Voltage and Current Sources > After completing this chapter, you should be able to: ‘Explain ideal and real voltage sources * Explain ideal and real curren‘ sources. 4.7 INTRODUCTION A source in an important and basic part of an electrical circuit. It provides power to a k The source can be de or ac. The examples of de sources are battery, de generator, fuel cell, solar panels, wind turbines, rectified AC, and thermocouple etc. The DC source supplies the current Wwoltage which does not change the direction with time. The ac sources can be generators, alternator, LC Oscillator, crystal oscillator, and inverters etc. The ac source is alternating in nature, ie. its magnitude changes in both positive and negative directions with time. ened Power Source ) toad Fig. 1.1: Block diagram of a source supplying power to load 1.2 INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A SOURCE It has been found that all the sources of electrical energy have some internal resistance. The Value of this internal resistance is generally few ohms. The internal resistance of the source is one due to which the source does not behave ideally. In practice, the voltage drop across the load is less than the actual value (open-circuited value) of the source voltage. This is because of some drop across the internal resistance of the source. For example, a dry cell has voltage of 2V across its terminal (or electrodes) when it is open- circuited or nothing is connected to it However, when this cell is connected to a bulb, its voltage drops to 1.5V. This is because of the drop across the internal resistance of the cell. The internal resistance of a source may be due to any one or more of the following reasons: © scanned with OKEN ScannerElectrical Clreuit Analysis Woltage and Curren Sources 3 under this condition and the voltage across X and ¥ terminals (V,) is same aa the source voltage (V), since there is no voltage drop across Ry. Now connect load resistance, of igh ‘value and start reducing i. The current I in the circuit goes om increasing. That mons te voltage drop across 2 goes on increasing. Consequently the voltage (V,) cross the term anid Y decreases. The current In the circuit ix Ye Bek, wp lel 1 Fig 13 Concept of avg ouce ‘Therefore, the voltage across the load is y, y, Bera xRp= : Vio y= Rie, 12) ean be noted from Bq. 1.2 that if R <<, the voltage across the load is almost equal to the Se eae hel rs bars cyt ntoes re source which always provide a fixed terminal voltage srespective according to Eq. 1.2 the terminal voltage can only be fixed fource can be sen in Fig. 14(a) and 1.40) of anideal voltage source. V, canbe seen @ scanned with OKEN ScannerVoltage and Current Sources 5 (Case 1. Consider » de source of open circuit voltage SV with internal revitance 50, ‘The terminal voltage V;, will be taken acros the load resitance Ry (ranging 501-500) ace Fig. 17] Let us determine the variation in the terminal voltage ofthe source ‘When the load resistance A in 50, the total resistance in the circuit in 5 + = 100. The ‘current is ny alee Be apy Beek, 55 ‘The termina altage i \, evi Via = R= 5 6g, When te load resistance Ri, is 500, the ota eistancein the circuit becomes 8+ 80 = 550 The terminal alae Yas =H eRe sag" ite 0, he terminal age 25. The masini rmina ag 4541 wish 500, We ean note here thatthe variation in terminal volt-ge is more than 40% ut the maximum voltage Case 2 In tis case, we consider a voltage source of 5V open circa voltage) with 200482 internal resistance and the load resistance varies from 20KG to 2000. Again the rato i 1 WO asin the case 1. Let us calculate the terminal voltage for 2040 and 200K oad resistances terminal voltae for load resistance 20 kis y, for 20080 ie y 5 a : a= eta“ AASV 5 200k = 4.99607 Ys = 200+2008 7 variation in terminal voltage i 0.9% with rexpect tothe masizmum vale @ scanned with OKEN ScannerVoltage and Current Sources 2 ‘maller than cave (a) where y/R, = 25 Exercise 1.2. Calculate the terminal voltage aeross the points Xand Yin the two cases as shown in Fig. 1.110) and 1.110) Which sources satisfying the condition ofa good vltage source? * go00) ey an ” o Feast ‘Ana: (=) 10'V;(6) 1998 V; cas (2) satisfies the condition of «good voltage source. Exercise 14, A dry cell has an open-circuit terminal voltage of 2V and an internal resistance of 0.50. Find out (a) terminal voliage across 30 load resistance connected tothe terminals, 0) power dissipated bythe 30 load, and (c) efficiency ofthe circuit with $0 load connected Solution: Given: V,=2V, R,=050, and R, =30 (2) The terminal voltage a Ve ee me (8) Power dissipated Power dissipated bythe load resistance @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElectrical Circuit Analysis Voltage and Curent Sources 9 voltage dep Exercise 1.5. Which of the ig 1.14(a) ond 1.140) represents a beter curren sourcet Solution: Fig. 1.14(a) represent better current source as the ratio R,/R,issmallas compare . to Fig 1.140 =i | =i ly ty Wy canbe considered as a ood current source s@sinZtj soa % se $4 wa & We connect load resistance | | I ‘L1S(Q). The current [is divided in two ons o ” Fete Bxerciae 1.6. Area current source of 25mA is supplying current toa resistive lod of S40. If the ‘actual curent flowing through the load is 2mA, find out the interna resistance othe source. Solution: We are given I, = 25mA, R= SKO, and J, = 20mA. We need to find out the value of ‘Re Let us deaw the circuit with given values [see Fig, 1.15) Vi = fy *R,=20% 108 x5 x 10"= 1007 internal resistance “Ty lyf, = (8-2mA =n sis same, s0, we can write @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElectrical Crcult Analysis Votiage and curent ourees nu 2 Which str crest ore in ig. 1172 ails aoe YY 44 S@erogy wage | ia $A) sae cures What ith ity? 4 Ht ures dtermind? “ . ce reusr ee ° (Ans. Circuit (a) is better). 3. ASVlead acid battery hasan internal resistance of 20. How much current will ow, ifthe battery has a short circuit? (Ans. 254], 4. Avoltage source of 40V has an internal resiatance of 2000. Determine the load current ifthe load is (a) 100, (0) 200, and 2000. [Ans (a) 0.1904, (b) 0.182A, (©) 0.14) 5. A desource has an output of 90V in an open circuit, which drops to OV with load ‘current of 50 mA, (2) How much i the internal resistance ofthe battery? () How much i Rf this load current? (© How much R, reduces the load voltage to one-half the open circuit (or no-load) voltage. [Ans (a) 6000) 12008) 6000 @ scanned with OKEN ScannerCircuit Analysis > After completing this chapter, you should be able to: * Use Ohm's law to solve electric circuits * Apply Kirchhoff’s current law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law to solve electric circuits * Solve a given network using star and delta conversions. 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter deals with various tools of analyzing electrical and electronic circuits. In general, circuits must be analyzed to determine a complete set of voltages and currents. In addition to ohm's law, we have two important laws, very useful in circuit analysis, they are Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL). They are simply restatements of charg and energy conservation, respectively. In addition to these laws, this chapter deals with some techniques commonly applied in circuit design and analy: transformations s like delta-to-star and star-to-delta 2.2 NODES, PATHS, LOOPS, AND BRANCHES A node is a point in the circuit where two or more elements have a common connection. For example, Fig. 2.1(a) shows three nodes in the circuit. Sometimes circuits are drawn like in Fig. 2.1(b), where node 1 is shown as two separate junctions connected by a (zero resistance) conductor. We must consider all the conductors (conducting leads) attached to the node as part ofthe node. Thus, both the figures represents same number of nodes Suppose in Fig. 2.1(a), we start moving from node 2 through the current source to node 1 and then through the upper right register to node 3. Till here, no node was encountered more than once, then the set of nodes and elements that we have passed through is defined as a path INow, we move from node 2 through the current source to node 1, down through the left resistors to node 2. Note that we have started from node 2 and ended at the same node 2. If the node’at which we started is the same as the node on which we ended, than the path is called closed path or a loop. © scanned with OKEN Scannerircult Analy, elt Analysis atk ee (of Fig, 2.0) can be combined asin Fig. 20). The equivalent car applying KCL to node A imple, the current eat sources can be ‘annot contain two different current ts, 1, and I, in series, unless, = I; otherwise be violated. js ia Kirehhotfesecood law that states thatthe algebraic sur i sero In ather word, the algebraic sum of ll the and signs ofthe @ scanned with OKEN Scanneri fer ‘Solution: To find the value of R,asvume that current I flows through the loop as shown in and Tis given a8 1A, drop across resistor 5 is x5 =(1* 5)V drop across resistor Ria Ix R= (1x RV drop across resistor 100 x Px 10 = (1 10 /KVL around the lop, (1x5)+ (xR) +01 10)-20 R=50 For the netuork in Fi. 2.80), fd ologes Vand V- tt i] wv gs0 av Cpe @ o Fes I flows through the loop as shown in Fig. 280). Vj=51, V,=-al @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner— 7 iy el v,=58V vy=208¥. are connected in sch away tat they form shape ef eer a0, sometime i als Pe, Ab, he eee a Tee eT network ath n GST ip me avon cui a at ct le re Ri tema shge Tn ome eters le be epee a ‘ror IT network as shown in Fig. 2.1500). ora par of larger network. They page te a Saco Sree aedy area tannins, : * : a ll the crit elements. s, Greut: a 12.8.1 Delta to Star conversion Lot us considera star network consisting of resistances Ry, Rand R., We need to convert this '8’ network into an equivalent ‘star network. To obtan the equivalent resistances in the star network, we compare the two networks and make suze that the resistance between each pir of nodes inthe A network is the same a the resistance between the same pair of nodes» the star network. For that let us asrume that A and star networks are not connected to any ther network, that means nodes A, B, and C are open circuited. ‘Therefore, for an equivalent network, the resistance between nodes A and B of the star petwork sequal tothe resitance between nodes A and B ofthe Delta network. tn Delta network, the resistance between the nodes A and B= Ry, +B.) 8 ue oe ys eee ig 216: beat sar comvenion In Star notwork, the resistance between the nodes A and B=R, +! RulRe+Re) _ py Ralls A), en es ‘Similarly, resistance between nodes C and A. Rely * Ry) = RR, Bel) og oe ‘Adding Bs. €.10, 2.15) and 2.1) we obtain 2 Rape + RycReg + Rosas) _ tes, a Tart ee Ral. +R Ra +Rahe

Ry = BARR, Under these conditions, conversion formulas become shes oe Ry=3Ry 225 2.8. Convert Delta network in Fig. 2.19(a) 0 an equivalent Star neisork. @ scanned with OKEN Scannercult Anas as f 120 isin series with paral combination o oo roam - Sirens cee an me as oD ch Tet he Ry = 12+ 60-720 sercise 29, Find the current Iin the cieut of Fg 2.23 Bm foagsen-ay| t Pi ay oa network, we conver, Det networks. To simplify the given Solution: The cit contains two Det mst" Star ewok in oe Da network int 4060 199 2, = “00 samy ‘Solution: The given circuit canbe solved by applying KirchhofTs laws, but it willbe easer = 105100 569 ‘we star to delta conversion to solve this problem, so, we will use star to delta conversion here B= “S00 ‘We have one star network inside the circuit, if we convert it into an equivalent delta 0x100 network, the problem can be easly saved [ee Fig. 2.24), p= 22-500 replace = Pits | See, Z eee ce ; seer te met ra acini te ete an eas sha we oe . a ; 2h Ferm ” » © g22s (5x10) 00x10) +00%5) 10 (5x10) +0%10)+ 0x5) Re 5 (x10) +40s10)+40%5) _ 200 _ : 0 0 @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElectrical Creu Ana Too reietors of 400 Part w Z “ et ay eee mapas PERS cecpenarcrree eS P2259) |e mena op Sr tao ren an san es it dct shown Fi 2a . se , [Next equivalent is shown in Fig. 2 hk HD Ea Qa win tae aah 237] 4, Find currents and voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.29. rut. 44 Brpain tar ad deka networks How vont dea network int an equivalent tar nebrork 5, How can you! 6 Deere taro delta transformation. 1. Porte circuit in Fig. 226, find ghee (Ans. 1,=94, = 24, Z,= 14, V,=24V, ¥, Fd a0 6. Find V, and fin the circuit shown in Fig. 230 te nous 7 _ a@ eax) an Fez (Ans. f= 64, ¥,= 12] 6, Find V, and V, in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.31 40 av “4 Feat (Ans. 16, -8V) @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElectrical Circuit pe rut ahown in Fi 282 a Rens (Ans. 20V, eta network work shown in Fig. 2:8 to {8 Tramaorm the wyem — ee 0 > ‘ter completing thi chapter you shuld be abet + Collate carers and otges nts that contain mule node nd ops | * Employ Kho caret aw Wt to pert perform a nods ana to determine al he noe votagesina creat rea + Employ Kichhofs voltage law (KVL) to perform 2 mesh anasto determin ail the oop + Ascertain which ofthe two aah techniques shouldbe tiled to sche a particular peotem [Ans, 1400, 700, 359) 9. Obtain the equivalent resistance R, fr the circuit shown in Fig. 24 and we it to ind crest | 3.1 INTRODUCTION Having understood the basic concepts of circuit analysis using Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff Voltage law (KVL) and Kirchhoffs current law (KCL), we are now ready to study two powerful techniques of circuit analysis: the node analysis tachnique, which is based on KCL, and the ‘mesh analysis technique, which is based on KVL. These are the most important techniques to salve network problems. With these techniques, we are able to analyze any linear circuit by obtaining a set of simultaneous equations th are then solved to obtain the values of current and voltages comin rota) 22 MODEANAUSI cs 6 (Ans. Ry, Made of nada analysis basicaly a procedure to analyse circuits wing nade voltages a the sireuit variables. To start with node analysis, let us quickly revise what isa node- The node apt 24: Ground stot @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElectrical cult Ana, Fae connected. When v9 lem, cat whore two inca more than Wo clement, heme w ald ae, current division doesnot. tino de incaledprincipl node Oto we performing nodal analy, aren vio perform Node Analysis: tance | Sect w nade as reference node. ater Ae emein nl 4 Apply KCL to each ofthe non-reference nodes. rode voltages, taneous equations to get the 65, Salve the resulting 7 inthe cireuit, a 32 creat frre aa ia to count the umber of nodes. Once the number of nodes ate known, select PAE cc ad or datum nde The ference nde mt be a ound oF zr ‘paeatal We call awaye use the ground eymbol as shown in Fig, 8.1. Thereafter, assign ‘Aran othe nenrefrence node, Keepin mind that the nade voltages are defined wi “Rupa tthe reference nade, Then, apply KCL to each nomreference node in the cru ‘Lets analye the cuit shown in Fig. 3.28) 1 Wefind the total umber of nodes inthe ict There are otal 3 nodes inthe circuit ‘We dvinate the nodes a 0, and 2as shown in Fig. 3.20). 12 Weselecied node 0 asthe reference node. Remember this node is at zero potential {To avid puting all the information on one figure, we have redrawn the circuit in ig 3.20 toad currents and node voltages] 4 Amiga voltage v, and, to nodes 1 and 2 repecively oe Fig. 3.20), 4. Toapply KCL to node 1 and 2, we needto assume te direction of currents, Assume th | node voltages are at higher potential othe direction of branch currents are outwards eal caren are eating the nodes. (Current iy and ae leaving fr ‘and currents and i are leaving from node 2) ett “At node 1, applying KCL gives tatty =o Le Aone 2 appving KCL gives itis = 0 fa eho ig=fig= “I = “Pandy = i Subeitating th value oi ign n Ba (1 _and (3.2) respectively, we obtain, oa iy im Eqs. (3.1) Ba. . f= Gone my 462) tg =k = Next step isto express values of currents i, i, and i in terms of node voltages. The vals of theae currents can be writen by using Ohm's law. [As current flows from a higher potential toa lower potential in a register. So, we can write i cr) With this in min, we obtain fom Fi. 3.2, i eo 4 an ‘ oo) For the circuit of Fig. 32, we solve Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10) to obtain the node voltages v, and vy ‘There are many standard methods to solve simultaneous equations euch as the substitution ‘method, the elimination method, Cramer rule, or matrixinversion The simultaneousequations ray also be solved using calculators or with software packages such a» Matlab and Mathead. ee EXERCISE = Exercise 8.1. Suppose that the networkin Fig. 3.2, has the following parameters: , = 10A, = 4A, R, = 80, R, = 20, R, = 10, et us determine ll the node voltages and branch curren. Solution: From Eq, (3.9), we can write @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElectrical Creult Anaya, a an Gin, (8.10) gives, a z pt es 8 § atte gut and GAD, We eam save the equation, Non enya eas ofa ‘Method 1: Elimination Method ‘Adding Bqs. (8.11) and (8.12), ay, = 42y,20V saben in, ciety, = 820563¥ akcalate branch currents by sbetituing values 1 and v, in Eqs. @.6-38). We ean: Node and Mesh Analysis feqot the same revulls as we gt by elimination = Wet . on method. We can calculate branch curent as Method 3: Matlab Software ‘We now use MATLAB to solve the matrix. Cok sab e ry: =b=a om ‘ ‘ateis, ¢i the column vector, and i the column vector comprised of >> a5 -3;-13); >> c[36; 8); >> brinvla)*e Sob 11.0000 6.3333 ‘Thus, o, and v, are 11V and 6 3V respectively a obtained previously ‘Beereiee 8.2, Determine the current flowing left to right through the 150 resistor of Fig. 23 ae) Ba y4y Fea Solution: We have to do nodal analysis to know the current fowing through the resistor 150. Before starting nodal analysis, we first note that resistors TA and 0 are in serie, so, we ‘an replace it with one resistor of 100. We redraw the cceuit in Fig 3.30) 1, Nodes have already been assigned values v, and vin the question 2 Aasuming the directions of branch curcents are such that they ate leaving the nodes. [see Fig. 3.36) 3 Apply KCL at node 1 and 2 @ scanned with OKEN Scannerpi en rer ade eet tthe node voltage, and, We shall © Scanned with OKEN ScannerBecta Cet Any, Sima, we an wits, 5 8 - =0+5080+0-6440-0-0=-1160 Reaget Bliwic ef ea 2 Fee ls 81s s ovals are same as we obtained with method 1. ‘Method 3: We now use Matlab to solve the matrix. Ee skY ob = e3b=0- siete by 3a cisthe lum vector, and bis the column veto coms and a ” > on[6 4-1; -15 25-9; 95 14 9), aerate ——— /=-2.9V, as obtained previously We now study the supernode analysis with the help of example. Consider the Fig. 3.5 fr ilustation. Consider the two cases: (Case 1: the voltage source is connected between the reference and non-reference nodes, in this ease we can simply write the noue voltage equal tothe voltage ofthe wltage wurce. For Fig. 3.5), we can write, 4 = 10 (320) Case 2: If the voltage source is connected between the two non-feference nodes, the wo ron-rference nodes form a generalized node or supernode [A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source ‘connected between two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel swith it. We can have more than two nodes forming single supernode. The steps to analyze Fig. 35: station of supemede nas ‘acreit containing a supernode ia samme a we did in previous section But a supernoe is treated differently inthe circuit, asthe essential part of node analysis i appyng KCL, which require {oknow the current through each element. There is no way to find the curren through a voltage source in advance, However, KCL mus be satisfied at» supernode ke any ‘To analyze the circuit in Fig. 3.5(a), we see that a supernode and Sanda voltage source, So, we have combined node? node 3 snd @ scanned with OKEN ScannerBeta ret An, cular circu four brane ie ost the pera he cena eating Gay (22s) G2 as, G29 + 3805 dineused previously fand (3.24) by any method on emeni y= 280V, adv, =-207V. about Supernode ja ee tect does not have a voltage ofits own. —— the eplixation ofboth KCL and KVL: HEEL ee eer re a the temas bead Wd ‘tupernode is formed by two nodes 2 and 3, a voltage ie silt pti es te or can ri ‘aupernode. ae ty CL at ped -attg tty 2 occ 2 50,4205 = -20 25 Now applying KVL to the supernode as shown in Fig. 3.6), “H-24y, = 05-4428 a From Bas. (3 25) and (3.26, o: 5, #20+v)) ‘ubetittingv in Ba (3.20), 4851V | MESH ANALYSIS. Mesh Analysis isan important tol to solve and analye electrical crcuita, Real that a lop is fclosed path with no node passed more than once A mesh is a loop that does not contain fay other loop within it. Innode analysis, KCL applied to find ode voltages in given network, whereas in mesh analysis, KVLis applied to find mesh current i given network Unlike node analysis, mesh is applicable only to a planar circuits A planar circuit i one that drawn on the ae surface in which there ae o branches crosing each other. Otherwise, anon plana? Terese 24 Determine node voltae or : E ‘Some nonplanar cieitean be redrawn to make «planar as chowa in i. 3.7 Some yo gg RE onplanar ceils can not be redrawn in any way. Thus, those circuits wl be handled wing —— 4 id ‘node analysis. » i ws page ‘ , QT , , so (54 E "3 s, x Non, 5 x 5 ‘ ra a ® Fe A7:(0) Anon ana crat Now pn eat s oan 6 make plnaccut ‘Steps required to perform mesh analysis.: 1. Identify otal number of meshes. 2. Aasign mesh currents i i,t then meshes. 8. Devlope KVL to each of then meshes. 4, Solve the KVL equations to get the mesh wrens (ote that the number f equations required to ove an elects network using mesh analysis is == (n= 1), ifthe cicuit has m numberof meshes, b branches, and » nies @ scanned with OKEN Scanner"oN Seiya i)2 = 0 Yo» ens Fir sign the currents to the two meshes. Apply KVL to meh I, Be, ope a fem Node and Mesh Analysis ———— [Now for mesh 2, er a 2424.1) +5441 Reartanging the terms, we obtain. {be eliination method, Cramers rl, matrix rcccn te th Cres mati te soled with sara Method 1: Using Elimination method, we subtiate the vale of “ti, +710 +44) = 3 3 f= asa Substituting in Ea. (2.29, from Ba, (28) to (4.30, i, = 01054 ste current Sowing out of the positive reference termi fer supplied by 2V source= 2% (~i,)=2> 129 ‘Method 2: Cramer's Rule ‘Tose Cramer rule, let us write Eqs (3.1) and (2.12) in matric form [hl-G) inal ofthe 2V source isi, ~ i. Tus, AW, ae We obtain the determinant We get the sme revls here swe got with simian method We can now cz gomer supplied by the source as we did in elimination method oereoe 2 Determine the caret iin the iit shoun in Fg. 3.18 Solution: The cute i is actualy 4 mesh cures, s rather than ree ale riehtmont mesh utent a, Fete eft mesh, we write “$= 2i,+34,-1)+3i, = 0 For the right mesh, 36,1) +2),+2 = 0 @ scanned with OKEN Scanner5 fm=0+50+0+84-0-0=138 @ scanned with OKEN Scanner— =a ss difficult todo, “ su an at we aan of ig. 3.12) In thy ep a usual WY, 0.16664, {nee Fis, 8.19]. We cg, clement connected in series wa, a two meshes have a (dependen, heats 90 OF OTE SUPT Mee for rer spermeth =o (, '¢210(9caret sores btwes the meses (ration of supemesh essere rt far dot know the tage ms 1, oa abe to apply KVL. However a supermesh must sats tr nh er aig perc ee 549), = 19 " ton noe in the branch when a Nd the two Methe interect (p 520 i sien ims 2 ang Bas (3.34) and (3.35), we obtain, i051, j= to remember about supermesh: 1, The current source in the s solve for the mesh currents 2. Asupermeth doesnot have current ofits own 4. Asupermesh requires the application otto KVL nd Ko rpermesh provides the cones int equation necessary to se 38, Determine the current, using mesh anaes # absinthe iret shown in Fig 2.14. Fea Solution: In Fig. 3.14, the current source of GA is common to the two meshes mesh 1 and seth 3, which leads to create a supermesh by removing the branch cntaning 6A curtent toure and 30 resistance. ‘Azplying KVL tothe supermesh, 5+ 16,1) + 26,~i) +11, G i784, +34, ea Applying KVL around the mesh 2 1G,~i) +31, +20, -i) o wi, + 64,~2i, = aan ‘Apply KCL to anode inthe branch where the two meshes interest. Applying KCL node p=4t6 > i776 G39 Saving gs (3.36) to (8.38), we get 6a i= Lt @ scanned with OKEN Scanneron-reference nodes, %=-256V, o, =e24vy “—o = Om * Pens (Ans. o, =-7393V, u, =-5.3337) and eurent the cut of Pig 3.20. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerWns. i, = 0.18424, i, =-0.157 the bandh curate fy and wing me ni ins ca a (ms. = 14, 1,= 14, 1,= 04} (Ans. j,= 1254) @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSICA Ara, aan AY Ky Re ow wQ {Ans 1.54, 0544,) {Asi = 84, i= 24. i, =24 in the dreuit of Fig. 3.29, {ns i,= 2.2204, i= 0.4704) 11, Determine the three mesh currents in the cut of i the circuit of Pig. .30, : Feaso (Ans. j,= 1.934) mean Uns =94,5,= 254, i= 24) 18, Determine the mesh current in the circuit of Fig 5:32 Fe saz @ scanned with OKEN Scanner= 19. Por the circuit 20, Use mesh anal ofig. 8.33 find Me (ans. pss to find mesh currents —— forte czeit of Pi 334 gh Circult Anatys, 25.984, = 2.1434) 147364) | ater completing cate 0 shoud ah eal the term ‘vansent Seb the rant spot corr Rag esc the transient respone ot nde Spetin the term time constant at qmnTRODUCTION ath chapter, we shall examine tm pf snp cite p ndcapacitr and a cic comprising a ressior nd anne applica recalled RC an R areata, respectively. They have continu Setnoan We cay ot te saya om sna solr cei eae asm ar cate ccie Bef way iby nin cndtion of he org eens asa that eer i initially wore inthe capastie onan ches enh ite the circuit. The in lees changing before attaining its maximum value is known as the retary time, andthe current during this interval is called ronson’ are ~ 42 THE SOURCE-FREE RC CIRCUIT ‘Asourerree RC circuit can be realized by disconnecting its de source suideny. Thus, the energy already stored in the capacitor is released tothe resistor We begin our study of transient analysis by considering the simple series RC circuit As thown in Fig. 4.1. The series combination consists fa resistor and an intially charged ‘apacitor. Let us designate the time-varying voltage sero ‘apacitor is initially charged, we shall represent the value of) st WO = ¥, Inher words, 40 @ scanned with OKEN Scanner5, in Table Tis evident rom Table 1 (isles than 1 percent of V, aftr 5 ve time constant Thus. itis 'toassume that the capacitors filly discharged (or charged) fer ve tue In other words it takes 5 for the izeut to reach ts final state o steady changes take place with time, We can note here, tat fr every tne ‘Table 4.1: Values of tv, = © Scanned with OKEN ScannerRe s satin bmp a ! eapacitor vlogs preemies 40) = View es Fig 42: ponent repos ot cast Beshown in Fie. 42. At 1=0,the wags a the voltage decreases exponential and yrs is expresed in terms of tine contin, denasnt retorts te required forthe repos oa '0F 368 percent ofits initial vase fee +, Ba. (44) becomes Verte = viet rewritten as, 388, ui) = Ve* «0 values of UiVV, aa showain Table 4.1. Its evident om Tables 1 is less than 1 percent of V ater fv time constant) Thos te that the capacitor is fully discharged (o charged) sere tan words, it takes 5 forthe circuit to reach itil stat or ready take place with time. We can nite hee ht fr every tne is reduced by 36.8% ofits previous vale, +x) @ scanned with OKEN ScannerA a in the capactr by dspation ira shown in Fig. 5, Lt ws deg that the incor es annals i = 1, ime varying current a Fe AS: RL erat wie ouce i the inductor is (V2NL)? Applying KVL around the (u10) @ scanned with OKEN ScannerI Hecy Ea (410 ty (tig (uy (aw (an the terms, Fig. 48, At time ¢= 0 there tno tage sre te gets charged epuneataly and il wach 0 at time f=. In By (18) f= vor se ine percent fits initial ale. By sng hand cst (O86 at ¢= 2x, 095 a= 9 0882 a=, at take ive time cnstants to reach tthe sess response ofthe ccitor he fst tare fie @ scanned with OKEN Scanner=e ill hai eagle scoring othe rlton waver m3) = hx 10 72-0606 @ scanned with OKEN Scanner, fear Bi) = 898-7 at 200, wich say fg through the rsistorotFg 4130 renee hic the 2p Ans. 0651 + (gua Fess ABP and a resistor of resistance 0 580 are cnsetedin eres femf of 2V. What is the time cnstant ofthis set” Pine plates and the current in the crit afer 0 (An. 055, 126490, 1474) by ade voltage soure through 240 resist. Ii takes 76% ofits maximum value, fd the capac ofthe capastr (An. 0.10941 circuit is 2.0ms, When $00 resistor sane t00.5ms, Find the inducance ani the estan (An. 60. 300) @ scanned with OKEN Scannering this chapter, you shouldbe able to dal waveform and its characteristics the voltage and current values of sine waves soidal waveform des an introduction to alternating current (a ernating voltages tuate with time and periodically change polarity and direction according to ‘called waveforms. Particular emphasis is given to the sinusoidal waveform of its basic importance in ac circuits. Other types of waveforms are also (or voltage) whose value varies in a manner, which is similar to a Gaknown as sinusoidal. It is also referred to as a sinusoidal wave, or, simply ‘service provided by the power companies is in the form of sinusoidal 5.1 is a graph that shows the general shape of a sinusoidal, which ‘current or an alternating voltage. Voltage (or current) is displayed ‘and time (t) is displayed on the horizontal axis. Notice how the voltage sora 7 route maximum current) Time 0) © scanned with OKEN Scannera sine wave Se pene te cml oe al os ca led the tine prod, ie Fig. 54 Tne period hen ne Wa theme ache the time period of sine wave. Typ eyees as shown in Figure 5.4), Sine all ei tod is always a fixed value fora given sne nang from a zero crossing to the next cor lysine ware cote open. ‘The period of a si A ending ner crosing as indicated in possible ways to measure atime period of given wave: ean be measured from one zero. yee (the rossng othe coresponding zero crossing ‘ust be the same a the cresponding nr ronsingy) Fe 55: Tine period can be measured from the postive peaki ane cycle to the positive peak in cycle. ad can be measured fom the negative peak in. one eyelet the negative peak @ scanned with OKEN ScannerFie 57: tustoson ot equeney frequency and period also be defined as the reciprocal of the ine Pind vie ves, 1 Ge: 1 of reciprocal relationship einen fandT the inp, 1B find out te frequency andthe ine eri of ie ne Fas equal posing f\ @ scanned with OKEN Scannerpeak values i called The peak-to-peak alesse ake stownin egg, ned voltage is equal othe de vlage ‘does the sinusoidal voltage urtent. The rms vali designs by taking the mean ofthe aguene yee. Mathematically, te rms ai Ti tha proce town secon na he inatastan can also becalelated ¥, 6 of consderable importance inthe fel of Tein team of and elmer rec oly ouvaes of sarong Tnleeindated the values othe given caret sare! ad rose by that steady reed ty hat of @ scanned with OKEN Scannerfor 0cats Ihich ithe vale of cuent @ scanned with OKEN Scannerffull rectified current is given 19 fhe ame asthe rms value ofthe fl sino ave ge valu ffl ct carrets 1 = Ufiaen as «a9 @ scanned with OKEN Scannerlawman = Yap Sh al ime. n this shown in Fig 5:14 has slower rise time tha has the Swing Mis emsidered as zero, The nea function from 0 @ scanned with OKEN Scannerv,[& Va mar signal is 107% 80 Fig 5.15, the ps fxr 7 se eee Star wnrerm exrmin se ns ee= feet, stst a9 wh, fortssts? from section Oo, ul eres the wave fm the waveform fom ston 27 of aanrs ocala thermal che waver cv @ scanned with OKEN ScannerIntterm = > «a res us change the variable ox (ds) 6s «0 on @ scanned with OKEN Scanner=2459%105 the peak valu, the peak-to-peak value of sine wave given in Fg. 5.18 ia 22 he ms valu andthe the rms and average value for bipolar rectangular or pulse waveform fms value ofthe given signal waveform, lt us spl the signal in two Ian escond fom to. The istantancus vale canbe waiten a8 fr 05th 649) fort, sts 509, the waveforms oft sections by taking the integral over the ple peo 650, @ scanned with OKEN Scannera avefems wed nth a a evle (time period) faguen ny. value () peak value (0) bealto peak ak Yalu of and average value ofa half rected ain, oil waveform ICE PROBLEMS, Wave f0es through five yes ine eat send, (Ane 7 e520. How sible ways to measure the period o " Period ofthe sine wave ini its duty yee, ond tj, Na ag F520 Pecurs at 1 ms and the next positive peak xcurs at 25 ma, wht ; (Ans. T= Ls) ine wave is 10 ms. What isthe fuency? (Ans. = 100) oes through four cycles in 20ms, Wht isthe frgaeo (Ane f= 2004 n (ns, P= in Beeycles ofa sine wave occurring in ms What the as (Ans, /=05Mii 7 fsindependen sé. receiver operates ata frequency of MH. What ts time (Ans. = 1450), alu (i frequency (i) time peri (v) instantaneous vale of . ns () 141.4 V (i) 60 si) 1667 ms) 1278 V1 @ scanned with OKEN Scannerile slings ven cit br allthe atags droped scr ts ecu thal a ong throwgh hem. Cin wick seg tain wih ine ee aie alternating vole Ca Its megntuden ‘lement, This chapter gives an introduction to in innit element like resistor, capacitor and inductor These analysing the AC circuits involving resistor and inductance (RL. iene) <= (RC creits). The analysis of Land RCcireuitshelpsin studying Ietworks like RLC circuit which comprises of resistance, inductance and tof reeonance which i the vital aspect of RLC circuit has alo been it is imperative to know the voltage curtent relationship ofits circuit Dasically comprises of circuit elements like resistance, capacitance the three main components ofan AC crit. They are also known ‘oppove the flow of electric curzent in the circuit. However, they ‘ways. The fllowing sections discuss how the voltage and circuit elements are connected in a circuit eal @ scanned with OKEN Scannerovesance of the capacitor, ia the angular frequency ofthe AC signal and C ofthe capacitor. The voltage current relationships for he serie ua yar actor is same as that of inductors. ‘and amplitude at any instant of time phasor is given by the magnitude of the amplitude ofthe sinusoidal wave at phen phasor was drawn. The phasor rotates in anticlockwise direction with ‘equal to the angular frequency ofthe sinusoidal funtion. If phasor ic then the angular frequency ofthe sinusoidal function i taken as negative. to represent the phase diference between two sinusoidal functions an AC voltage source whose voltage is given by V, = Vy sino) same voltage source, the curren is given by 1, = Iysin(ot—)) is lagging behind the voltage by an angle. So the phasors ofboth be drawn as given in Fig. 65. yf @ scanned with OKEN ScannerVO = tor spato, * cr) fer the vliage sours is witha oft Then eauation 6.1 boos 9 = sor. 1to a =o WO = act! onions to find the cece. Ar =9 ; 1 = ac r WO) = 4; value ofA in the solution 1 = 10 by an electrical aviation in current passing through the inductor with time wil lok ke 8. The term ipo the current arts from maximum and then decay tora tine es ‘UA is known as time constant and let be demote by T Tice along with 10 = Tae o] Fig 67 Decay of carentin nace Rsat induetor canbe calculated as: 10) vo = aoe a = -1ReF -volage with tine is gven by Fg 68. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerCircuit Analy, 3 | ing through the inductor with time will ook like fn Fig, 69 0 the current starts from zero and then goes to maximum ralue VR ce to infinity. The impedance ofa series RL circuit is given ty Z= RX, the impedance, Ris the resistance and X, isthe reactance ofthe inductor. So, if L ‘nd oi the frequency of the source voltage then. Z = R+jol is given by: isthe source free ‘ F lai = Ve +(ouy : a the situation i A solenoid with an inductance of 50 mHl and resistance of 16 Q are connected to in place of AC ‘ofa. 12 V battery in series ax shown in Fig. 6.10 after the switch is closed, find the potential drop across the resistor (8) Find. in the ciruit (c) Find the time constant ofthe circuit. (4) Find the current after has elapsed. |As derived above; The current at any instant of tin in an RL series circuit is mnie a so Som 2) @ scanned with OKEN ScannerCircuit Analysis Fie 6.12 Crt for expat dcoring ‘initial conditions to fnd the constant A; the initia chargs on capator be Q dae o wigs source V which wan connected the key to position 2. Then , QA @=A ia given by RC. The negative sign shows thatthe current flows in the ofthe intial current found when the capacitor was connected tothe source jeurve ofthe current and voltage acrons the capacitor is thus given by Pg. 613, 7 Satie variations for resistor are given i Fig. 6.15 and 616 respectively. the charging ofthe capacitor, consider switching the key k back to positon 1 6.11, after the capacitor is completely discharged: So, at! = 0, the charge on oH 65) @ scanned with OKEN Scannerthe variation of charge on the capacitor versus tim vote se capaci with ie ssiven in Fig. 6.19 and 620. As time 4 tions for infinity, the exponential goes VC. At time equal one time saximum charge Q.. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerEleticl Circuit Ana, Fie 621: Serer ait jus voltage drop Vy across it will be in phase with the curren. ous voltage V across inductor wil lead the current by 90° and in Tag behind the current by 9°. Hence, V, and V, becomes 180” out af phase {So the phasor representation ofthe three voltage drops arroseach coment given in fg, 6.22 Where o ifthe angular frequency of the source signal of resistance 50 hc, the resisor wht is developed across jeurrent through Fesn ge, Vz is thus equal tothe Phasor Sum of the three component woltages and senatin i €29, The nar dagram cane enon aor sts hpotenane, Vy taba and V,- Ve ne prena Soe RMS voltage aeros the ¥ Fi. 623 Phaser Diagram of ese Cet twfind Ve. co) @ scanned with OKEN Scanner2 ne inductor and capacitor respectively. Putting stant . vgs emt eten-D T Vg = HRP + OL-— 5 vg = NBO Xo my nee (65 rere iste magi oth mpd the serene Comparing Ea, 67 yy oS ae (Ore, XP as Fig. 624 IfXi retar than X;then the ire hun raphy Zens be epeoened Fig 624 IF es he circuit hk 4 Fe. 6.24: impedance Tangle of aries RUClut reactance then the circit reactance is capacitive giving a leading phase angle whereas ifX, ic {Treaterthenthe ciruitreactanceisinductiveivingtheciruitalaggingphaseangle. Theangular {equeagy value at which X; = Xpis known asthe resonant frequency and the phenomenon is Known as resonance which wil be discusted in detail later in this section of the chapter. The ‘phase angle, @ between V, andthe curent, I will be same as the angle between Z and Rin Fig.624 and canbe calculated mathematically Kink, tang = AEAe ‘The KVL. equation fo Fg. 6.21 canbe writen as: Vy = Vgt Vi+Ve ag v,= mud ‘Where Qin the charge on capacitor. Peri Ari LC cra schon a ‘power factor of the circuit. ls draw phasor ‘sonore Ma som ro Fees ‘Solution: Let's first calculate the impedance of thee ales of reactance of capacitor X- and inductor iret For impedance one must know the 1 %e* Zanaso.aoo0* = 1590 2 = ORF (ea? on259F "Ris given tobe 240. So, impedance Zi: ‘Now, current Lis given by: [Now to draw the phasor diagram of voltages, one needs to find the voltage drop across resistor Vp inductor V, and capacitor Ve. Also one needs ta calculate the phase angle , So, Vy = IR aaa @ scanned with OKEN ScannerEletel Creu Ana, 102 27296" =e 2 be drawn as shown in Pig, 6.2 fr atage can 8. veka e626 PasorforWoanes sean room tet art co ea ped eat af phe, they cancel each eter and the oft agai Se, bth as quo the lof the eitanee only a sony oo z= KBr XoF a sen 2%, ¥4 68 ces ZR To cle he angular ogueey where rene See IE om fen, one ts nese oe Sk as e eb ag ped > aad 1 ° LC ‘Also at resonance the phase angle ¢ becomes zero as shown below: tang = Hate = 2 tang > wan =0 . ie the choten freaueney then the eit anid oa Reena eS : " ut ai to have higher “slat {[Link] the measure ofthat selectivity, and high Q values creel to high sel in Fig. 627. The range of frequencies etweeno, andar fooee geen er Fee ath Bvof the resonance circuit. and, re the valuesof angular frequencies where the output voltage (ot) current value equals 70.7% ofits maximum amplitude amplitude the resonant frequency). Bandwidth is calelated as fo = 0,0, it is lear from Fig. 6.27 higher the bandwidth, lower isthe quality factor. The quality is given by the formula: e-e expression for ba, we note that at the current amplitude ist 9 (610) lm +X, -XoF [a +(X,-Xe¥ Ree gt = ARE B R O10" Nike = @ scanned with OKEN Scanner104 x oo oF = Te wt : ob = 36 ee 2 S38) ar (One can aprotimate Electrical Circuit, Aa i (ay (ay, 1a, in a cicut consisting of resistance R, inductance Lande pactance C connected in tage dre Poe Fig 628: Pantene Fe wings dp Vy a kvl tpn wih Ge coe ver, in Feelin at bareboat aepiartaorcies etapa are peer leentirteter epi ed Bee oa cps wth cutee Sete ptaneesre atric eon eae ccose Gastagnun Gmenmetas vont Thespian Fs dur alts Peesoonele tee F628: Phaordigam of arene pang tough each elomet a pall LC cet 8 and is shoven in phasor representation in Fig. 6.29. The phasor diagram can be sea current triangle with a ite hypotenuse, fy sits base and /,~ [os the perpen ne can use Pythagoras's theorem to find J @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElectrical Circuit, Aral z fae ‘Now we Know that: or careers hey aa ek -v ed = x k= Xe Ig = Vac . sean amt itt and capacitor respectively, Putting tag, r= < ‘values in Bq. 6.15. : Get Ses 1. (Log 2 a G9) (615 anttance ¥ ofthe ereuit (inverse of impedance). Let Yq, ¥, and ee main be on inact apr expec Then Ea, 6A any ene . y= (@aFrG 0 > 5 = Win Oo z= 1 Tear Resonance of Pras RI Cut enor pale LC cre, enn ors wen X, = Xz Hence the resonant eqns forpuilreis eae that eri cit 7 & > YEE Also at resonance the phase angle ¢ becomes zero as shown in series case. Also at resonance the ‘arlel L ak ez telus ie an open cat, carrentpasing through the cst deers ythe reso, Rol So theta impedance ofa parallel resonances stn Wiha rete ten th inpedanc of he et at fequency eet the resonant frequency. So curent is minimum (because impedance is maximum) at resonant eur nk sere rman eit where impedance i minim and hus caret © ium run eg. S th rename of parallel RLC ret ca be so nF. 0 Aparalel retaat eat ese a esonantfrequeny, ndtv ‘i eaeres eth te resonant fueny and capacve above resonant re ; Te res alec and Quality factor of Parallel RLC Creuit nant circuits have the capaci to respond sletiely to sigan Herrman eqns ofthe LC creat rescue ope oe ey ee Sherer then cl dts ave higher ea en ear, Qi the meanare ofthat selene Gestion coreeponds to high alectivity. The bandwidth ot roel rennin response cre i measured betwees te {haar pint. Ths corresponds tothe 70. vlage nce sete in prnartional to suare of the valtage. Now, tase ore tonal to impedance, a9 ane can use the ipedanes Pia find the bandwidth of paral RLC cet ashore in ig SL The range af equences between oy and eof gure = 8 i iscalled the bandwidth So ofthe resonance rut oy and “Pheer eotfre the values of angular fequencies where the cuits Fes peace valie equals 107% oft maximus value (Sic, Q isa mene ofthe ‘doen or quality ofa resonant ccs: This alo given as the rato of power stored to power dissipate inthe crit reactance ad resistance, respectively. Ed Exercise 6.8: A parallel RLC circuit is shown in Fig. 6.32, Calewae, the resonant frequency, the quality factor, the bandwidth and the circuit current at resonance. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElect Cut any 108 1 Frooxi0- «10010 = = 3163H2 peeing bY requ tet gett z eb _ 316100310 a= * 40 ° 0.79 ‘For Bandwidth BW ®, pre? Bi Seow = 316.3 > BW = O79 = oats Ye 100 pw Power in AC Circus droit, both emf and curren varee continuously with time. So itis difficult to ing Teather tin at ‘ower of an AC circuit ean be calculated and is given by ("via Fae = ae (en) where, the igtantancous vltagefemf and the current of the alternating current circuit be ven V = V,sinat T= Lin ot-4) [Now puting thes value in equation 6.17, oe gets (619) where Zs the impedance of the circuit Its already been proved that emg = RE pcoroit ana 109 eso i vol 518, poerismasimum,Aalltber eae na 2° Se e n plane ad pet he power factor ofthe citeuit. Tt ranges from 9p 1” "Y"'*8® Power is less. cos ia als called ions of LC Cris cicte a Wiel Used 38 ler tft crag BU ee. Apart rom that they ae ay acs eS od et lage and curtent magna ‘DESCRIPTIVE questi frequency graph? oan a cin heer ‘of «parallel RLC circuit using impedance v8 hen voltage is just applied or just removed ~TPRACTICE PROBLEMS 1. Consider a circuit consisting a restr cf value #0 32 mfbnduns series toa supply of IBV. (Find the tine cowtant @) Frio oe 200 pater the switch i closed? (Flow many ines ces an ae ea arent to reach 90% fits fia valu? ceaae arian 2. Anuncharredcspacitr = 16uF anda ita 20k sonatas ‘swith with a bttery of emfe=24V Aer the swichisconed Sal gitnrnee Constant ofthe RG circuit. @) The maxinum charge onthe aoesia he hone nthe capacitor 12s aer the oitchs cand (Ans. 45,0384 m6, 3648 4}. 8, A series RLC circuit is connected with a240V, 50 Hz AC supply. Calealate the circuit currentmpedance,Power factor Power consumed. Also find the Qactr at resonant frequency if = 008 H, R=4Qand C=8 uP, (Ans. 0.648 A, 372590, 0011, 1854, 25) 4. Given the circuit in Fig. 6.33, find the curent supplied by the source, the resonant ‘frequency and quality factor. JO wag vow ] ig 633 [ns, 17252142, 8063 He, 4.957, —__ @ scanned with OKEN Scanner> After completing this chapter, you should be able to know: «+ Principal of Duality « Superposition theorem « Thevenin and Norton's Theorem and their applications * Maximum Transfer theorem ‘Reciprocity theorem + Millman’s Theorem and Tellegen's theorem. 7.1 INTRODUCTION Complex networks can be stored by simplifying them into simple networks using network theorems like Superposition theorem, Thevenin and Norton's theorem, Reciprocity theorem, Maximum Power Transfer theorem etc. All these theorems apply to linear networks and it is important to understand these theorems as they are repeatedly used in solving complex networks and have various applications. This chapter gives an introduction to these theorems both DC and AC circuits. It also focuses on how to use these theorems to simplify and analyse a complex network. 7.2 PRINCIPAL OF DUALITY It states that dual of a relationship is one in which current and voltage sources can be interchanged. Two networks are dual to each other if one’s mesh ‘equation is numerically equal toothers node equation, For making a dual circuit, following points must be taken care of: * Every circuit element must be replaced by their corresponding dual element mentioned in table 7.1 * The number of meshes in a network should be equal to number of nodes in its dual network. * The impedance of a branch common to two meshes must be equal to admittance between two nodes in the dual network. © scanned with OKEN ScannerElect ut Ara rk or vee versa, cnt etch t dal 60 «Open aichinreplced bya dnd SENT reir dual elements in their dua, ‘Table 7.1 shows a it of elements 8 © " ty |ondutanes @) espedance Adnitanse VE. Kel Copan Tndodane ma sri: The equation desrbng this network using kichols voltage Consider the flowing crc laws rer : 1 vay = Rin Ds Lina ait) oe dual elements ofthe original circuit will be (Agure 7.2) hen fi ea mae ig le sl enn es He lwo Fe 7 tne ote 73 dal lements rom table 7.1 and othe equation becomes: , du), 1 | ity = Guo +7 foie Where isthe conductance having numeric value same as resistance of the original circuit, has ite numeric value equal to that of C of original circuit and Chas ts numeric value equal tothat of of original structure eof duality apis only to planar cacan Pia hevepereasited o makes duce ito dot in ach mon fh nil cut ad on det ete : ‘outside the circuit wi ie reference or ground. ‘outside the circuit. The dat errata (ehich is common between the meshes, through only one element. «Sire connectng the dts withthe refrence sep fhrough one element (which isnot commor é ‘Shoe dt is being connected «Mate the dual uit by making A.B C204 D as aodev a J rad tt lect enn such that eae between asin) cede aetin pases hes) and exclasveto the mesh, ial passes through one element (which is common between the meshes) at atime ae ewe Fig. 74. After that start connecting the dts with the reference dot D, auch thateach esnoretng asses through one element (which isnot common between meshes) as shown in igure 7, Now, draw the dots on the page as shown in fgure 7.6. Join the dots and draw the dual network by joining the dotted lines of figure 75. While joining the elements, ont has to take that every element needs tobe changed to its dual element as mentioned in table 7. The ‘numeric values of these dual elements will remain same as that ofthe elements of the original @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElect Crit Any Ihave value 40. 7 8 7 For example, im tnt il mB we replaced by C of value GF and he Ienaigeeaertte ed cer so cin i mi todo sl av atta | ew does Lever Zot 3 F > 1 Fe.19:The Dual netwrk fe fe complex circuit) ean anti any cit wth many volage and crenteourcet(cmpex cect) an be 1 att hm of eimpied cia enh consisting of jut one of te sources roo of Supeposton Theorem Ceara sut a givenin Fig. 78. Thenin order to prove superposition theorem, one hast a) b ED rere that [is same as the eum ofP and Po Ye heaton, Re ‘equation 7. and 7.2 gives 1 therefore: KVL equations for Fig. 7 Fes IR +d,-1pR, TR, + B-Raf, E+, I)h, “ht, +igh, +k) equation 7.4 and 7.5 gives ih +R) RR + RR RR! KVL equations for Fig. 7.10; @ scanned with OKEN Scanner 7 todothatone hao write the KVL ents na 2 Fe Bl out Tlcal eT RR eRe RR and "from equation 7.6 and 7.9 one gets rok ‘, yt ca oa as Cz) Cz) a “ wyletrical Crcult Anas = Ro Ry Ry vice Ra) VaR WRB +H + RR + Pa FREER RRARR TAR ” BE BATA aa ine ineuation sate oe circuits usi superposition theorem: ine tration HB ora sure emoved om te eu «er plied ert shoul Base on 0 0S 1 None singled drut rogue in eame aetwork + Sum theresa obaind br EERE cs sexihorem for the rut given im Fg ares ‘na to caleulate the current and voltage ox ceuit and then superimpocing ‘numberof sources inthe complex simplified cireitato a theres forthe complex circuit Exercise £2 Vey aperpaiton aren 7 eT luton nore to verify superponion orem, fom cch eer on smiled cts of BH =n ‘, , 3 ty os, e728 them. Thee values should be same asthe values obtained by solving the circuit directly. In aan esos the eet using auperposition principle, one has to make simplified circuits seesekiy oo snr at atime. Since there ae two sures inthe cat 2 two simplified Re Sal be required au chown in Fig. 7.12 and 7.13. One circuit will have only source 86 V ‘Sep the other wil have nly 14 V. Now, one bs to eolve both the circuits independently and * ston 120 and ge sans ret ieen owning er v voltage drops across R,, R, and R, due to simplified circuit 2be Vay, Vig and yy, Toy ad ayy Using Kirchotf voltage can write the current voltage equation or Fig 7.14 2, + 4d,~1) ay an gon 7.12 and 7.13 gives: ,= 3A and I,=1.A. {current values, one can find the vltage drop across each exatr for simplified solving for voltage drop on similar eteps as done for simplified circuit gives: Vag, = BV, Vag, = Vand Vig, =F @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElectrical Clreult Anal 118 Fig 1 To repreeents simplified iret 204 ala gare [1d and 745 ies the alae BSA S98 e735 vsthe wotages and the direction of currents through resister R, we have to subtract 1, own in igure 719 and 7.15.0 alues one mut ee inthe mind the palate rae eo Tin endrtecaelte ata eret Peg ow in cpa etn he "asa mini nesting tal alge op Vara ae haste Vay om St eg ecrm WES aa ar on te nl ern the recite as 10 oe (a teeter Band 0 alas gon shown i ure 719 and 7.18, Similarly fo 4s to add Vag, from Vig 88 they have same the tan ines, the inal values obtained arnt Ryo cat on ggre 113 ad 18. Gi eo Eethe oepler cea reese JADA 0 y= V_ 240 ae fonin rare 16 Now, inrder to prove euperpesitonprinciple, the values ofeurrentand oun taza tA ' ic 78: Speinposd ct voltage drop obtained sbove as shown in Fig 7.16 should match the values if cbtained directly ve without superposition principle. To calulate the values directly, lets consider Fig. 7.17, swhere both sources are present, ‘Using KVL. one can write the equations as equation 714884735: f,= nae 15h and ad eee cron! values, on can fd the vlae drop aro each values in Fig. 7.17 gives Fi tives ig. 7.18 which has values exactly same as Fig. 7.16. ht F738; ut sy re ans of Superposition Theorem sm only applies to linear ccut, tert, circuits, therefor, cam ews to find current and vltage hearer thus can noth se find owerbecse tea onc eto IN THEOREM ‘that any complex linear circuit lke Fig. 7.19 can be converted into a si aise voltage source in series toa is the equivalent resistance ofthe complicated crit dat i ated circuit as measured at point Joad resistance removed, all voltage soures short and all current sources are pen Vy is voltage obtained at terminals A-B. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElectial Crcult Analisis 264 mAcrrent fowsinboth kaa ; A wil rer scene they arin ein Fig. 7.2) So crow the AB terminate te fame vlage ie 18 wll My = step is to calculate equivalent resistenge ska direction ofthe arrow. It ise of 5 kM and 6 KO resistance. So, 2 : ee 5 oa fan wo shown in Fig. 724. Now, ee a rea in: Fnt step eo vmor the 1040 od esis 1 et the Sue 7.2 So the Solution Ft se me tpn to east Vy, For thn oe nee to dou the See en Sa vag 10 La open cote So, fr 0 V source team and iin ig sent etn 1110. ae re current through the bad willbe Pree Poses as ov Ben 1 soe = 096x107 . the voltage drop across willbe hen (96% 10°) x10 108 There, tod re se Tas Find the thevenin equivalent ofthe network given in gure 1.25. 7.25, Since a and bare open, no current ie passing through them because ofthe source @ scanned with OKEN Scannerre Electrical Cut Analysis 322 jr equivalent resistance ein oie. oth 3000" So forthe cours, Ai Boe hyeRtRy mS ogy 30~40) = 10)+300 oes Ry Ry Ry - wibteme raged sR nn soon Liye oe yen el br be tag us fi 726. NEALE eng om ie erin, Now, Vp willbe the voltage drop aross a, Ya Be) : agen 4-2 | iF 6 e728 2, and R, are in series and thee resultant is parallel to So, Ry = Ry parallel (60j 40). So, Ry x10) Fa = Rij __ s0210) = 30s10j = -yt90, ork Theorem the values of Vy, and i wove con stain the evan 9-10 a Fer 15 NORTON'S THEOREM oabinntinn af Basa rut can be sipled to an eget circuit Comet wrce anda estan eons a an “Oo gn A e728: re Jy isthe short circuited current nthe original circuit andy between pointe A and Bwheret sources are short and eurrent Noro egal rele obtained since or crting the rm containing Ind uivalent resistance ofthe compli ofthe compliated ercuit he load was connected nthe orignal eircuitwhen ULES are open circuited. removing R, one can find Ry fom Fi yeen A and B after removing all Since we have to find curent e729 through 602 so this becomes our lad resistance, ig. 7.30 by calculating the equivalent resistance a seen urrentsourees and shorting all volage sources ay) ai e730 @ scanned with OKEN ScannerElectrical Creult Analysis a seaman * 10, ies . 1nd 08 are in series and ther resultant [Now as it is evident fom Fg. 7.31 that 9. parallel to6 2 as seen in Fi. 782,50, <0 asa e732 6x38 $85 Ly g30-150 Ry = Begg 280015 Tocaleulate [one needsto short A and B as shown in Fig. 7.9. Since A and Bare short thus 19 1 wa@ sof fy Bozo fig 733 cffer alow resistance path: Hence the entre current from current souree will pass from A to Band th resultant circuit i shown in ure 734. Thus giving the value of 40 [Link] the io ae fe Fe73e value af fy and Ry the nortons equivalent circuit is given in Fig-7.95. So using the norton’ ‘equivalent circuit one can calulate current passing through lad ie, through 50: pea? 2.33 40% 5233 12.74 2 Pewee tom arn ipeance ne ote equal pn fe cack of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for AC rete dea network on grein ure 7 mings 2th ingle 1, 0 eles of mas oer fom oa a tha sl be alo Sine Z, and Z rein series, hence the eras hh ad ielane x gate y v ~ Yarns pores ia, nad then ety: nce is the complex eon I Py VR, R= R_ 2 many 8 |» ls Fe 738 @ scanned with OKEN ScannerEtec Chalt Asi 126 Yor woman 7.38. To calculate the ee Zy Zand Z, a in 2 Tea ee R208) = 2 X+X, = 2 yea can sogiee part of impedance of oad should be equal to ‘Thus for maximum power transfer, the in hat ofthe source, Lt us pt this valu 2 resistances “he equation 7.16 to get the relation between the __v Ld eR ve -@R) ‘Now, tofnd the relationship between R, and R for maximum power transfer Py gg VIB MRYRI-VIR* RY diy (RR) RY 2 -VR,MR +R) VAR R=O 3 -ViR+R)LR,-(R+ RO 3 mR, (RRO es) = RER (719) Sofor maximum power tranterin AC tei shouldbe equaltotheR which sin agreement Sih the Masimem Power Transler Theorem for DC circuits, Therefore, fom relation 2 and 3 Tris proved tha for maximum power transfer from source to load in an AC circuit the value of load impedance sould be eomplex conjugate of source impedance. ‘Exercise 1.6: Find the value of Ri in Fig. 797 that results in maximum power transfr and {fad the mazimum pover delivered to load. fis , to dan 3pRO EN vQmar t mers ans, sha seen from the loa tal ingedane allel tae he vale of lod resintne shouldbe equal tothe al part of, ie, 3.0.0 for maxima ‘power. Now, in order to calculate this power, one shold know the open circuit ge V, inbetween points ab of Fig. 7.38. be the total current delivered by the voltage source of Fig, 7.38 tothe eect. Then 100230 ren tno 4 50 066 = 100230 QgaVl 64-8 No- 34-0 \U [Cos |-34-9) 2h sto) 24-2) wlo-3at +4 [0-94 9.031 ~6 5 edo) ae et @ scanned with OKEN Scanner