Some of them are beneficial while others are harmful.
Soil living organisms are divided into two groups:
i. Macro – organisms
ii. Micro – organism
MACRO – ORGANISMS: They are higher organism living in the soil which is readily visible. Examples
include Earthworms, worms, millipedes, cricket, centipedes, insects, snails and rodents.
MICRO – ORGANISMS: They are small soil living organisms. Examples are bacteria, fungi, and algae

EFFECTS / IMPORTANCE OF SOIL ORGANISM

(i) Soil organisms are involved in the decomposition of dead organic matter in the soil.
(ii) They include micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi and algae.
(iii) They help in burrowing, which lead to good soil aeration and water movement.
(iv) They help in influencing chemical changes in the carbon and nitrogen cycles.
(v) They help in improving the structure of the soil
(vi) When the soil organisms die, they add nutrients to the soil. The decayed or decaying
bodies of both plants and animals are also known as humus (5%).
(vii) Symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium leguminosarium found in the root nodules of legumes
like beans, groundnut, help in fixing atmospheric nitrogen to the soil.
(viii) Some soil micro-organisms produce acidic materials which are essential in rock
weathering.
(ix) Some soil organisms can be harmful or detrimental, causing diseases to animals, plants
and man.
(x) Soil organisms are affected by erosion, burring and fertilizer application.
(xi) They help in the process of weathering.
SOIL AIR: This is the amount of gases found inside the soil. It is essential for respiration of soil micro-
organisms. The amount of air is inversely proportional to the amount of water in the soil, that is; its
amount depends on the size of the soil particles and the amount of soil water. It is about 25% by
composition.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL AIR

1. Soil air provides a medium of gaseous exchange for soil living organisms.
2. It is essential for the process of germination to take place in the soil.
3. It prevents certain plant diseases caused by anaerobic organisms e.g damping off.
4. It provides a medium of transpiration for plant roots.
5. It helps in absorption of plant nutrients.
6. Essential for root development
7. Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide react with water to form weak acids which aid
weathering of rocks.

SOIL COMPOSITION
Organic matter 5%

Soil air 25%

Mineral matter 45%

Soil water 25%

SOIL pH: The (Pondus de Hydronum) is defined as the measure of hydrogen and hydroxyl ion
concentration in the soil. They determine the acidity, alkalinity and neutrality of the soil. The
hydrogen concentration is also known as the acidity of the soil while, hydroxyl ion concentration is
also known as the alkalinity of the soil. This is a chemical factor
Determination of Soil pH
This is the process of testing the pH of the soil.
The following methods are used:
i. Use of litmus papers
ii. The use of BDH universal indicator
iii. Field testing using printed colour standards
iv. Determination of soil pH colouring metrically
v. The use of electrometric method

pH Scale
This is a scale which is graduated from 0 to 14, and developed to measure both the hydrogen ion
concentration (acidity) and hydroxyl ion concentration (alkalinity) of the soil.
pH scale analysis - is as follows:
pH2 = strongly acidic
pH6 = slightly or weakly acidic
pH7 = neutral
pH8 = slightly alkaline or weakly alkaline
pH13 = strongly alkaline
pH 5.5 – pH 7.5 = best pH for plant and soil organisms
NB:

Causes of Soil Acidity

1. Application of fertilizers like Ammonium tetraoxo sulphatevi (CNH 4)2 SO4), and Ammonium
trioxo-nitare v (NH4NO3)
2. Acid rain especially in petroleum exploring areas.
3. Presence of sulphur in the soil – sulphur undergoes oxidation and distribution to form weak
acid in the soil.
4. Through leaching of the soil.
5. Nutrient uptake by plants which are later harvested.
6. Presence of sulphur, which alone can reduce the pH to about 2 which makes the soil to be
highly acidic.

Control of soil acidity

1. Application of lime e.g. limestone, dolomite, gypsum, slaked lime, quick lime
2. Application of wood ash.
3. Application of manures like compost, green and farm yard manures.
4. Application of bone meal.

Importance of liming
1. It neutralizes soil acidity
2. It improves soil structure
3. It releases calcium ions to plants.
4. It increases the rate of water percolation.
5. It reduces the toxicity of dissolved copper and manganese in the soil.
6. It increases the activities of soil micro-organisms.
EVALUATION
1. State five importance in each of the following soil compositions:
(i) Soil water (ii) soil air (iii) soil pH.

SUB TOPIC 3: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

[Link] Texture
This refers to the relative proportion of various sizes and groups of individual soil grains in a
mass of soil. It is the degree of fineness or coarseness of soil as determined by the size and
distribution of the primary particles. It may also mean the relative proportions of different sizes of
mineral particles in the soil. Texture is an important physical characteristic of a soil. Water and air
movement depends partly on the soil texture.
Methods of determining soil texture
1. Feeling
2. Sieve method
3. Sedimentation method
4. By moulding

Importance of Soil texture

1. It determines the degree of coarseness or fineness of a soil sample.
2. It determines the type of crops to be cultivated or grown in a farm land.
3. It can reveal the different types of soil particles e.g sand, fine sand, coarse sand, silt and clay.
4. The proportion of the different fractions determines the type of soil. The size or fractions or
texture of the various soil types are as follows:

Fractions (Size in mum)

Stone Greater than 200mm
Gravel 200 – 20mm
Fine gravel 20 – 0.2mm
Coarse sand 2 – 0.2mm
Fine sand 0.2 – 0.02mm
Silt 0.02 – 0.002mm
Clay Less than 0.002mm

1. It enables the farmer to determine the level of erosion in the farmland.

2. It determines the rate of percolation and leaching in the soil
3. It helps to determine the tillage practice to be adopted by the farmer.
4. It help the farmer to determine the level of irrigation/drainage to be carried out on
the farm

SOIL STRUCTURE
This is the arrangement of soil particles into various aggregate sizes and shapes. It may be also
defined as the physical appearance of the soil according to the arrangement of the individual
particles.

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL STRUCTURE

1. It helps to determine the porosity of the soil
 2. It helps to determine the rate of percolation
3. The level of fertility is determined or absorption of water in the soil
4. It also supports the growth of crops
5. It determines the ease with plant roots can penetrate the soil
6. It prevent water-logging.

METHODS OF PRESERVING SOIL STRUCTURE

1. Planting cover crops
2. Mulching
3. Application of manure
4. Application of lime fertilizers
5. Reducing activities of machines

TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE

1. Single grained structure
2. Coherent structure.
3. Crumb structure.
4. Granular structure
5. Prismatic structure
6. Plate-like structure
7. Block-like structure

DIAGRAM SHOWING TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURES

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS:

 Soils are classified in different ways. The type of classification adopted depends on the
physical characteristics of soil such as texture, its depth, fertility or even the amount of soluble salts
present.
In Nigeria soils are classified into the following classes:
1. Ferruginous Tropical Soils: These are soils with different horizons. They are found both in the
southern and northern parts of Nigeria. The soils respond generally to where there is availability of
phosphate and nitrogenous manure.
Examples of crops grown here are yam, maize, cassava, upland rice, oil palm, cocoa, (southern) while
guinea corn, cotton, groundnut, millet, rice, sugar cane and tobacco are successively grown in the
northern parts
2. Ferri Soils: These are generally considered as transitional soil. They have retarded profile
development due to erosion. They have high organic matter contents. They are deficient in available
phosphate. This soil is found in Ogoja and Benue. It supports the growth of oil palm and maize.
3. Ferratallitic Soils: These are acidic and infertile. They can be improved by sulphate of potash,
super phosphate and sulphate of ammonia.
4. Eutrophic Brow soil: This type of soil is well structured and found in the B-horizon. The fraction of
clay is 2:1. It is developed on volcanic ash, is common in plateau and Adamawa areas of Northern
Nigeria. It is considered as young soil when compared to other types. It supports crops like Banana,
Oil palm, rubber, cocoyam, plantain and elephant grass.
5. Calcimorphic Soil: It contains large quantities of relativity soluble compounds of calcium. It is rich
in clay. It is badly erosion over a large area. It can be protected through adequate soil conservation.
6. Vertisols: This type of soil contains more than 30% clay. It has a cation exchange capacity in the
excess of 30mg / 100g of soil. It is found in the northern part of Nigeria precisely Maiduguri and
Gombe. Cottons and Sorghum are successively grown here.

EVALUATION:
[Link] or list two physical properties of soil
(b)Mention five important factors of (i) soil texture (ii) soil structure.
(c)State five ways or systems of classifying soil.
[Link] fully the terms (i) soil texture, (ii) soil structure (iii) How do they influence crop
production? (b) what is soil pH? (i) At what pH range is soil said to be acidic? (ii) state three adverse
effects of soil acidity with regard to soil reaction and plant growth.

[Link] five properties each of the following soils: (i) sandy soil (ii) clay soil (iii) loamy soil.
[Link] on the pH status of a sample of soil which indicates the reading pointer at (i) 5.6-7.5 (ii)
2.0 (iii) 13.0 (iv)8.0 (v) 6.0 (b) mention three factors each responsible for soil acidity and alkalinity
in the soil. (c) state two corrective measures of removing alkalinity in the soil (d) list five liming
materials.
[Link] short notes on the following: (i) soil macro nutrients (ii) soil micro nutrients (iii)soil air (iv)
soil water.
Objectives:
[Link] of the following is the characteristic of a poorly drained soil? A. Presence of a large number
of termite B. Presence of a large number of micro- organisms C. Decrease in the activity of micro-
organisms D. Good soil structure E. High soil fertility.
[Link] relative amount of sand, silt and clay in a soil is referred to as A. Soil structure B. Soil
consistence [Link] texture D. Soil profile E. Soil Particles.
[Link] arrangement of soil particles into an aggregate is referred to as [Link] structure B. soil
consistence C. soil texture D. soil pH . E. soil acidity
[Link] of soil formation include the following except A. Parent material B. Climate C. Time
[Link] E. Soil profile.
[Link] is the pH of water? A. 3 B.4 C.5 D. 6 E. 7
Weekend assignment :Read pages 72-83 of Evans Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools
Book 1 and attempt all the revision questions.
Pre-reading assignment: Read about simple farm tools as the topic.
Reference texts:
[Link] Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools Bk 1 by M.O Adeniji.
[Link] Agricultural Science For Senior Secondary Schools by OgievaErebor.
[Link] Focus Agricultural Science For WASSCE & SSCE by A M Daramola.

WEEK 6

SUBJECT: AGRIC SCIENCE CLASS: SS1

TOPIC: SIMPLE FARM TOOLS, USES AND MAINTENANCE

CONTENT:

(i) Meaning and types of simple farm tools.

(ii) Identification and description of each of the tools and their uses.
(iii) Identification of various accessory tools and their uses
(iv) General maintenance of simple farm tools.

SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning and types of Simple Farm tools

Meaning of simple farm tools: as the name implies, these are simple, handy tools made up of metals
and wooden handles where applicable and used mainly by peasant farmers. They are designed to
help the hands to apply force in farm operations. They make the work easier, faster and safer.

TYPES OF FARM TOOLS: These tools can be classified into :

(i) farm and horticultural tools

(ii) Workshop or accessory tools.

1. Farm and Horticultural Tools are those simple tools used for cultivation of arable crops, fruit,
vegetable and flowers. Example include cutlasses, hoes, rakes, hand forks, garden fork ,
shears, pick axe, spades, hand trowel, shovel, secateurs, watering can, harvesting sickle,
head pan, wheel barrow, axe, pruning saw, budding knife, budizzor castrator etc.
2. Workshop or accessory tools: These are tools used in workshop to repair or maintain farm
implement and farm machines. They include hammer, spanner, screw driver, pliers, nut and
bolt, chisel, hack saw, file, punches etc.

EVALUATION:
 (i) Differentiate between farm tools and accessory tools. Give five examples of each.

TOPIC 2: Identification and Description of each of the farm tools:

SIMPLE FARM TOOLS

They are the tools commonly used by peasant farmers for simple farm operations.

A. Cutlass: It has a short wooden handle and flat metal blade. Two main types exist – one has a
straight blade while the other has curved blade.
Uses
(i) Clearing of bush and farmland.
(ii) Digging holes
(iii) Transplanting of seedlings.
(iv) Planting operation
(v) Weeding
(vi) Harvesting some crops e.g yam.
(vii) Cutting sticks in the farm
(viii) Breaking and cracking of pods and shells.
B. Spade: It has a D-shaped rectangular metal blade and a long wooden handle.
 Uses
(i) Lifting the soil from one place to another.
(ii) Turning of the soil
(iii) Digging holes
(iv) Transplanting of seedling
(v) Filling of holes in the farm
(vi) For levelling loose soils
(vii) For mixing concrete
(viii) For weeding.
C. Hoe: It has curved metal blade and wooden handle. There are two types, the West Indian
hoe and West Africa hoe. The West African hoe has a short wooden handle while the West
Indian hoe has a long wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Making of heaps
(ii) Preparing ridges
(iii) Turning of the soil
(iv) Transplanting of seedling
(v) Loosening of the soil surface
(vi) Uprooting stumps
(vii) Digging holes
(viii) Harvesting of crops like yam, cassava etc.

Differences between West African hoe and West Indian hoe

West African hoe West Indian hoe

Has a short handle Has a long handle
Has a round metal blade Has a rectangular metal blade
Blade is attached to wooden handle with Blade is attached to handle by a loop
a prong round the handle

D. Garden Fork: Has four to eight long-pronged metal forks, with a long wooden or metal
handle.
Uses
(i) Turning manure during compost preparations
(ii) Loosening of the soil surface
(iii) For spreading manure.
E. Hand Trowel: It has a shot, curved metal blade with a short wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Transplanting seedling from the nursery to the bed.
(ii) Spreading manure or mixing fertilizer with oil in the farm
(iii) Digging holes on beds.
F. Axe: It has a short heavy metal head with a sharp edge and a long wooden or metal handle.
Uses
(i) Falling trees in the farm
(ii) Cutting logs.
(iii) Uprooting stumps
 (iv) Splitting fire wood at home.
G. Rake: It has eight to twelve short pronged forks fitted to a long wooden or metal handle.
Uses
(i) Removing rubbish from the farm.
(ii) Covering vegetable seeds beds.
(iii) Weeds are also removed from seed beds.
(iv) Levelling of soil surface.
H. Hand Fork: Has four-pronged metal forks with a short wooden handle.
Uses
(i) For loosening surface soil around seedlings
(ii) Transplanting from the nursery to the seed beds.
(iii) Essential for weeding seed beds.
I. Watering Can: It is made up of metal or aluminium tank with a stem covered by perforated
metal sheet covering from which water is sprayed. The perforated sheet is called a rose.
Uses
(i) Supplying water to young seedlings in the seed beds and nursery
(ii) Irrigating flowers
(iii) Sprinkling of foliar fertilizers.
(iv) Spraying chemicals e.g disinfectants.
(v) It is used for watering cement blocks used for constructing farm house
J. Shears: It works like scissors, operated with two hands and has sharp blades.
Uses
(i) Trimming hedges
(ii) Cutting of flowers to shape
(iii) For removal of dead parts or excessive branches (pruning)
(iv) For cutting long grasses.
K. Secateurs: it is a scissors-like in shape but small in size. It possesses two short wooden or
metal handles. It usually has a spring between the handles. They operate like shears but
have shorter frocked blade and are operated with one hand.
Uses
(i) For pruning bushes, shrubs, ornamental plants and for weeding
(ii) Cutting of side branches of shrubs
(iii) For taking hardwood cuttings.
L. Sickle: It has a round wooden handle with a sharp curved metal blade. The inner edge of the
blade is sharp while the outer edge is blunt.
Uses
(i) Harvesting of cereals like , wheat, rice, millet etc.
(ii) Harvesting of oil palm fruits.
(iii) Cutting forages for livestock
M. Mattock: This has a cylindrical wooden handle attached to the middle of a blade made of a
thick block of iron. At one end the blade is long and pointed, at the other, broad and sharp
Uses

(i) Uprooting small stumps

(ii) Use for digging.
 (iii) It is used for loosening stones, roots and hard plants in the soil
(iv) It is used in clearing bush and weeding farms
N. Mallet: This is an entirely wooden tool, with a heavy cylindrical head and thick short wooden
handle. It is not very common among farmers these days.
Uses
(i) Pushing off logs from the farm
(ii) Splitting logs.
O. Head Pan: It is bowl-like, slightly spherical with two small handles. It is made of metal
Uses
(i) Collection of harvested crops.
(ii) Mixing of fertilizers
(iii) Transporting soil in the farm
(iv) Transporting compost from the reservoir to where necessary in the farm
(v) Packing weeds and stones out of the farm.
P. Shovel: It is like a spade, but has a curved or V-shaped metal blade with a long wooden
handle.
Uses
(i) Transferring soil from one place to another.
(ii) Harvesting and planting of crops.
(iii) Light weeding in the farm.
(iv) Excavation or digging of the soil during ridge and bed preparation.
Q. Tapping Knife: This has a short wooden handle with a slightly curved sharp metal blade.
Uses
(i) Tapping of the latex out of rubber trees.
R. Dibber: This is a long bar made up of iron metal with a broad head.
Uses
(i) Harvesting of root crops like yam, cassava, potatoes.
(ii) Planting of maize locally
(iii) Digging of the soil during staking of yams.
S. Pliers: It has an adapted mouth made up of metal, and iron handle often covered with
rubber or plastic coatings.
Uses
(i) Used for gripping or holding small objects.
(ii) For bending and cutting wires.
(iii) Pulling out nails from wood.
(iv) Essential for electrical work in the farm.

T. Spanner: It is made of metal with rectangular curved end. Each end is approximated into
different sizes.

Uses
(i) Used for tightening and loosening of nuts and bolts.
(ii) Used for changing of tyres in the wheel barrow and machines.
T. Screw Driver: It has a sharp pointed and narrow edge with a metal handle often covers with
rubber or plastic.
Uses
 (i) Used for electrical work in the farm
(ii) Turning of screws
(iii) Tightening of screws into wood or metals in the farm.
U. Wheel Barrow: This has a big deep bucket mounted on tyres. The bucket is made of metal.
Uses
(i) For transporting harvested crops.
(ii) Carrying of manure from one place to another.
(iii) For carrying tools in the farm.

X. Pick Axe or Digger: This is a tool that has a long wooden handle and metal head with double
blades. One is short and narrow, the other is shaped into a small narrow axe-like blade.

Uses
(i) It is used to remove trees and roots
(ii) Digging of hand soil
(iii) It can be used for making ridges.
Sickle: The blade of this tool is curved and put or inserted into a short wooden handle. The outside is
blunt while the inner one is sharp for easy cutting.

Uses
(i) In pasture, it can be used to cut grass for animals.
(ii) For harvesting fruits.
Harvesting Knife or go-to-hell: It is made up of two parts, a long wooden handle that is inserted into
a small curved metal blade. It also has a short strong blade.
Uses
(i) It is used for harvesting permanent crops e.g cocoa, orange, kola, oilpalm etc.
(ii) For pruning.
File: It has a straight steel blade with a sharp cutting edge. It is about 20-30cm long with a wooden
handle. Files can come in different shapes and grades according to the requirement of the job. E.g
(a) Flat file: for general use
(b) Triangular file: for saw tooth sharpening
(c) Cylindrical file: for widening holes.
Uses
(i) To sharpen the blunt blades of farm tools
(ii) It is used for smoothening of rough surface of farm implements.

EVALUATION
(i) Identify specimen A,B,C etc.
(ii) State the uses of each of the specimens.
SUB TOPIC: IDENTIFICATION OF VARIOUS ACCESSORY TOOLS AND THEIR USES
These accessory or workshop tools include:
(a) Hammer (b) Pliers (c) Screw drivers (d) Chisels (e) File (f) Hacksaws (g) Pinches (h) Spanners.
Accessory or Workshop Tools: These are the right tools used in workshop for various carpentry or
mechanical jobs on the farm e.g files, hammers, spanners, punches, chisel, hacksaws, screw drivers
etc.
 (a) Hammer: These are made of heavy metal head attached to wooden handles and the reverse
side of the head may be a claw. The various hammers found in the workshop are cross-pein,
pin, and wooden shafted claw. Hammers may be used for the following:
(i) Straightening damaged or bent components of farm implements.
(ii) For driving nails into the wooden parts of farm structures/equipment.
(iii) The pronged end is used for removing nails from wood.
(b) Pliers: These are mouthed tooth-metal instruments whose handles are fitted with rubber.
They are designed for gripping or holding, cutting and bending wire. The various pliers used
are engineer’s combination, slip-joint and snipe nose pliers.
(c) Screwdrivers: These consist of a long steel rod with a flattened end which can be fitted into
the head of a screw. The two types of screwdrivers that can be found in a workshop are flat
screwdrivers and star screwdrivers. The type of screwdrivers to be used will depend on the
screw to be loosened or tightened. Their uses involve either for tightening or driving in
screws, or for loosening of screws.
(d) Chisels: These have a hardened steel blade which tapers into a very sharp edge and they are
used for cutting wood.
(e) Hacksaw: These consist of a frame into which a saw blade is fitted. It is used for cutting
metals.
(f) Punches: The punch has a pointed end and is used with a hammer for making metal or
making hole in a sheet of metal. Punches with flat end are used for knocking out pins.
(g) Spanners: These are made of a chrome or steel alloy. Spanners are used to tighten or loosen
nuts and bolts of farm implements. The two common types are ring spanner and open
ended spanner. Others are box spanner and the socket spanner.

EVALUATION
(a) Identify specimen K,L,M N and O.
(b) State the uses of each of the specimens identified correctly.

SUB TOPIC 4: GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF SIMPLE FRAM TOOLS.

The following maintenance practices or precautions are to be adopted in order to prolong
the usefulness of the tools.
(a) Tools should be washed and dry
(b) Cleaned after use.
(c) Sharpen the blunt cutting edges or blades.
(d) Oil/ grease or lubricate movable joints to reduce.
(e) Store in a dry and cool place.
(f) Handle tools with care and use for intended purposes only.
(g) Rub metal blades with grease or paint them so as to prevent rusting.
(h) Worn out parts should be replaced without delay.
(i) Tighten all bolts or nuts in the tool.
(j) Keep the wooden part away from termite and fire.

EVALUATION

(k) How do you prevent termites from attacking the tools with wooden handle?
 (l) How do you prevent rusting of the metal parts of the tools?
(m) Enumerate five general maintenance practices of Agricultural tools.

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objective Tests:

1. Which of the following simple tool cannot be used for harvesting tuber crops (a) cutlass
(b) Hoe (c) Rake
2. The best tool used for transplanting is? (a) Hand fork (b) axe (c) hand trowel (d) cutlass.
3. Which of the following tools is best used for harvesting cocoa and kolanut? (a) Long
handled sickle (b) Pick axe (c) dibber (d) short handled sickle.
4. Which of the following tools is not used for pruning and trimming operation? (a)
Secateurs (b) shears (c) pruning saw.
5. A spade is mainly used for (a) weeding (b) pruning (c) planting (d) digging.
ESSAY TEST: 1. (a) identify specimen A,B,C,D, and E (b) state one use of each (NB:
specimens are A-Head pan, B-Rake C- Pick axe D- Hoe, E- Hand trowel.
2. Enumerate six ways of maintaining simple farm tools.
3. (i) identify specimen F,J,K,L and M (ii) state the use of the specimen
(NB: Specimen F is Plier; J is screwdriver, K is chisel, L is file; M is Hammer.
4. (i) Make a list of five simple tools that can be used for pruning or trimming (ii) State 2
methods of maintaining each of them.
5. (i) Enumerate five harvesting tools (ii) Mention a crop that each toll can be used to
harvest. (iii) state two methods of maintaining each of the tools.

WEEK END ASSIGNMENT: Read Evans Agricultural science for Senior secondary schools. Book
1by M.O. Adeniji et al (page .........)
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about Farm machinery and implement.
WEEK – END ACTIVITY
(a) Enumerate five parts of a tractor
(b) List five uses of tractor
(c) List five tractor coupled implement.

WEEK 8: FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENT

CONTENT:
1. Farm machinery- Tractor, Bulldozer, Sheller, Dryers, Incubators.
2. Tractor- coupled implements: Plough, Harrow, Ridgers, Planters, Harvesters, Sprayer.

SUB TOPIC I: FARM MACHINERY –

Farm machinery refers to complex machine and implement used for carrying out farming
operations. Examples includes: Tractors, Bulldozer, Sheller, Dryer, and Incubator. The most
important implement or machines in the farm, which is used for operating many farm
implements is the Tractor.
 These farm machines and implement can be classified into three groups based on source and
generation of power as follows:

(a) Primary Machines: These are the machines that can supply power to other machines and
implement for their farming operations. An example is the Tractor.
(b) Secondary Machines: These are tractors coupled or mounted machinery or implement used
for different operations. Examples are Ploughs, harrows, ridgers, planters, harvesters, and
sprayers.
(c) Intermediate Machines: These are powered by a tractor, electricity, or an electric generating
set. Examples include grinding machines, incubators.
Examples of this Farm Machinery are:

i. Tractor: It is a powerful multi-purpose farm machine capable of using its power to perform
various farm operations. It has internal combustion engine with either two or four strokes. It
transmits power through the power take-off (PTO) shaft, or by means of a moving belt connecting
the tractor to another machine.
A draw bar attached to the tractor is used in coupling other farm implement to it.
Tractors are of different types:

(a) Two-wheeled tractor: - These are tractors with two wheels, used on small farms and in vegetable
gardens. They are operated by a man walking behind them and used mainly for light cultivation.

(b)General – purpose tractor: - This is the most common type of tractor. It has power rating of
between 30 to 60 horse powers.
 (c)Heavy – wheeled tractors: - These are large tractors with rubbers tyres used for heavy work on
the farm such as falling of big trees and stumping power rating.

(d)Track laying Tractors: - These tractors are sometimes called crawler or bulldozer. They differ from
the heavy wheeled tractors in that they move on tracks instead of rubber tyres. They can be used for
cleaning very thick bush and falling of trees when equipped with a heavy steel blade.

TRACTORS DESCRIPTION

i. The tractor is a powerful and expensive multi-purpose motor vehicle used for lifting or pulling farm
implements
ii. It is equipped with a governor system
iii. It has a power take off(P.T.O) shaft used in drawing farm implements like ploughs, harrows,
harvesters, planters, etc
iv. It has hydraulic control system which lifts mounted implements under the control of the operator
v. It consists of an internal combustion engine which uses diesel or petrol without spark plugs.
vi. It has four wheels with rubber tyres.
vii. Popular brands or models of tractors are: David brown, Massey Ferguson, Ford and Fiat.

USES OF A TRACTOR

i. A tractor is used to pull farm implements like ploughs, harrows, ridgers for land
cultivation.
ii. It is used for transporting farm inputs such as chemicals, fertilizers, manure and farm out
puts when coupled with a trailer.
iii. It can also be used to transport workers within the farm.
iv. It can be used to apply herbicides, pesticides and plant seeds.
 v. It can also be used to operate a grinder thresher or pump.
vi. It can be connected to an electric motor to generate electricity.

(2) Bulldozer: this is a very powerful machine that has an internal combustion engine powered in
diesel oil. It has a broad steel blade in front to raise vegetation and other obstacles. It moves on
track wheels.

Bulldozers Desccription

i. Bulldozers are powerful tractors and expensive machines with a broad steel blade or shealt at the
front
ii. It has track-type metal plate use fpr its movement
It consist of internal combustion engine which uses diesel or petrol
iv. The bulldozers which has track metal chains moves by the aid of driven sprockets, track rollers and
idler rollers

Uses

(a) It is used for falling big trees

(b) It is used for stumping
(c) It can be used for levelling and moving of the earth on the farm.
(d) It can be used on the farm to construct fish pond.
(e) Bulldozer is used in road construction, irrigation and drainage channels.

Disadvantages of using bulldozer for land preparation

 it destroy soil structure

 it lead to reduction of soil fertility
 it causes compaction of the soil
 it can cause air and noise pollution
 the bulldozer is an expensive machine that can not be afforded by peasant farmers
 it can cause soil erosion and water logging
(3) Shellers: These are equipment fabricated for removing grains from their cobs or pods at a fast
rate. They can be operated manually, mechanically or with electricity. They can be spring or cylinder
shape.

USES OF SHELLER

(a) They separate grains from cobs or pods.

(b) They can be used to remove hard outer covering of nuts as in groundnuts.
(c) It can be used for maize, rice, walnut, coconut and palm kennel.

Diagram of a Sheller

(4) Incubators: This is equipment used by farmers to provide necessary condition to fertilised eggs
for hatching. It is electrically. The incubators may be in form of table incubators or cabinet
incubators.

Components of Incubators include:

(a) Turner which turns eggs at an hour interval.

(b) Trolleys or trays for setting eggs.
(c) Thermostat for temperature regulation. The temperature is usually maintained between
37.5OC and 39.5 OC.
(d) Setter – the platform where the eggs stay from the 1st to 18th day of incubation.
(e) Hatcher – the platform where the eggs stay from the 19th to 20th day of incubation.
(f) Hygrometer to regulate humidity which is usually set at 60%.
(g) Alarms – which alert someone if there is a deviation in the temperature and relative
humidity and to indicate end of incubation.
(h) Fan/vent – for ventilation.
(i) Heater eg. Lantern, heater or electric heater. It supply heat.
(j) Thermometer : to detect the degree of hotness or coldness of the machine
(k) Insulator : to prevent heat loss
(l) Egg tray: it is used in filling eggs i.e eggs are arranged in it.

(5) Dryer: this an electrically operated machine used in drying agricultural products such as
tobacco leaves, tanning of leather fruits and grain crops. dryers pump in hot air or heated air
which absorbs the moisture in the products to be dried
 (6) Milking Machine: This is equipment for milking or extracting fresh milk from the udder of
dairy animals like cow nanny goats, and sheep.

DIAGRAM OF A MILKING MACHINE

EVALUATION
i. Mention five examples of farm machinery
ii. Mention four types of tractor
iii. State four uses of a tractor
iv. State four uses of bulldozer
v. List five major parts of an incubator.

SUB TOPIC 2: TRACTOR COUPLED IMPLEMENTS.

Tractor coupled implements are the implement that are usually attracted to the tractor in order to
effectively carry out farm operations. These include:

1. Plough: -This is a primary tillage or soil cultivation implement used in land preparation.
There are two types of plough
(a) Mould board plough (b) Disc plough
 Mould board plough consists of mould board, share and land slide. It is used in the
temperate region where the soil is free of rocks, stones and tough plant roots and where the
soil is soft.
Diagram showing Mould board plough

(b) Disc plough: This is made up of a beam, furrow wheel, disc, scraper, disc standard, etc. It
is used in the tropics where the soil is tough and sticky and there is the presence of
stones, rocks and stumps.

Diagram Of A Disc Plough

2. Harrow: This is a secondary tillage implement which is used immediately after ploughing. They
are used to break soil clods into fine tilt and to drag roots and big stones out of the ground.
There are different types of harrow. They include:
(a) Disc harrow: -this consists of sets of concave disc. The discs are smaller, move in row and
spaced closer unlike disc plough. The most common disc are the tandem discs in which
the disc are dragged in four gaps.

Disc harrow
(b) Spike tooth harrow: - This consists of rigid times which are curved and made of spring
steel that absorbs shock. When the shear comes in contact with a stump this type is
useful in rocky or stumpy soil.
Spike tooth harrow

(c) Spike tooth Harrow which consists of a number of staggered spikes set perpendicularly
to their frame.
(d) Chain harrow comprises of a flexible chain link mat that is pulled behind the tractor. It is
useful for weed collection and manure mixing.
(e) Rotating cultivation which is used to break down big sol clods after ploughing. It can also
be used for weeding and dragging roots and stones out of the soil.
3. Ridger: This consists of two sets of opposed single discs mounted on a frame. Two discs in
each set make two full ridges while the remaining disc makes half a ridge. There are two
types:
(a) Disc ridger (b) mould board ridger
Ridger is used to make ridges. It improves soil aeration and water percolation.
DIAGRAM

4. Planters: -These are implements designed for planting of seeds. They are so designed to
measure planting distance and depth. There are different types of planter. They include: (a)
Broadcasting Planter (b) Drilling planter (c) Precision planter.
(a) Broadcasting Planter scatters the seed about the field randomly. It is used for planting
crops like rice, millet, vegetable seeds.
(b) Drilling Planter: - This put the correct number of seed into the soil at the required depth
and spacing between rows.
(c) Precision Planter: -This place the correct number of seeds in a hole, taking into
consideration the spacing between and within rows and the planting depth.
DIAGRAM
 5. Harvesters: -These are machines used for harvesting various crops like grasses, maize, rice
sorghum and soya bean.
The different types of harvesters are:
(a) Mower: - This is usually mounted on a tractor. It is designed to harvest hay and chop
grasses from the lawn.
(b) Forage harvester: - This is designed for cutting grasses and chop them either to feed the
animals directly or to prepare silage and hay.
(c) Combine harvester: - This is a large machine used for harvesting and threshing of grain
crops. It also helps to separate grains from chaffs. It is used for harvesting crops like
maize, sorghum, rice, and wheat.

Combined harvester

(d) Corn Picker: - This is designed to cut off only the mature maize cob or ear within row.
(e) Root crop harvesters: - These are machines used for harvesting root crops like Irish
Potato, sweet potatoes, cassava, sugar beet etc.
6. Sprayer: - This is a machine designed for the spraying of agro-chemicals on the farm. There
are different types of sprayer:
(a) Knapsack sprayer
(b) Tractor-mounted sprayer
(c) Helicopter mounted sprayer.
(d) Boom Sprayer
Sprayers are used to spray herbicides for controlling weeds. They are also used to spray
insecticide or pesticide to eradicate pests.
They can equally be used to spray disinfectants on livestock.

TERMINOLOGIES IN PROCESSING
Processing is the activity directed at converting freshly harvested crop into new form for
consumption, storage or sales. For example:
1. Shelling – the removal of maize grains from cobs
2. Dehusking- the removal of maize cob from husk or coconut mesocarp from the husk
3. Hulling- the removal of rice from stalk
4. Winnowing- separating cereal or legumes from chaff by tossing in the air
5. Threshing- separating rice grain from panicle or legumes from pod
6. Decorticating- separation of groundnut seed from pod
7. Ginning- separation cotton bolls from seeds
8. Peeling-removal of outer cover of farm produce e.g., yam and cassava.
9. Curing – partial drying of farm produce eg tobacco to maintain the flavour
10. Dying- reducing the moisture content of farm produce.

EVALUATION
(1) Briefly state the uses of the following machinery on the farm (a) Incubator (b) Sheller (c)
Milking machine.
(2) State four tractor coupled implement and discuss the use of the implements.
(3) State four reasons why disc plough is more commonly used than mould board plough in
West Africa.

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. Which of the following is not tillage implement?

(a) Disc plough (b) Ridger (c) Disc harrow (d) Planter.
2. An implement farm machine used for coupling many implement is (a) Plough (b) Tractor (c)
Harvester (d) Disc harrow.
3. Sprayers can be used for the following except (a) Spraying pests with pesticides (b)
Application of fertilizers to soil (c) Application of water on farm lands (d) Spraying weeds
with herbicides
4. Shellers are used to remove (a) Husk from grains (b) dirt from grains (c) grain from cobs (d)
cobs from stalk
5. The initial function of a planter is to (a) make ridges (b) press the soil to a compact form (c)
open the soil for seed (d) water the soil effectively.

ESSAY TESTS

1. State five uses of a Tractor

2. List five tractor-coupled implement and one use of each
3. State four reasons why disc plough is commonly used than mould board plough.
4. Describe the components of an incubator
5. Give five reasons why hand tools are more commonly used in agricultural production in
Nigeria than tractor based implements.

WEEK END ASSIGNMENT: Read Evans Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary Schools Book 1 by M.
O Adeniji et al. (page ................)

PRE READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about Maintenance and precautionary measures for farm
machinery and implements
REFERENCE TEXTS:1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS Book1 by Adeniji et al, Evans Brothers Nigeria
Limited.

WEEK 9

SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

CLASS: S S 1

TOPIC: MAINTENANCE PRACTICES AND PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES

CONTENT:

1. Reasons for maintaining farm machine.

2. Maintenance of farm machinery

SUB TOPIC 1: REASONS FOR MAINTANING FARM MACHINE

The reasons for maintenance practice are as follows:

1. To ensure maximum or efficient use of farm machine

2. To keep the machines in a good working condition.
3. To increase their useful life or life span
4. To prevent them from becoming obsolete or from deteriorating
5. To detect or spot the potential machine failure and safety from hazards
 6. To prevent vibrations that can produce irritating noise on the farm.
7. Checking oil and water levels regularly prevents any overheating or seizure of the engine.
8. Maintenance of farm machines at times reduces cost, that is, the cost of purchasing new
ones may be high.

EVALUATION: state five reasons why farm machines should be maintained.

SUB TOPIC 2: MAINTENANNCE OF FARM MACHINERY

1. PERIODIC MAINTENANCE OF FARM MACHINERY

Maintenance practices that should be carried out periodically or at regular intervals on the machines
include the following:

i. Tractor should be service at regular interval

ii. Worn out tyres should be replaced and tyre pressure gauged regularly
iii. Ensure that nut and screw are checked and tightened regularly
iv. Replace worn out part of the tractor
v. Air filter should be cleared regularly
vi. Fuel injector should be serviced or changed
vii. Fan belt should be replaced or adjusted
viii. Wash or clean caburator
ix. Always park tractor in a shade

2. PERIODIC MAINTENANCE OF FARM MACHINERY

i. Keep the tractor clean by removing trash or mud from it before and after operation
ii. Check water level daily and top it when necessary
iii. Check oil level daily and top it when necessary
iv. Check electrolyte of battery daily and top it when necessary
v. Check tyre pressure daily and increase the pressure when necessary

GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF FARM MACHINERY

The following maintenance practices or operations can be carried out on farm machinery.

1. Keep the machine clean by removing all trash or mud and excess grease oil from machines at
the start or at the end of operation.
2. Adhere strictly to manual or manufacturer’s instruction
3. Always use the machine or the implements for the operation for which it was designed.
4. Employ a competent and experienced operator and technicians to handle the machines.
5. Store machines and implement in a cool and dry place, usually under shade.
6. Regularly service the machines.
7. Check water and oil levels of machines regularly where applicable to ensure that they are at
their normal levels to prevent any overheating or seizure.
8. Check hydraulic system where applicable before operation
9. Ensure complete implement before setting out for work.
10. Ensure that nuts, bolts, screws, or shield are checked and tightened at regular intervals.
11. Worn out tyres, nuts screws, or shield and other parts of the machine should be replaced.
12. Moving parts or joints of farm machines should be oil or greased regularly.
13. Sharpen the blades and repair broken blades where applicable.
 14. Do not overload the machines, i.e, operate at appropriate speed for field operations and
avoid using it under conditions that are not favourable.
15. Check electrical system where applicable.

EVALUATION:

Discuss eight maintenance practices including the precautions you would take to keep the tractor
operating safety.

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. One of the following ways is not a maintenance process (a) tool should not be left lying
about in the farm. (b) Rub oil or grease or paint metal blades. (c) Rub with water to prevent
rusting (d) Blunt cutting edges should be sharpened.
2. The following maintenance practices are necessary for tractor except (a) checking the spark
plug (b) checking water level daily and top it if necessary (c) checking the tyre pressures daily
before operation (d) checking the electrolyte of the battery every day and top when
necessary.
3. There is the need to check the electrical system of the following machine before use except
(a) milking machine (b) incubator (c) electrical mill (d) harvester.
4. Keeping machines and implement under shade and dry place will prevent the machines from
being (a) stolen (b) misused (c) rust (d) mishandled.
5. Which of the following is not a reason for maintaining farm machines and implement? (a) To
keep the machine in a good working condition (b) to increase the useful life of the machine
(c) to prevent them from deteriorating (d) to keep the machine as new as it was bought.

ESSAY TEST

1. Enumerate six reasons why farm machines and equipment should be maintained.
2. State ten methods of maintaining farm machines and equipment
3. List five precautionary measures you will adopt in the use of a tractor.
4. State 2 specific maintenance practice required by the following (i) farm machines (ii)
incubator (iii) Plough (iv) Sheller (v) Bulldozer (vi) Dryer

WEEK END ASSIGNMENT

Read Evans Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary School Book 1 by M. O Adeniji et al
(pages103-116)

PRE READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about farm mechanisation from Evans Agricultural Science for SSS Book 1 by M.O. Adeniji
et al.(page 120-125)

WEEK END ACTIVITY

I. Define farm mechanisation

II. State five advantages of farm mechanisation
III. Enumerate five disadvantages of farm mechanisation.
WEEK 10:
SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SS 1
TOPIC: Agricultural Engineering and Mechanization
CONTENT: 1. Definition / Meaning of Farm Mechanization
2. Mechanized Agricultural Operations
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization
SUB TOPIC 1. Definition / Meaning of Farm Mechanization

Definition and Meaning of Farm Mechanization

Mechanization can be defined as the use of modern implements as well as motorized equipment like
plough, harrow, ridger, and also the use of agro-chemicals like insecticides, herbicides, fertilizers and
improved seeds in the farm.
Farm Mechanization can be defined as the application of engineering, scientific and technological
principles to agricultural production, storage and processing of farm products. Farm Mechanization
means the use of modern farm inputs instead of human efforts to increase agricultural productivity
and efficiency.

Mechanized Agricultural Operations

Farm Mechanization covers almost all agricultural operations such as land preparation(ploughing,
harrowing and ridging), planting, husbandry, fertilizer application, weeding, crop health, irrigation,
crop harvesting, storage and processing, and animal care and management, milking, egg collection
as well as processing and storage of farm animal produce.

EVALUATION
 Define the term mechanization
 What do you understand by farm mechanization?
 Mention seven agricultural operations that can be mechanized
 State a machine that can be used to carried out such operations.

SUB TOPIC 2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization

Advantages of Farm Mechanization

i. It reduces farm drudgery i.e it makes it easy to avoid unpleasant manual jobs
ii. It increases productivity i.e large hectares of land can be put under cultivation
iii. It facilitates timeliness of operations. Farm operations are done and completed within a short
period of time
iv. Farm Mechanization encourages large scale farming
v. It reduces the cost of production and labour on the farm
vi. It improves the quality of produce through proper processing.
vii. It attracts young school leavers to take up farming as a business.
viii. Farm Mechanization helps in reclaiming waste lands.
ix. There is reduction in the health hazard of the farmers due to manual or over-labour in the farm
x. It enables people to become specialized in certain operations within the farm.
xi. It increases farmer’s income and improves his standard of living.
xii. It increases yield/output per unit of land.
xiii. it permits additional cropping each season by rapid harvesting and seedbed preparation

Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization

i. Displacement of farm workers. With the use of machines, the operations that can be done by
many farm workers can now be carried out by few hands. This will make some workers to be jobless
and unemployed
ii. Destruction of soil structure. The use of machines such as tractors and bulldozers result in the
destruction of fragile soil structure, leading to erosion.
iii. Compaction of Soil. The use of heavy machines not only destroys the soil structure but also leads
to the compaction (compression) of the soil.
iv. Environmental Pollution. The exhaust and the dust raised by motor-vehicles used in pulling
agricultural implements and other heavy equipment for processing of farm produce constitute
environmental pollution.
v. Mechanization may limit production of some crops which are not easily mechanized eg. cocoyam
and yam.
vi. Farm machines cannot control themselves; they need human labour to control them and such
labour may not be readily available.
vii. Mechanization accelerates the spread of pests and diseases due to contamination of machinery
and equipment.
viii. Most farm machines are expensive therefore, many farmers cannot afford them.
ix. The cost of maintaining farm machines is very high. This is due to inadequate technical know-how
and spare parts.
[Link] use of farm machines can damage crops if not carefully and properly handled.
xi. Unstable fuel supply. The use of farm machines relies heavily on fuel and electricity which may
not be readily available and costly
xii. Farm mechanization can lead to possible degradation of the soils or landscape.
xiii. Deforestation and Erosion. The use of machines encourages complete destruction of forest and
removal of organic matter-rich-top soil. This makes the soil to loose its fertility

EVALUATION
 State six advantages of farm mechanization.
 Enumerate five disadvantages of using farm machines.

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVES
1. Which of the following farm operations cannot be mechanized? (a) Weed control (b) fertilizer
application (c) seed germination (d) crop processing
2. Mechanization would remain uneconomical in West Africa countries as long as (a) farms are small
and scattered (b) machine are not available for farm operations (c) basic amenities are inadequate
(d) land acquisition remains in the hand of farmers
[Link] following are land preparation operations except (a)ploughing (b) planting (c)harrowing (d)
ridging
4. Farm mechanization is the application of machines to agricultural production involving the
substitution of mechanical power and equipment for (a) human equipment (b) human effort (c)
animal effort (d) animal equipment
5. Which of the following is an advantage of farm mechanization? (a)many farm operations can be
carried out (b) environmental pollution (c)displacement of many workers (d) soil exposure to
sunlight and erosion
THEORY
1. Define the term mechanization
2. State five benefits of using farm machines
3. Enumerate six effects of using machines on the farm
4. Describe five agricultural operations that can be mechanized
5. List out seven machines that can be used to carried out agricultural operations.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Evans Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary Schools, book 1 by M.O Adeniji et al pages 120-
124
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read about the Problems and Prospects of farm mechanization.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
List five Limitations and five Prospects of farm mechanization
REFERENCE TEXTS
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

WEEK: 11 DATE: …………………………

SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

CLASS: SS 1
TOPIC: Agricultural Engineering and Mechanization
CONTENT: 1. Limitation/ Problems of farm mechanization
2. Prospects of farm mechanization
SUB TOPIC 1. Limitation/Problems of Farm Mechanization
Limitation/Problems of Farm Mechanization

Factors limiting/hindering farm mechanization in Nigeria and other African countries are:

1. Small farm holdings

Most agricultural activities in Nigeria are in the hand of peasant farmers who have small hectarage
of farm to work. The fragmentation of land or small parcels of farms owned by the farmers are not
economical for the use of machines to practice mechanization

2. Economic factors. Most farmers are poor and cannot afford the machines. Cost of hiring machines
is high as well as maintenance. There is also inadequate machinery in the country.
3. Technical Limitation. The manpower to operate and service the farm machines and equipment is
not sufficiently available. Spare parts/maintenance facilities are not available while most of the
machines are not adaptable to our local environment and needs.

4. Nature of vegetation and topography. The farmland in the tropics contains thick vegetation, tree
stumps, many hills and valleys. These breakdown parts of machines and implements, cause
obstructions and render them useless.

5. Social Problems. Many people who would have been employed on the farm are rendered jobless
as a result of the use of machines.

6. Seasonality of operation. In most part of the nation, agriculture is rain fed. Thus, machines remain
idle after the cropping season. This makes the acquisition uneconomical.

7. Dependence on imported machines. Nigeria depends on imported machines which are not
suitable for our soils. The machines suitable for the soil types have not been developed locally.

EVALUATION
1. List five factors limiting farm mechanization in Nigeria.
2. Briefly discuss two of the factors mentioned above.

SUB TOPIC 2. Prospects of Farm Mechanization

In spite of numerous limitations and problems of farm mechanization in Nigeria, many if not all farm
operations could eventually be mechanized through the cooperation of farmers themselves, and
with the assistance and strong commitment of the government. To achieve full mechanization of
farm operations in future, the following should be done:
1. Farmers should form cooperative societies to enable them pool their resources together to own
and operate farm machines.
2. The cost of farm machines should be subsidized by the government so that farmers can afford
them.
3. Farmers should be given access to loans at single digit interest rate.
4. Farmers should be encouraged to carry out cooperative or communal farming so as to reduce the
effect of land tenure system.
5. Simple and less expensive farm machines and implements should be developed locally.
6. The government should establish agricultural engineering schools or stations to train personnel
for fabricating, servicing and repair of farm machines.
7. Farmers should be educated to accept modern systems of farming in areas of mechanization.
8. Tractor hire service. The impact of tractor hire service should extend from state capitals to rural
areas.
9. Private Sectors and NGOs Participation: Government should create enabling environment that can
serve as incentives to attract the private sectors and N GOs into investing in agriculture.
10. For farm mechanization to be meaningful in the tropics, its introduction should be gradual,
starting with crops and other operations where it is economically feasible.

EVALUATION
1. State eight obstacles of farm mechanization in your country.
2. Suggest five ways to encourage farm mechanization in Nigeria.

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. The following are ways of improving farm mechanization except (a) the cost of machines should
be subsidized (b) Government should establish engineering schools (c) Land tenure system should
not be removed (d) Farmers should form cooperative societies
2. One of the following is not a problem of farm mechanization (a) small farm holdings (b) economic
factors (c) technical limitation (d) environmental pollution
3. The following are disadvantages of farm mechanization except (a) displacement of workers (b)
compaction of soil (c) nature of vegetation and topography (d) destruction of soil structure
4. The following are economic factors limiting farm mechanization except (a) most farmers are poor
(b) cost of maintenance is high (c) maintenance facilities are not available (d)cost of hiring machines
is high
5. The manpower to operate and service the farm machines and equipment is not sufficiently
available. This is referred to as (a) economic limitation (b) technical limitation (c) social problem (d)
land tenure system

THEORY
1. Describe two ways by which agricultural mechanization can be improved.
2. Discuss five ways by which farm mechanization can accelerate agricultural development in
Nigeria,
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read Agric Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; pages 70-74
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read Sources of Farm Power
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
State seven sources of farm with two advantages each
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

Week 12-13 : Revision And Examination