3.

RENAL FASCIA
CHAPTER 13. THE URINARY SYSTEM - Another thin layer of dense irregular connective tissue
- Anchors the kidney to the surrounding structures and to
- Consists of two kidneys, two ureters, one urinary bladder, and the abdominal wall
one urethra.
- They filter blood and excrete them into fluid called urine.

FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY

- Does the major work in urinary system

1. EXCRETION OF WASTE
- Help excrete wastes from body by forming urine
- Some wastes excreted through urine result from metabolic
reactions in body
- Urea and ammonia from deamination of amino acid
- Creatinine from breakdown of creatine phosphate
- Uric acid from catabolism of nucleic acid
- Urea, ammonia, creatinine, uric acid, urobilin are known as
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF KIDNEYS
nitrogenous wastes
2. REGULATION OF BLOOD IONIC COMPOSITION
If cut, TWO regions can be seen:
- Regulate blood level of ions (Na, K, Ca, Cl, HPO)
- Kidney adjusts amount of ions excreted into urine 1. RENAL CORTEX
3. REGULATION OF BLOOD PH - Superficial, light red region
- Excrete amount of hydrogen ions into urine and conserve 2. RENAL MEDULLA
bicarbonate ions, which is an important buffer of H+ in blood - Deep, darker reddish-brown inner region
4. REGULATION OF BLOOD VOLUME - Consists of multiple cone-shaped pyramids.
- Kidneys adjust blood volume by conserving or eliminating - Has a base and apex
water in the urine - Apex of medulla is called a renal papilla
5. REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE - Portions in renal cortex that extend between renal pyramids
- Help regulate blood pressure by secreting the enzyme renin, are called renal columns.
which activates renin-angiotensin aldosterone pathway
6. MAINTENANCE OF BLOOD OSMOLARITY Renal cortex and pyramids form the PARENCHYMA or the functional
- Regulating loss of water and loss of solutes in the urine portion of kidney.
- Kidneys maintain a relatively constant blood osmolarity
(concentration of chemical particles found in blood) - Within the parenchyma are functional units of kidney called
7. PRODUCTION OF HORMONES the nephrons.
- Produces two hormones - Filtrate formed by nephrons travel into the large papillary
- Calcitriol, active form of vitamin D, regulates calcium duct and drain into cuplike structures called minor and major
homeostasis calyces.
- Erythropoietin stimulates the production of red blood cells - Each kidney has 8-18 minor calyces and 2 or 3 major calyces.
8. REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL - Renal pelvis is a large cavity that is connected to major
- The kidneys can use the amino acid glutamine in calyces and ureter.
gluconeogenesis, the synthesis of glucose molecules. - Renal sinus contains part of renal pelvis, calyces, and
branches of blood vessels and nerves.
ANATOMY OF KIDNEYS
BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY OF KIDNEYS
- Kidneys are reddish, kidney bean-shaped organs located just
above the waist between the peritoneum and posterior wall of Receives 20-25% cardiac output
abdomen.
- The kidneys are said to be retroperitoneal because it is Supplies to different segments of kidney
posterior to the peritoneum of abdominal cavity.
Branches that enter parenchyma and pass
EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF KIDNEYS through renal columns

Branches that are found in bases of pyramids

- Typical adult kidney is about the side of bar of bath soap.
- The concave medial border is an indentation called renal
hilum, through which ureter emerges from kidney along with Radiate outward and enter renal cortex

blood vessels, lymphatic vessel, and nerves.

Branches that supplies one nephron

Tangled, ball-shaped capillary network

Carry blood out of glomerulus

Surround tubular parts of nephron in the

renal cortex

Peritubular capillaries reunite to form this

Blood drains to arcuate vein to interlobar

vein between pyramids

This vein exits through renal hilum and

carries blood to IVC

- Kidney has three layers of tissue: - Renal nerves originate in renal ganglion and pass through
1. RENAL CAPSULE renal plexus
- Smooth, transparent sheet of dense irregular connective - Renal nerves are part of sympathetic division of autonomic
tissue nervous system.
- Serves as a barrier against trauma and helps maintain
ns the shape of kidney PARTS OF A NEPHRON
2. ADIPOSE CAPSULE
- Mass of fatty tissue surrounding the renal capsule - Nephrons are the functional units of the kidneys
- Protects kidney from trauma and holds it firmly in place - Consists of TWO parts:
within abdominal cavity 1. RENAL CORPUSCLE
- Where the blood plasma is filtered
 - Has two parts:
a. GLOMERULUS
- Capillary network of kidney
b. GLOMERULAR CAPSULE
- Also called Bowman’s capsule
- Epithelial cup that surrounds the glomerulus
2. RENAL TUBULE
- Where the filtrate passes
- Has three main sections:
a. PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
- Connected to glomerular capsule
- Lie in renal cortex
- Convoluted, meaning tightly coiled
b. NEPHRON LOOP
RENAL TUBULE AND COLLECTING DUCT
- Extend to medulla and returns to renal cortex
- Connects proximal and distal convoluted tubule
- In the proximal convoluted tubule, cells are simple cuboidal
- Begins in renal cortex and extends downward into
epithelial cells with a prominent border of microvilli on their
medulla, this is called descending limb of
apical surface. This increases the surface area for
nephron loop
reabsorption and secretion.
- When the loop returns to renal cortex and
- Descending limb and thin ascending limb are composed of
terminates at the distal convoluted tubule and is
simple squamous epithelium
known as ascending limb of nephron loop
- The thick ascending limb, composed of simple cuboidal to low
c. DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
columnar epithelium, makes contact with the afferent arteriole.
- Connected to collecting duct
- The columnar tubule cells in the region of contact are crowded
- Lie in renal cortex
together and are known as macula densa.
- Convoluted
- The wall of afferent arterioles contain smooth muscle fibers
- 80-85% of nephrons are cortical nephrons. Renal
called juxtaglomerular cells. Together with macula densa,
corpuscles are in renal cortex, has short nephron loops that
they make juxtaglomerular apparatus. This apparatus helps
lie mainly on renal cortex and penetrate outer layer of medulla.
with regulating blood pressure.
FLOW OF FLUID IN CORTICAL NEPHRON: - In the last part of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct,
there are TWO types of cells:
1. PRINCIPAL CELLS
- Have receptors for antidiuretic hormones and
aldosterone; most present cell
2. INTERCALATED CELLS
- Play a role in homeostasis of blood pH; smaller in
number
- The number of nephron is constant from birth.
- 15-20% of nephrons are juxtamedullary nephrons. Renal
corpuscles lie in deep cortex, has long nephron loops that OVERVIEW OF RENAL PHYSIOLOGY
extend to deep medulla, has two portions of ascending limb:
1) thin ascending limb, followed by 2) thick ascending limb. - To produce urine, nephrons and collecting duct perform three
basic processes:
FLOW IN JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRON: 1. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
- Water and most solutes in blood plasma move across
the wall of glomerular capillaries, they are filtered and
transported into glomerular capsule and then into the
renal tubule.
2. TUBULAR REABSORPTION
- As filtered fluid flows through renal tubule and through
the collecting ducts, tubule cells reabsorb 99% of the
filtered water and useful solutes. These substances
return to the blood as it flows in the peritubular
capillaries and vasa recta.
3. TUBULAR SECRETION
- As filtered fluid flows through the renal tubules and
collecting ducts, the renal tubule and duct cells secrete
wastes, drugs, and excess ions into the fluid.
- Solutes that drain into the minor and major calyces and renal
pelvis are already urine and are excreted.
- By filtering, reabsorbing, and secreting, nephrons help
maintain homeostasis of the blood’s volume and composition.

GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

- Fluid that enters the capsular space is called glomerular

HISTOLOGY OF NEPHRON AND COLLECTING DUCT filtrate.

- Single layer of epithelial cells forms the entire wall of FILTRATION MEMBRANE
glomerular capsule, renal tubule, and ducts.
- Glomerular capillaries and podocytes form this
GLOMERULAR CAPSULE - Filtration membrane is a leaky barrier that permits filtration of
water and small solutes but prevents filtration of most plasma
- Consists of visceral and parietal layer proteins and blood cells.
- VISCERAL LAYER: consists of modified simple squamous - Substances filtered from blood cross THREE filtration barrier:
epithelial cells called podocytes, which have footlike 1. GLOMERULAR ENDOTHELIAL CELLS
projections that wrap around a single layer of epithelial cells - Leaky because they have large fenestrations (pores)
and form the inner wall of capsule. - Permits all solutes in blood plasma to exit glomerular
- PARIETAL LAYER: consists of squamous epithelium, forms capillaries but prevent filtration of blood cells.
outer wall of capsule - Has mesangial cells that contract and help regulate
- Capsular space is the space between the two layers of filtration.
glomerular capsule. 2. BASEMENT MEMBRANE
- Layer of acellular material between endothelium and
podocytes
- Allows water and most small solutes to pass through
3. FILTRATION SLIT
- These are spaces between pedicels
- Has slit membrane that extends across which permits
passage of small molecules such as water, glucose,
 vitamins, amino acids, very small plasma proteins, 2. TRANSCELLULAR REABSORPTION
ammonia, urea, and ions. - Passes from the fluid in tubular lumen through apical
membrane of the cell, across cytosol, and through the
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE basolateral membrane to the interstitial fluid.

- Amount of filtrate formed in all renal corpuscles of both TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

kidneys each minute
- Averages 125 mL/min in males, 105 mL/min in females - When renal cells transport solutes, they move specific
- GFR is directly related to the pressures that determine net substances in one direction only.
filtration pressure; any changes in net filtration pressure will - Different transport proteins are present in the apical and
affect GFR basolateral membranes.
- Cells lining the renal tubules have low concentration of Na in
EXAMPLE: Severe blood loss reduces mean arterial blood pressure and their cytosol due to the Na-K pumps located in the basolateral
decreases the glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure. membrane.
- The absence of Na-K pump in apical membrane ensures that
- TWO mechanisms that regulate GFR: reabsorption of Na is a one-way process.
1. Adjusting blood flow into and out of the glomerulus - TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS ACROSS MEMBRANES
2. Altering glomerular capillary surface area available for MAY BE ACTIVE OR PASSIVE
filtration - Symporters are membrane proteins that move two or more
- GFR increases when blood flow into the glomerular capillaries substance in the same direction across a membrane.
increases. - Antiporters move two or more substances in opposite
directions across a membrane.
NEURAL REGULATION OF GFR - Each type of transporter has an upper limit, called transport
maximum, on how fast it can work.
- Kidneys are supplied by sympathetic ANS fibers that release
norepinephrine, which causes vasoconstriction by activation TWO TYPES OF WATER REABSORPTION:
of a1 receptors.
- In exercise or a case of hemorrhage, sympathetic stimulation 1. OBLIGATORY WATER REABSORPTION
increases and vasoconstriction of afferent arteriole happens. - Water reabsorbed with solutes in tubular fluid
As a result, blood flow in glomerular capillaries decrease and - Water is obliged to follow solute when reabsorbed
GFR drops. - Occurs in PCT and descending limb of nephron loop
- Lowering of renal blood flow has two consequences: 1) 2. FACULTATIVE WATER REABSORPTION
reduces urine output, 2) permits greater blood flow to other - Reabsorption of final 10% of water
body tissues. - Regulated by antidiuretic hormone
- Occurs in collecting ducts
HORMONAL REGULATION OF GFR
*filtered fluid becomes tubular fluid once it becomes it enters proximal
- TWO hormones contribute to regulation of GFR convoluted tubule but changes once it enters nephron tubule and
1. ANGIOTENSIN II collecting duct (due to reabsorption and secretion)
- Potent vasoconstrictor that narrows both afferent and
*fluid that drains from papillary ducts into renal pelvis is called urine.
efferent arterioles and reduces renal blood flow
- DECREASES GFR
2. ATRIAL NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE (ANP)
REABSORPTION AND SECRETION IN THE PROXIMAL
- Cells in atria secrete ANP through contraction CONVULTED TUBULE
- By relaxing the mesangial cells, ANP increases
capillary surface area for filtration - Largest amount of solute and water reabsorption from filtered
- INCREASES GFR as surface area rises fluid occurs in the proximal convoluted tubules. (reabsorbs
65%)
PRINCIPLES OF TUBULAR REABSORPTION AND SECRETION - Involves a lot of Na+ via symport and antiport mechanisms
1. SODIUM-GLUCOSE SYMPORTER
- Reabsorption is the return of most of the filtered water and - Located in apical membrane in cells of PCT
many of the filtered solutes to the bloodstream - Two Na and one glucose attach to protein and carry them into
- Reabsorption is the second basic function of nephron and tubule cell.
collecting duct. - Glucose molecule exit via facilitated diffusion and is
reabsorbed in peritubular capillaries
Epithelial cells along the renal tubule and duct carry out the reabsorption, - Sodium exits via Na-K pump and is also reabsorbed
but PCT makes the largest contribution.

- Some of the solutes that are reabsorbed include Na, K, Ca,

Cl, HCO, and HPO
- The third function of nephron and collecting duct is tubular
secretion.
- Secretion is the transfer of materials from blood and tubule
cells into glomerular filtrate.
- Has TWO important outcomes:
1. Helps control blood pH
2. Helps eliminate substances through urine

Certain substances pass from blood into urine and may be detected in
URINALYSIS. Urine tests are used to detect the presence of alcohol and
illegal drugs.

REABSORPTION ROUTES

- Substance being reabsorbed can take one of the TWO routes

before entering peritubular cavity: 2. SODIUM-HYDROGEN ANTIPORTER
1. Move between adjacent tubule cells - Carries filtered sodium into the tubule cell as hydrogen is
2. Through an individual tubule cell secreted to the lumen.
- Tight junctions surround and join neighboring tubule cells - Sodium is reabsorbed into the blood and hydrogen is secreted
together into the tubular fluid.
- APICAL membrane contacts the tubular fluid - Most of the HCO3 in filtered fluid is reabsorbed in PCT.
- BASOLATERAL membrane contacts interstitial fluid at the - As hydrogen enters tubular fluid, it reacts with bicarbonate ion
base and sides of cell. to form carbonic acid, which breaks down into H2O and CO2
and diffuses into the tubule cell.
TWO REABSORPTION ROUTES - H2O and CO2 reacts and combines to form carbonic acid
again and break down into hydrogen and bicarbonate ion.
1. PARACELLULAR REABSORPTION
- Bicarbonate ions exits the cell into the peritubular capillaries
- Fluid leaks between the cells (through passive process)
via facilitated diffusion.
- Tight juctions between cells in PCT are permeable to some
substances and transport them into peritubular capillaries
FOR EVERY HYDROGEN SECRETED TO TUBULAR FLUID, ONE REABSORPTION AND SECRETION IN LATE DISTAL
BICARBONATE AND ONE SODIUM ION ARE REABSORBED.
CONVOLUTED TUBULE AND COLLECTING DUCT

- 90-95% of the filtered solutes and water have been

reabsorbed by the time it reaches late DCT.
- Principal cells in DCT reabsorbed Na and secrete K.
- Intercalated cells in DCT reabsorb HCP and secrete H.
- In late DCT and collecting duct, amount of water and solute
reabsorption may depend on the body’s needs.
- Sodium molecules pass through apical membrane of cell
through Na leakage channels rather than symporter or
antiporter. Sodium molecule diffuses to the peritubular
capillaries after.
- Because basolateral Na-K pump brings K molecules inside
the cell, the K concentration is high. Some K molecules
diffuses to the tubular fluid. This is the main source of K
excreted in the urine.
3. PASSIVE REABSORPTION OF SUBSTANCES
- Solute reabsorption in PCT promotes osmosis of water
because of the increased osmolarity in the blood.
- Electrochemical gradients for Cl, K, Ca, Mg, and urea promote
passive diffusion into peritubular capillaries via paracellular
and transcellular routes.

HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION

RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM

- When blood volume and blood pressure decrease,

juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin, this enzyme breaks down
REABSORPTION IN NEPHRON LOOP angiotensinogen to acquire angiotensin I.
- Angiotensin-converting enzyme converts angiotensin I to
- Chemical composition of tubular fluid is different from the angiotensin II
filtrate that entered PCT because of the glucose, amino acid, - ANGIOTENSIN II affects kidney by
and other nutrients that were already absorbed. 1. Decreasing glomerular filtration by causing vasoconstriction
- The apical membrane of cells in thick ascending limb have of afferent arterioles.
Na-K-2Cl symporters that transport one sodium, one 2. Enhance absorption of sodium and water in PCT by
potassium, and two chloride. stimulating Na-H antiporter
- Sodium is transported into the cell and diffuses into vasa recta 3. Releases aldosterone, a hormone that stimulate principal cells
by the sodium-potassium pump in the collecting duct to absorb sodium and secrete more
- Two chloride moves through leakage channels found in potassium.
basolateral membrane
- Many potassium leakage channels are present in apical ANTIDIUTETIC HORMONE
membrane thus most potassium transported in the cell returns
to tubular fluid. - Also called vasopressin; released by pituitary gland
- Regulates facultative water reabsorption by increasing water
MAIN EFFECT OF NA-K-2CL SYMPORTER IS REABSORPTION OF
permeability of principal cells
SODIUM AND CHLORIDE.
- ADH stimulates insertion of aquaporin-2-containing vesicles
into apical membrane via exocytosis
- Water permeability of apical membrane increases and water
molecules enter the cell.
- Since basolateral membrane is permeable to water,
molecules are reabsorbed in blood.
- This increases blood volume and blood pressure.
- Degree of facultative water reabsorption depends on:
1. NORMAL HYDRATION
- Under conditions of normal body hydration, enough
ADH is present to cause reabsorption of water
o Kidney produces 1.5-2L of urine and is slightly
concentrated
2. DEHYDRATION
- Concentration of ADH in body increases when
dehydrated.
o Kidneys produces small volume of highly
concentrated urine when body is dehydrated
3. OVERHYDRATION
- Concentration of ADH in blood decreases.
o Kidneys produce large volume of dilute urine when
REABSORPTION IN EARLY DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
body is overhydrated.
- Reabsorption of Na and Cl occurs by sodium-chloride
symporter in apical membrane. ATRIAL NATRIUTECTIC PEPTIDE (ANP)
- Na-K pump and Cl leakage channel permit reabsorption of Na
- Large increase in blood volume promote release of ANP from
and Cl into the peritubular capillaries.
heart.
- Early DCT is a major site where parathyroid hormone
- Inhibits reabsorption of Na and water in PCT and collecting
stimulates reabsorption of Ca.
duct
- Supresses secretion of aldosterone and ADH
Inhibition and suppression of substances and hormones increase ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF URINARY BLADDER
excretion of Na and urine output, as well as decrease in blood
pressure and volume. - Floor of bladder has triangular area called trigone that
contains two ureteral opening.
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH) - Opening into urethra is called internal urethral orifice.
- THREE COATS MAKE UP BLADDER:
- Lower than normal level of Ca in blood stimulates parathyroid 1. MUCOSA
to release PTH - Deepest; also has transitional epithelium and lamina
- Stimulate cells in early DCT to reabsorb more Ca in blood propria
- Inhibits HPO reabsorption in PCT (promotes excretion) - Also has rugae (folds) to permit expansion
2. MUSCULARIS
FORMATION OF DILUTE URINE - Intermediate; also called detrusor muscle
- Has three layers: inner longitudinal, middle circular,
1. Water is reabsorbed through osmosis as tubular fluid passes outer longitudinal
through the descending limb toward the tip of nephron loop.
Fluid in lumen is now more concentrated. 3. ADVENTITIA
2. Cells in thick ascending limb of nephron loop have symporters - Superficial; layer of areolar connective tissue
that is used to reabsorb Na, K, and Cl from tubular fluid and - Circular fibers in opening to urethra form internal urethral
diffuses into vasa recta. sphincter; inferior to this is external urethral sphincter
3. Water permeability is low in thick ascending limb so water - Serosa is a layer of visceral peritoneum that covers surface
cannot pass through osmosis. Fluid is now dilute because of urinary bladder.
osmolarity drop as solutes are reabsorbed.
4. Early DCT are not permeable to water and is not regulated by
ADH (due to overhydration)
5. Cells in late DCT are impermeable and collecting ducts are
impermeable to water when ADH is very low. Tubular fluid
becomes more dilute was it flows through renal pelvis.

FORMATION OF CONCENTRATED URINE

1. Na-K-2Cl symporters reabsorb Na and Cl from tubular fluid in

thick ascending nephron loop (not permeable to water).
2. Reabsorbed Na and Cl becomes concentrated in interstitial
fluid of medulla which causes water to move out descending
limb via osmosis. Osmolarity of tubular fluid increase. Fluid
becomes concentrated as it flows in descending limb and
dilute as it passes ascending limb.
3. ADH promote water reabsorption in collecting duct via MICTURITION REFLEX
osmosis to the vasa recta. With loss of water, urea becomes
concentrated in tubular fluid. Urea diffuses to the interstitial - Discharge of urine from urinary bladder is called micturition;
fluid of medulla because duct cells are permeable. also known as urination or voiding
4. As urea accumulates in interstitial fluid, some diffuse back into - Micturition occurs via involuntary and voluntary muscle
tubular fluid of descending and think ascending limb. As it contraction.
flows in thick ascending limb, DCT, and cortical portion of - When volume exceed 200-400mL, pressure within bladder
collecting duct, it cannot pass through because they are increases and stretch receptors transport nerve impulses.
impermeable. As fluid flows in collecting duct, water is - The impulses travel to micturition center and trigger a reflex
reabsorbed via osmosis again because of ADH. Water called micturition reflex.
reabsorption increases concentration of urea thus triggering - Nerve impulses causes contraction of detrusor muscles,
the diffusion of urea into interstitial fluid of inner medulla. relaxation of internal and external urethral sphincter, therefore
Cycle repeats. The solutes left behind in lumen become urination takes place.
concentrated and small volume of concentrated urine is
excreted. URETHRA
URETER - Small tube leading from internal urethral orifice to the exterior
of body
- Two ureters transport urine from renal pelvis of one kidney to - Is the terminal portion of urinary system and passageway for
urinary bladder discharging urine from body
- Peristaltic contractions, hydrostatic pressure, and gravity
transport urine to urinary bladder MALE URETHRA
- Ureters are 25-30cm long and are thick-walled, narrow tubes;
they are retroperitoneal - Consists of deep mucosa and superficial muscularis
- Has THREE layers: - Divided into THREE regions
1. MUCOSA 1. PROSTATIC URETHRA
- Deepest layer - Passes through prostate
- Mucous membrane with transitional epithelium (that 2. INTERMEDIATE URETHRA
stretches to accommodate a variable volume of liquid) - Shortest; passes through deep muscle of perineum
and underlying lamina propria, areolar connective tissue 3. SPONGY URETHRA
with collagen, elastic fiber, and lymphatic tissue - Longest; passes through penis
2. MUSCULARIS
- Intermediate layer Several glands associated with reproduction deliver substances to male
- Composed of inner longitudinal and outer circular layer urethra.
of smooth muscle fibers.
- Peristalsis is the major function Prostatic urethra contains:
3. ADVENTITIA
- Superficial layer 1. Ducts that transport secretion from prostate
- Layer of areolar connective tissue containing blood 2. Seminal vesicle and vas deferens which deliver sperm to
vessel, lymphatic vessels, and nerves that serve urethra
muscularis and mucosa
Bulbourethral glands and urethral glands, which empty into spongy
- Anchors ureter in place
urethra, secrete mucus for lubrication.
URINARY BLADDER

- Hollow, distensible muscular organ situated in pelvic cavity

- Folds of peritoneum hold the bladder
- Spherical when distended due to accumulation of urine;
collapses when empty
- Holds an average of 700-800mL of urine
 FEMALE URETHRA

- Directly lies posterior to pubic symphysis

- External urethral orifice is located between vagina and clitoris
- Consists of deep mucosa and superficial muscularis
- Mucosa consists of: 1) epithelium, 2) lamina propria
- Muscularis consists of circularly arranged smooth muscle
fibers and is continuous with the urinary bladder.

WASTE MANAGEMENT

- Other tissue, organs, and processes contribute to waste

management:
1. BODY BUFFERS
- Bind excess hydrogen ions and prevent increase in
acidity of body fluid
2. BLOOD
- Provides pickup and delivery of transport of wastes
3. LIVER
- Primary site for metabolic recycling
- Convert toxic substance into less toxic ones
4. LUNGS
- Exhalation of CO2
5. SWEAT (SUDORIFEROUS) GLANDS
- Help eliminate heat, water, CO2 through sweat
6. GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
- Through defecation; excrete solid, undigested food,
waste, CO2, water, salt, heat