CELL

Introduction:

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life forms. Every cell
consists of a cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, and contains
many biomolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as many small
molecules of nutrients and metabolites. The term comes from
the Latin word cellula meaning 'small room'.

Cells can acquire specified function and carry out various tasks within the cell
such as replication, DNA repair, protein synthesis, and motility. Cells are capable
of specialization and mobility within the cell. Most cells are measured in
micrometers due to their small size.

Most plant and animal cells are only visible under a light microscope, with
dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres. Electron microscopy gives a much
higher resolution showing greatly detailed cell structure. The number of cells in
plants and animals varies from species to species; it has been approximated that
the human body contains an estimated 37 trillion (3.72×1013) cells. The brain
accounts for around 80 billion of these cells.

1
The study of cells and how they work has led to many other studies in related
areas of biology, including: discovery of DNA, cancer systems
biology, aging and developmental biology.

The cell theory, states that all organisms are composed of similar units of
organization, called cells. The concept was formally articulated in 1839 by
Schleiden & Schwann and has remained as the foundation of modern biology.
The idea predates other great paradigms of biology including Darwin’s theory of
evolution (1859), Mendel’s laws of inheritance (1865), and the establishment of
comparative biochemistry (1940).

Origin of the first cell:

Stromatolites are left behind by cyanobacteria, also called blue-green algae. They are the oldest known
fossils of life on Earth. This one-billion-year-old fossil is from Glacier National Park in the United States.

There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that led to life on
the early Earth. They may have been carried to Earth on meteorites, created
at deep-sea vents, or synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere . There is
little experimental data defining what the first self-replicating forms
were. RNA is thought to be the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is capable

2
of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions , but some
other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA, such
as clay or peptide nucleic acid.

Cells emerged at least 3.5 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells
were heterotrophs. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and
permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids
are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have
preceded RNA, but the first cell membranes could also have been produced by
catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could form.

Discovery of the cell:

Drawing of the structure of cork by Robert Hooke

The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be
described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 'observations' in
detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope. One observation
was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny
pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a
small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell

3
of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.
What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant
tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke
was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was
observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive. His cell
observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in
most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color,
found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to
observe "seeds" that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in
quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either
natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian
theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved
until Leeuwenhoek later discovered that generation was achieved otherwise.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after
Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could
magnify objects 270-fold. Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile
objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states
that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time,
he wrote many more papers which described many specific forms
of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these "animalcules," which
included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria. Though he did
not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate
description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in
the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox,
then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time
the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells,
Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter
the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation.
After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his
observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.

The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because
the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin

4
slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a
fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until
over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular
structure and existence of cells in animals or plants. This conclusion was not
made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating “the cell is the fundamental element
of organization”, Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit,
but also a physiological unit.

In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J. H. F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the
problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells
had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal
Society of Science), Gottingen. Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls
and the fluid passed between them this way.

A Timeline of cell Discovery :

1595 – Jansen credited with 1st compound microscope

1655 – Hooke described ‘cells’ in cork.
1674 – Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa. He saw bacteria some 9 years later.
1833 – Brown descibed the cell nucleus in cells of the orchid.
1838 – Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory.
1840 – Albrecht von Roelliker realized that sperm cells and egg cells are also
cells.
1856 – N. Pringsheim observed how a sperm cell penetrated an egg cell.
1858 – Rudolf Virchow (physician, pathologist and anthropologist) expounds his
famous conclusion: omnis cellula e cellula, that is cells develop only from existing
cells [cells come from preexisting cells]
1857 – Kolliker described mitochondria.
1879 – Flemming described chromosome behavior during mitosis.
1883 – Germ cells are haploid, chromosome theory of heredity.
1898 – Golgi described the golgi apparatus.
1938 – Behrens used differential centrifugation to separate nuclei from
cytoplasm.
1939 – Siemens produced the first commercial transmission electron microscope.

5
1952 – Gey and coworkers established a continuous human cell line.
1955 – Eagle systematically defined the nutritional needs of animal cells in
culture.
1957 – Meselson, Stahl and Vinograd developed density gradient centrifugation
in cesium chloride solutions for separating nucleic acids.
1965 – Ham introduced a defined serum-free medium. Cambridge Instruments
produced the first commercial scanning electron microscope.
1976 – Sato and colleagues publish papers showing that different cell lines
require different mixtures of hormones and growth factors in serum-free media.
1981 – Transgenic mice and fruit flies are produced. Mouse embryonic stem cell
line established.
1995 – Tsien identifies mutant of GFP with enhanced spectral properties
1998 – Mice are cloned from somatic cells.
1999 – Hamilton and Baulcombe discover siRNA as part of post-transcriptional
gene silencing (PTGS) in plants.

2000- Human genom DNA sequence draft.

Modern Cell Theory:

1. All known living things are made up of cells.

2. The cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.

3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. (Spontaneous Generation
does not occur).
4. Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during
cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
6. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.

6
Definition of cell:

The structural and functional unit of all living organism is called cell .

Shape and size:

The shape of a cell is determined by the cell membrane, which can take various
forms such as spherical, rod-shaped or spiral. The shape of a cell can be
influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Some cells are amoeboid in
nature and their shape can change according to their requirement. Cell size is
determined by surface area to volume ratio and the need for nutrients and waste
removal. Most cells are small, 1-100 micrometers in diameter. However, some
cells such as nerve cells can be much larger, several centimeters in length.

Structure of cells:

7
Cell Types:

There are many different types of cells, each with their own specific functions
and characteristics. Some of the main types of cells include:……..

1. Eukaryotic cells:

These cells have a complex internal structure and include cells of plants, animals,
fungi and protozoa. They have a true nucleus which encloses genetic material in
the form of chromosomes. Eukaryotic cells are thought to have originated from a
symbiotic relationship between ancient prokaryotic cells. One theory suggests
that a primitive prokaryotic cell engulfed another prokaryotic cell, which
eventually evolved into the mitochondria found in eukaryotic cells today.
Another theory suggests that two prokaryotic cells joined together to form a
symbiotic relationship, with one cell eventually evolving into the mitochondria
and the other evolving into the nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
found in eukaryotic cells. Overall, it is believed that the evolution of eukaryotic
cells was a gradual process that took place over billions of years.

Eukaryotic cell

8
2. Prokaryotic cells:

These cells are simpler in structure and include cells of bacteria. They lack a true
nucleus and the genetic material is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane. The
origin of prokaryotic cells is a topic of ongoing research. They are thought to
have existed on Earth for more than 3 billion years. The oldest evidence of
prokaryotic cells are found in rocks that are around 3.5 billion years old.
Scientists believe that prokaryotic cells may have originated through abiogenesis
or from simpler cells through evolution . However, there are multiple theories
and ongoing research on this topic.

Prokaryotic cell

3. Epithelial cells:
Epithelial cells are cells that line the surface of organs and structures in the body,
such as the skin, blood vessels, and organs. They are tightly packed together and
form a barrier that separates the internal environment from the external
environment. They can be classified based on the number of layers they form,
such as single layer (simple), multiple layers (stratified) and shape of the cells,
such as squamous, cuboidal and columnar. Epithelial cells also have a variety of
specialized functions, such as absorbing nutrients, secreting hormones, and
protecting the body from disease and injury. They also play a key role in the
immune system by identifying and destroying harmful pathogens that enter the
body.

9
4. Muscle cells:
Muscle cells are specialized cells that are responsible for movement and the
maintenance of posture. They are long, cylindrical cells that are composed of
myofibrils, which are responsible for muscle contraction. They are controlled by
the nervous system and divided into three types: skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscle cells. Skeletal muscle cells are attached to bones and controlled by
voluntary nervous system, smooth muscle cells line the walls of internal organs
and controlled by involuntary nervous system and Cardiac muscle cells are found
in the heart, and contract rhythmically to pump blood throughout the body. They
have a high number of mitochondria, which provides energy for muscle
contraction, and also have the ability to repair and regenerate when damaged.

5. Nerve cells:
Nerve cells, also known as neurons, are specialized cells that transmit electrical
and chemical signals throughout the body. They consist of a cell body, dendrites,
and an axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons, and the axon
sends signals to other cells. They are responsible for transmitting information
throughout the body, including sensation, movement, and thought. They are also
involved in learning and memory. They have a high density of mitochondria to
produce energy for their functions and also have myelin sheath which helps to
increase the speed of conduction of electrical signals along the axon. They are
classified into different types based on the number of processes they have and
their functions.

6. Stem cells:
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the ability to differentiate into a
wide variety of specialized cell types. They have the potential to divide and
renew themselves for long periods and to give rise to specialized cells, such as
muscle cells, nerve cells, and blood cells. They are found in different parts of the
body such as the bone marrow, blood, and embryonic tissue. They are classified
as embryonic and adult stem cells, embryonic stem cells are derived from the
inner cell mass of a blastocyst and have the potential to differentiate into any

10
type of cell, adult stem cells are found in various tissues and have the ability to
differentiate into specialized cells of the same tissue. Stem cell research has the
potential to revolutionize medicine, by providing new treatments for diseases
and injuries.

7. Cancer cells:
Cancer cells are abnormal cells that have the ability to divide and grow
uncontrollably, invading other tissue and forming tumors. They can also spread
to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymph system, a process
called metastasis. They are caused by mutations in the DNA of normal cells,
which can be inherited or acquired through environmental factors, such as
radiation, chemicals and viruses. Cancer cells differ from normal cells in their
ability to divide and grow uncontrollably, avoid cell death and also to migrate to
other tissue. They also have different surface markers and gene expression
patterns, which can be used to identify and target them. Cancer cells can develop
in any type of cell in the body, and there are more than 100 different types of
cancer, each with its own set of characteristics and treatment options.

Lung cancer cell

This list is not exhaustive and there are many other types of cells exist with
different characteristics, functions, and properties.

11
Parts of a cell:

Cell

Cell membrane Protoplasm

Cytoplasm Nucleus
 Nuclear membrane
 Nucleous
 Nucleoplasm

Organelles Inclusions
 Secretory granules
 Glycogen and lipid
 Pigments
 Crystals

Membranous Non membranous

 Mitochondria  Ribosomes
 Endoplasmic  Centrioles
reticulum
 Golgi complex  Microtubules
 Lysosomes  Microfilament
 Peroxisomes

12
Some important parts of cell:

Cell membrane:

Cell membrane

The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin barrier that
surrounds the cell, separating the internal environment of the cell from the
external environment. It is made up of a double layer of phospholipid molecules,
with the hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails facing inward and the hydrophilic
(water-loving) heads facing outward. This structure is known as a phospholipid
bilayer. The cell membrane plays a vital role in maintaining the integrity of the
cell and regulating the movement of molecules in and out of the cell. It is
selectively permeable, meaning that it allows certain molecules to pass through
while preventing others from passing through. The movement of molecules
across the membrane is regulated by transport proteins, such as channels and
pumps. The cell membrane also contains various other types of protein
molecules, such as receptors, enzymes, and signaling molecules, which are
involved in cell-to-cell communication and the response to external signals.
Additionally, carbohydrates can be attached to the plasma membrane, forming
glycolipids and glycoproteins, these molecules act as identification tags for the
cell, helping other cells to recognize it. In summary, the cell membrane is a

13
dynamic structure that plays a crucial role in maintaining the cell's homeostasis
and allowing communication with the external environment.

Mitochondria:
Mitochondria are organelles found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that play
a crucial role in energy metabolism.

Mitochondria

They are often referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell because they
produce the majority of the cell's energy in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) through a process called cellular respiration.
Mitochondria have a unique double-membrane structure, with an inner
membrane that is highly folded into structures called cristae. These cristae
provide a large surface area for the metabolic reactions that take place within the
mitochondria. The inner membrane is also the location of the enzymes
responsible for the production of ATP.
Mitochondria also contain their own genetic material in the form of a small
circular DNA molecule and their own ribosomes for protein synthesis. This
suggests that mitochondria have a separate evolutionary origin from the rest of
the cell, and are thought to have originated from ancient prokaryotic cells that
were engulfed by a host cell in a symbiotic relationship.

14
Mitochondria also play a role in other cellular processes, such as cell growth,
differentiation, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). They also have a special
role in regulating the cell's response to stress and they are involved in the
production of heat.
Nucleus:

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells.

Nucleus

It is the most prominent organelle in a eukaryotic cell and is often described as

the "control center" of the cell because it contains most of the cell's genetic
material in the form of DNA, which is organized into structures called
chromosomes. The DNA in the nucleus is responsible for directing the cell's
growth and reproduction, as well as maintaining the integrity of the genetic
material. The nuclear envelope, a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus,
helps to protect the DNA from damage and maintain the integrity of the genetic
material. The nucleus also plays a role in regulating gene expression, which
controls the production of proteins and other molecules needed for the cell to
function. Genes are segments of DNA that contain the instructions for making a
specific protein or RNA molecule. When a gene is "turned on," or expressed, its
DNA sequence is used as a template to make a RNA molecule, which is then used
to make a protein. The process of turning genes on and off is controlled by a
complex network of proteins and other molecules that interact with the DNA in
the nucleus. The nucleus is also the site of transcription, where the genetic

15
information stored in DNA is copied into RNA molecules, which are then
transported out of the nucleus to be translated into proteins. The nucleolus is a
distinct structure inside the nucleus, is responsible for the formation of
ribosomes, the cell organelles that translate RNA into proteins. The size and
shape of the nucleus can vary depending on the type of cell and its stage of
development or activity.

Lysosome:

Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells that play a

critical role in intracellular digestion.

Lysosome

They contain a variety of hydrolytic enzymes that can break down a wide range
of biomolecules. Lysosomes are formed in the Golgi apparatus and transported
to the site of their action via vesicular transport. They maintain an acidic pH
which allows the enzymes to function properly. Lysosomes play a crucial role in
intracellular digestion by breaking down and recycling cellular waste products,
such as damaged or unnecessary organelles and molecules, and play a role in the
degradation of extracellular material that has been engulfed by the cell through
endocytosis.

16
Golgi complex:

The Golgi complex, also known as the Golgi apparatus or simply the Golgi, is a
membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that plays a critical role in
the processing, modification, and sorting of proteins and lipids.

Golgi complex

The Golgi complex is composed of a series of stacked, flattened membrane-

bound cisternae, or sacs, that are organized into three main regions: the cis-Golgi,
medial-Golgi, and trans-Golgi. The cis-Golgi is the region closest to the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is responsible for the initial processing and
modification of proteins and lipids as they enter the Golgi complex. Proteins and
lipids are modified by the addition of carbohydrate and lipid groups, which can
affect their solubility, stability, and targeting to specific locations within the cell.
The medial-Golgi is responsible for further modification and sorting of the
molecules, and the trans-Golgi is responsible for the final sorting and packaging
of the molecules into vesicles for transport to their final destination. The Golgi
complex plays a critical role in the formation of lysosomes, which are formed by
the Golgi complex and are then transported to the site of their action via
vesicular transport. The Golgi complex also plays a role in the formation of
secretory vesicles, which transport molecules such as hormones, enzymes, and
neurotransmitters to the plasma membrane for release into the extracellular
environment. The Golgi complex also plays a role in the formation of the
extracellular matrix, which is a network of structural and functional molecules

17
that surrounds and supports cells in tissues and organs. The Golgi complex also
plays a role in the formation of the cell wall in plant cells.
In summary, the Golgi complex is a membrane-bound organelle found in
eukaryotic cells that plays a critical role in the processing, modification, and
sorting of proteins and lipids. It is composed of a series of stacked, flattened
membrane-bound cisternae and is organized into three main regions: the cis-
Golgi, medial-Golgi, and trans-Golgi. The Golgi complex plays a critical role in the
formation of lysosomes and secretory vesicles, and also plays a role in the
formation of the extracellular matrix and the cell wall in plant cells.

Ribosome:

Ribosomes are small, non-membrane bound organelles that are found in both
eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

They are responsible for the synthesis of proteins, a process known as

translation. Ribosomes consist of two subunits, a larger one and a smaller one.
The size of these subunits is measured in Svedberg units (S). In prokaryotic cells,
ribosomes have a size of 70S, which consists of a 50S large subunit and a 30S
small subunit. In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes have a size of 80S, which consists of
a 60S large subunit and a 40S small subunit. During translation, the genetic

18
information stored in the DNA is transcribed into RNA and then transported to
the ribosome. The RNA is read in the form of codons, which are three base
sequences that code for a specific amino acid. The ribosome reads the codons
and adds the corresponding amino acids to the growing protein chain. Once the
protein is complete, it is released from the ribosome and can fold into its
functional three-dimensional structure. Ribosomes are found in two different
locations in eukaryotic cells. Free ribosomes, which are found in the cytoplasm,
synthesize proteins that will be used within the cell. Bound ribosomes, also
known as rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) are found on the surface of the
endoplasmic reticulum and they synthesize proteins that will be exported out of
the cell. In prokaryotic cells, ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm. They have a
size of 70S, which is smaller than the 80S ribosomes found in eukaryotic cells.
The small difference in size and structure between the 70S and 80S ribosomes is
due to the different metabolic and structural requirements between prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells. However, both 70S and 80S ribosomes perform the same
function of protein synthesis.
In summary, ribosomes are small organelles that are responsible for the
synthesis of proteins. They are composed of two subunits, and during translation,
the genetic information is transcribed into RNA, transported to the ribosome,
and read in the form of codons. The ribosome adds the corresponding amino
acids to the growing protein chain and once the protein is complete it is released
and can fold into its functional three-dimensional structure. The size of the
subunits of ribosomes differ between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells,
Prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S and Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S. In prokaryotic
cells, ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes are
found in two different locations, free ribosomes and bound ribosomes.

Peroxisomes:

Peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes in structure and function, but are involved
in different metabolic processes.

19
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells,
They are involved in the breakdown of certain lipids, the detoxification of
harmful substances, and the synthesis of certain molecules, such as plasmalogens.
The enzymes in peroxisomes are specific to certain reactions and are not
degraded as quickly as lysosomal enzymes. They also contain enzymes that use
oxygen to generate hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a byproduct which can be used
as a signaling molecule or broken down into water and oxygen by the enzyme
catalase.

Endoplasmic reticulum:

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells.

20
It is a network of flattened, folded, and tubular membranes that are continuous
with the nuclear envelope. ER is divided into two main regions: the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). RER
is studded with ribosomes, which are responsible for protein synthesis. SER is
involved in the synthesis and modification of lipids, as well as the detoxification
of drugs and other harmful substances. ER plays an important role in protein
folding, quality control, and transport of proteins to different destinations within
or outside the cell. ER is also involved in the regulation of calcium ions in the cell
which is important for various cellular functions.

Cell division:
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more
daughter cells.

There are three main types of cell division seen in plants and animals:
1. Amitosis
2. Mitosis
3. Meiosis

Amitosis:
Amitosis is a simple form of cell division.

Unlike mitosis, it doesn't involve the formation of mitotic spindle or the

separation of chromosomes. The cell simply pinches in the middle, resulting in
the formation of two daughter cells identical to the parent cell. Amitosis is seen
in certain types of algae and fungi, but not found in higher organism.

21
Mitosis:

Mitosis is a type of cell division that results in the formation of two identical
daughter cells, each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
The process of mitosis is divided into several stages including: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. In prophase, the chromosomes condense
and become visible. In metaphase, the chromosomes align at the center of the
cell. In anaphase, the chromosomes are pulled apart and move to opposite poles
of the cell. In telophase, the chromosomes decondense and a new nuclear
envelope forms around each set of chromosomes. Cytokinesis then takes place to
complete the formation of two identical daughter cells.

Meiosis:

Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that plays a crucial role in sexual
reproduction. It begins with a diploid parent cell containing two sets of
chromosomes and ultimately results in the formation of four genetically diverse
daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. The
process of meiosis is divided into two stages, meiosis I and meiosis II.

22
During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic
information through a process called "crossing over," leading to the formation of
two haploid daughter cells. In meiosis II, these haploid cells further divide,
resulting in four genetically unique daughter cells. This diversity in genetic
makeup is crucial for the survival of a species, as it allows for adaptation to
changing environments.

The End …..

23