SMART STUDY

ENGLISH

ORTHOGRAPHY
1) The representation of the sounds of a language by written or
printed symbols, It also the art of writing words with the proper
letters according to standard usage.

2) A part of language study that deals with letters and spelling

INFORMATION: -

The concept of orthography (a term that comes from the Greek

words orthos, meaning “right or true,” and graphein, meaning “to write”)
was not something that really concerned English speakers until the
introduction of the printing press in England in the second half of the 15th
century. From that point on, English spelling became progressively more
uniform. Our orthography has been relatively stable since the 1755
publication of Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language, with
the notable exception of certain spelling reforms, such as the change
of musick to music. Incidentally, many of these reforms were championed
by Merriam-Webster’s own Noah Webster.
 LETTERS & ALPHABET
1) A symbol usually written or printed representing a speech sound and constituting a
unit of an alphabet.

2) According to modern English a group of letters of the English language written in a plain
sheet is called the alphabet.

3) The English Alphabet consists of 26 letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O,

P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.

Information: -

Total number of letters in the alphabet

 23 letters (A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z) are the
first 23 letters of the 29 original Old English Alphabet recorded in the
year 1011 by the monk Byrhtferð. Dropped from the Old English
alphabet are the following 6 letters: & ⁊ Ƿ Þ Ð Æ

 3 letters have been added from Old English: J, U, and W. J and U

were added in the 16th century, while W assumed the status of an
independent letter.

 Until 1835, the English Alphabet consisted of 27 letters: right after "Z"
the 27th letter of the alphabet was ampersand (&).

 The English Alphabet (or Modern English Alphabet) today consists of

26 letters: 23 from Old English and 3 added later.

List of English Alphabet:-

 \

CAPITAL LETTER:-

One of the two kinds of letters. Capital letters, also called upper-case letters ,
are larger than, and often formed differently from, lower-case letters . Capital
letters are used at the beginning of a sentence or a proper name and may be
used to show respect. Some examples are: “ T he dog barked,” D aniel,
the L ord, and Q ueen E lizabeth.

SMALL LETTER:-

Lower case letters are the smaller version of capital letters. Not all lower case letters
look the same as their upper case counterparts. Here are all the lower case letters of
the alphabet: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z

When we pronounced the English

letter, our tongue is used more and
more it's a basic thing. When we
pronounced A to Z, at that period of
time we classified these letters into 2
parts
a) vowel
b) consonants

VOWEL:-

The letters a, e, i, o, u—and sometimes y—are vowels. However,

some consonants, like h, r, and w, can also make vowel sounds. In
grammar, these letters are still considered consonants and don't
follow the vowel rules.

Vowels are letters that represent speech sounds where air leaves the
mouth without any blockage by the tongue, lips, or throat. The vowels in the
alphabet are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y. All other letters in the English
alphabet are consonants, which represent speech sounds where air is
blocked somehow before leaving the mouth.

What are vowels?

Letters and speech sounds are divided into two categories: sounds where
the air is blocked by the lips, tongue, or throat before leaving the mouth and
sounds where the air is not blocked. Consonants represent sounds that are
blocked; vowels represent sounds that are not blocked.

While consonant sounds are differentiated by how the air is blocked—such

as sticking the tongue behind the front teeth for d and t, or closing the lips
for b, m, and p—vowel sounds are differentiated by pitch, accent, volume,
and duration.

So what are the vowels? The letters a, e, i, o, u—and sometimes y—are

vowels. However, some consonants, like h, r, and w, can also make vowel
sounds. In grammar, these letters are still considered consonants and don’t
follow the vowel rules.

Vowels play a major role in both spelling and grammar. They also have a
direct impact on how consonants are used, such as spelling words with
double consonants. Consider the difference between hop and hope—
which, as present participles, become hopping and hoping. The presence
of the silent e at the end changes the rules for how to conjugate certain
words.

When do you need a vowel?

Unlike consonants, every word needs at least one vowel. There are a
small number of exceptions, which we explain below, but in general, this is
the rule. In fact, the shortest words in the English language are one letter,
and they’re both vowels: the article a and the pronoun I.

Moreover, every syllable also needs a vowel sound. If a word has more

than one syllable, it then needs more than one vowel.

Short vs. long vowels

Even though there are only five (sometimes six) vowels in the alphabet,
they can be combined in a variety of ways to change their sounds, which
results in more than a dozen distinct vowel sounds in American English.
Without getting too confusing, we can divide these vowel sounds into two
categories: short vowels and long vowels.
Short vowels are the standard pronunciation of vowels—usually when there
is only one vowel in the word—especially in short words.

 a as in cat

 e as in wet

 i as in big

 o as in clock

 u as in but

Long vowels are a little more complex. Generally, they’re created by

combining two vowels, where one is typically silent. Often they’re
pronounced like the name of the vowel; for example, the long vowel sound
in eat is pronounced like the name of letter e.

 a as in cake

 e as in street

 i as in like

 o as in phone

 u as in use

These are the basics of vowel pronunciation, but they are also the most
common examples. If you can master these vowel sounds, you can master
most of the English words you’ll come across, and it will also help your
spelling when you write.
Is y a vowel?

When discussing consonants vs. vowels, the letter y causes a lot of

confusion. Basically, y can be either a vowel or a consonant, depending on
how it’s used.

When y is a consonant, it makes its own distinct sound using the rear of the
tongue on the top of the mouth. Think of the pronunciation of words like
these:

yellow

boy

gargoyle

However, when y is used as a vowel, it copies either the long or short

vowel sound for i or the long vowel sound for e.

my (long i)

shy (long i)

system (short i)

crypt (short i)

lady (long e)

hairy (long e)

Unlike the other consonants, y counts as a vowel; some words only include
a y and no other vowels.
Vowel usage

What 5-letter word has the most vowels?

The 5-letter word with the most vowels is Iouea (with a capital i), which
uses all the main vowels and no consonants. Iouea is the scientific name
for a genus of extinct water sponges.

If you’re asking this question because of Wordle, try adieu, which is an

English loan word of 5 letters that contains every vowel except o.

What is assonance?

Assonance is a literary device that uses a series of words with the same
vowel sounds. It is the vowel version of consonance, which repeats
consonant sounds. Both assonance and consonance are common in works
where sound is important, such as poetry, music lyrics, and creative writing.
For example, look at this passage from Edgar Allan Poe’s poem “The
Raven”:

And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain

Thrilled me—filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before.

Words like silken, uncertain, and curtain use similar vowel sounds, as do
the words terrors, never, and before.

Are there words with no vowels?

There are only a handful of words in English without any proper vowels,
and they’re mostly loan words from Welsh. They use a rare vowel form of
the letter w that is not usually accepted in English.

 crwth—a Welsh violin-like instrument

 cwtch—a hiding place

 cwm—a hollowed-out area in a mountain

None of these words are common in everyday English, so we advise

against using them in your own communication or writing (unless it’s
directly related to Wales).

Vowel FAQs

What are vowels?

Vowels are letters representing a speech sound where air leaves the mouth
without blockage. In English, the vowels are a, e, i, o, and u, although y can
sometimes count as a vowel, too. Vowels are contrasted with consonants,
which represent sounds where air is obstructed, such as the closing of the
lips for b, m, and p.

What’s the difference between short and long vowels?

The same vowel can make different sounds, depending on whether it’s
paired with another vowel. When vowels are used alone in a syllable, they
make a short vowel sound, such as the i in big. When vowels are combined
with another vowel, typically a silent vowel, they can make a long vowel
sound that’s usually pronounced like the letter’s name, such as
the ea in eat, which sounds like the name of the letter e.

Is y a vowel?

The letter y can be either a vowel or a consonant, depending on how it’s

used. When used as a consonant, such as in yellow or boy, it makes a
unique sound using the tongue and the top of the mouth. When it’s used as
a vowel, such as in my, system, or lady, it can make either a long i, short i,
or long e sound.

COSONANT:-

consonants are all the letters that are not vowels. These include the
letters b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, and z.

Consonants are letters that represent certain speech sounds, specifically

sounds that involve blocking the air before it leaves the mouth, such as with
the tongue, lips, or throat. Most letters of the English alphabet are
consonants, except for a, e, i, o, and u, which are vowels.

Consonants play a significant role in both spelling and pronunciation, as

well as writing where sound is important, like poetry or music lyrics. Below
we give a more detailed answer to the questions: What are consonants?
Including their difference from vowels, how they’re used with the
articles a and an, and the relationship between consonants and
consonance.
What is a consonant?

Consonants are letters that stand for a type of sound we use in speech.
These sounds involve a partial or complete closure of the vocal tract: for
example, placing the tongue behind the front teeth, as with the
consonants t and d; or closing your lips, as with the consonants b, m,
and p. The opposite of consonants are vowels, which do not involve closing
the vocal tract.

Most letters of the English alphabet are consonants. Some letters,

however, can represent more than one sound, including both consonant
and vowel sounds. These letters are known as “sometimes consonants.”

Always consonants

 b

 c

 d

 f

 g

 j

 k

 l

 m

 n
  p

 q

 s

 t

 v

 x

 z

Sometimes consonants

 h

 r

 w

 y

Vowels and consonants

Unlike consonants, vowels do not involve closing the vocal tract. Instead,
they differentiate sounds based on pitch, accent, volume, and duration.

The vowels are a, e, i, o, and u, and in some cases, y. However, depending

on how they’re used, h, r, and w can also make vowel sounds, although
in grammar they are still considered consonants and do not follow the same
rules as the vowels.
Knowing the difference between vowels and consonants is a big help
with spelling rules. In particular, knowing when to spell words with double
consonants can be especially frustrating. Whether or not a word uses double

consonants with a suffix, such as drop and dropped or begin and beginning,
depends not only on a word’s letters but also the number of syllables.

Consonant vs. consonance: What is consonance?

Consonants are closely related to a writing technique called consonance.

Often found in poetry, musical lyrics, and creative writing, consonance is
a literary device that uses a series of words containing the same consonant
sound. For example, look at this popular children’s poem:

Hickory dickory dock.

The mouse ran up the clock.

The clock struck one,

The mouse ran down,

Hickory dickory dock.

Notice the repetition of the k or ck sound, as well as the n sound to a lesser

extent.

Keep in mind that consonance is different from alliteration. In alliteration,

only the beginnings of the words use the same consonant sound. In
consonance, the repeated sounds can come from anywhere in the word,
including the middle or end.
Consonants and the articles a and an

Consonants also play an important role in choosing between the indefinite

articles a and an. The basic rules are simple:

 If the word starts with a consonant sound, use a.

 If the word starts with a vowel sound, use an.

For example, with animals whose name starts with a consonant sound, we
use a:

a tiger

a giraffe

a rat

But for animals whose name starts with a vowel sound, we use an:

an elephant

an armadillo

an orangutan

This applies to adjectives as well as nouns.

a lock

an open lock

There are a few exceptions, however. The consonant h can sometimes be

silent, which means some h words actually start with a vowel sound and
use an.
an hour

an heiress

However, not all h words are silent. If the h at the beginning is pronounced,
use a as with any other consonant.

a hotel

a historic day

Likewise, vowels can sometimes make a consonant sound at the beginning

of the word. Although rare, these words also use a. Pay particular attention
to words beginning with a vowel that makes a sound like “you.”

a university

a European

Consonant FAQs

What are consonants?

Consonants are letters representing a speech sound with a closure of the

vocal tract. For example, the consonants d and t involve placing the tongue
behind the front teeth, while the consonants b, m, and p involve closing the
lips. Most letters of the alphabet are consonants.

How do they differ from vowels?

While consonants represent sounds with a closure of the vocal tract,

vowels represent sounds where the vocal tract remains open. Vowels use
pitch, accent, volume, and duration to differentiate their sounds.
Only a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y are vowels, although h, r, and w can
occasionally make vowel sounds.

What are the rules for using consonants?

If a word starts with a consonant sound, use the indefinite article a; if a

word starts with a vowel sound, use the indefinite article an. Keep in mind
that some consonants make vowel sounds and some vowels make
consonant sounds, so use the appropriate article. For example, we say an
hour and a university.

WORD
Group of letters that gives us a meaning that's called word.

1) A word is the basic meaningful unit of a language. According to the Oxford

Dictionary, a word is defined as “a single unit of language that means something and can
be spoken or written”.

2) In linguistics, a unit of meaning underlying a group of inflected word forms is often

referred to as a lexeme. For example, the verb forms ‘love, loves, loved and loving’ are
 mapped in the brain as inflected forms of a single unit of meaning, or lexeme, called
‘love’.

A word can be just a letter (Examples: I, a) or one that contains multiple syllables (Examples:
is, cat, about, theory, comfortable). Two or more words can be combined to form phrases and
clauses, which in turn, can be put together to form sentences. There is, however, a
particular word order and sentence structure one needs to follow to form meaningful
sentences.

What Does the Term ‘Word Class’ Refer To?

Word class is a term used to classify specific groups in which different words can be
categorically
placed. Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions, interjections
and determiners are all word classes.

What Is Word Formation?

Word formation in English is a process by which new words are formed by means of
inflections. It is done in four main ways – adding a prefix, adding a suffix, combining words
to form compound words and converting words from one word class to another.

SHORT NOTES
What is a word?
A word is the basic meaningful unit of a language. Words can be classified into different word
classes according to their functions.

What is word class?

Word class is a term used to classify specific groups in which different words can be categorically
placed. Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions, interjections and
articles are all word classes.

What is word formation?

Word formation is a process by which new words are formed by means of inflection. It is done in
four main ways – adding a prefix, adding a suffix, combining words to form compound words and
converting words from one word class to another.

Give some examples of commonly used words in the English

language.
Some examples of commonly used words in the English language are given below:

 On
 Air
 Need
 Food
 About
 Funny
 Happy
 Colour
 Person
 Because

LETTER WORD

M,O,B,I,L,E MOBILE (have meaning)

O,M,B,I,L,E OMBILE (X) no meaning
R,E,C,T,I,T,U,D,E RECTITUDE (have meaning)

Notes:-

SYLLABLE:- (it indicate by HYPHEN “ –“)

A syllable is a part of a word that contains a single vowel sound and that is
pronounced as a unit. So, for example, ' GRAMMAR' has one syllable, and ' reading'
has two syllables GRA-MMAR.

1. a word or part of a word pronounced with a single, uninterrupted sounding of

the voice; unit of pronunciation, consisting of a single sound of great sonority
(usually a vowel) and generally one or more sounds of lesser sonority (usually
consonants)
2. any of the parts into which a written word is often divided, as at the end of a
line, in approximate conformity to the spoken syllables: in
this dictionary, recommended divisions at the end of a line are shown by
centered dots
3. the least bit of expression; slightest detail, as of something said
 SENTENCE:-
A sentence is a group of words. It express a statement a question a command
(a request,advise, suggestion) and an exclamation. Sentence (except an
imperative sentence) Aaj a subject and a finite verb. Sentence in writing has a
capital letter at the beginning and full stop aur ek? Aur an exclamation mark at
the end.
1) a group of words containing a subject and a verb, that expresses a statement, a
question, etc. When a sentence is written it begins with a big (capital) letter and
ends with a full stop.
2) A group of words arranged in a manner which makes a complete
sense is called a sentence based on meaning and sense, is called
sentence.
The sentence can be classified as
1) declarative or assertive (.)
2) imperative
3) interrogative
4) exclamatory

DECLARATIVE OR ASSERTIVE: -
 A sentence which makes a statement or assertion is called a declarative
sentence or assertive sentence.
Ex- The earth is round.

IMPERATIVE:-
 Sentence which expressed a command, request, entreaty or wish is
called an imperative sentence.

Ex- Help me, Oh God!

Ex- may god help you to achieve success in your mission (wish)
 Ex- please lend me English grammar book ( request )

Ex- bring a glass of water ( command )

INTERROGATIVE:-
 A sentence which ask a question is called interrogative sentence.
Ex- where is the market ?

EXCLAMATORY:-
 A sentence which express a strong feeling is called exclamatory sentence.
Ex- Hurrah! I have secured past division.
IMPORTANT NOTES