a Te We pom TTA ST VV “O 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY WHAT IS MICROBIOLOGY? Micro" means small “bio" means life and "logy" means study. >The study of structure and functions of microorganisms including bacteria, virus, fungi and protozoa ete is called mriroboloay lec jinportance of microbiology in nursing > Microbiology helps us to know which organisms cause which changes and how we can control the change that they cause. > Microorganisms are present in very large amount around us , keep causing changes , some useful and some harmful for us e.g. spoiling of bread and souring of milk etc, > The common objective of health professionals including doctors and nurses is complete wellness of a patient. > Helping a nurse understand the different sources of infections and how it spread > Removing the sources of infections by isolating the infected patients maintaining proper cleanliness and carrying out disinfection. Understanding the insportance of infection control procedure in their jobs to check the spread of infection. po teiping tis ition during various surgeries > Understanding the imporsance of proper sample collection and timely transport (0 the laboratory » Ensuring proper disposal of the medical waste . > Understanding the special infection risks of their transmission Sy Enabling a nurse to prevent transmission of diseases during epidemic outbreak’ <", emergencies etc ” Role of microbiologist » role of Antoine van Leeuwenhoek by, (1632_1723) : > He is father of experimental biology and considered to be the Gist microbiologist Tiny ase > He work for the’improvement and development ‘of microscope and he also had” Hand crafted microscope”. ; oe > He discovered the protozoa as single celled organisms named it " Animalcules ““(little animals) / ; > He was the first microbiologist who observed bacteria and protozoa. > During his life time he ‘made more than 250 mi e and he was highly regarded scientist of! his time wees Scanned with CamScannerPat —\ Xi . tole of Francesco redi) Tole of Francesco re (1626_1697) > He is known as the father of" modem parasitology" and also referred as the founder of" experimental biology" - > He was the first scientist who refuted the popular notion of” spontaneous generation” by performing maggots experiments + He distinguished earthworms from helminthes . He recognized and correéily described the details of about "180 parasites” » Besides GALILEO he:'was one the scientist who challenged ARISEOTLES traditional study of science role of Louis Pasteur (1822_1895) > He is known as father of “modern microbiology" due to his-lot-of contribution in the field of microbiology >. He discovered the process of "fermentation, pasteurization and germ theory of vv diseases". oo > He disprove the " theory of spontaneous generation." and gave " law of * biogenesis i > He developed the vaccines for “rabies, cholera and anthrax ete" and introduce the techniques sterili: rile end asepsis in hoenitals, ~ >» In regard of his contribution “Pasteur’s institute" was established in “Paris” in 14th November 1888", Role of Robert Koch (1843_1910) He was the father of "modern bacteriology" He gave four Koch’s postulates : These are following, 1) T he organisms must be isolated from every patient with the disease 2) The organisms must be isolated free from all other organisms and grown ina pire culture in vitro - . 3) The pure organisms must cause disease in healthy, susceptible animals 4) The organisms must be recovered from the inoculated animals is known for his role in identifying causative agents of" tuberculosis in ; He improved and introduced many laboratory technologies and techniques in the © = field of microbiology — . ~~” Je introduced the staining techniques / He isolated pure culture of bacteria for the first time. ; ; He Me awarded by noble __ prize in" 1905" for his work in physiology and je was medicine Scanned with CamScannerProkaryotes vs, cukaryates Prokaryotes have distne Eukaryotes ; => the cells which do not stinc! . => the cells which have distinct nucleus and membrane bound nucleus and membranous organelles organelles, => Unicellular => Multicellular, => Nucleus absent => Nucleus present. => Ribosomes 70s. : => Ribosomes 80s. => Chromosome number 01. => More than 01 => Bacteria. => Animals and plants. classification of bacteria on the basis of.nutrition | There are two types of bacteria on the basis of nutrition. 1) Autotrophs 2) Hetrotrophs | Autotrophs:, ‘They can synthesize their organic compounds which are necessary for their survival from inorganic compound. There are two types of autotrophic bacteria which are following a) photosynthetic Autotrophs Photosynthetic bacteria posses chlorophyll which are differ from the chlorophyll of green plants «Most green plants have chlorophyll in chloroplast while bacterial chlorophyll dispersed in the cytoplasm. During photosynthesis they utilize hydrogen sulphide (H2S) instead of water as a source of hydrogen and liberate sulpher instead of oxygen b) Chemosynthetic bacteria They 6xidize inorganic compound like "amonia,nitrate,nitrite,sulpher and ferrous iron" and trap energy thus released from their synthetic reactions . 2, Hetrotrophic bacteria They can't “synthesize their organic compound from simple inorganic substances. There are two types of heterotrophic bacteria. a)_saprophytic bacteria They get their food from dead organic matter (Humus). Soil is full of organic compound in the form b) Parasitic bact They are fully dependent on the of humus . host for their nutritional requirements. basic properties of virus © Virus have following basic properties a Scanned with CamScannerre) © Virus don't have cell © Their diameter is 0.02_0.2um © Incase of nucleic acid , they have either DNA or RNA © They don't synthesize protein . © Incase of outer surface , they have protein capsid and lipoprotein envelope © They don't have motility © They don't replicate by binary fission. Classification of bacteria on the basis of structure There are three types of bacteria on the basis of structure. 1) Cocet 2) Bacilli 3) Spiral 1) Cocei: . ____ These are spherical or oval shaped bacteria. This arrangment is based on the planes of division, These are the following types on the basis og plane of division. A) diplococcus . \ ‘When pairs of coccus occur in one plane e.g Diplococcus pneumoniae b) Streptococcus ‘When cocei form long chains of cells in one plane e.g Streptococcus pyogenes c) Tetrad ‘A tetrad is a square of four (4) cocci e.g Micrococcus Sp. d) Sarina Sarcina is the cube of 8 cocci e.g Sarcina Ventriculi. e) Staphylococcus “When division occur in random plane i.e grape like clusters ¢.g Staphylococcus Aure . 2) Bacilli: : / . “? “These are the rod shaped bacteria which have following types. a) Bacillus ~ Single cll ofthe bacilli bacteria e.g Plural bacilli b) Diplobaciltus . Rood shaped bacteria which occur in pair e.g Coxiella Burnet. 4 Scanned with CamScanner4 ©) Streptobacillus a Chains of bacillus bacteria e.g E.coli. ff 3) Spiral: These are spirally coiled bacteria which have following types. 17 asain ercomma shaped bacteria eg Vibrio Natriegens. These b) Spirochete Itisa thin flexible spiral e.g Treponema, ©) Spirillum CE These are thick rigid spiral e.g Campylobacter Jejunt, ids © ; 2. The control of microbial growth i The control of microbial growth is focersant in many practical situation and significant ‘approaches in the field of agriculture, medicine and food science. ~ = Itis used.to inhibit and prevent the growth of microorganisms Ope FACTORS AFFECTING MICROBIAL GROWTH > Inhibit the growth of microorganisms. > Kill the microorganisms. Pr ‘CIDAL: “The agent which kills the cll” "i STATIC: “The agent which inhibit growth.” BACTERICIDAL: To kill bacteria. i BACTERIOSTATIC: Inhibit the growth of bacteria. FUNGICIDE: Kills the fungi. “ GERMICIDE: An agent that kills certain microerganisms, VIRICIDE: An agent thot inactivates virus. FOE SPOROCIDE: An agent that kills bacterial endospores and fungal spores. 1, PHYSICAL METHODS 5s 5 - ke Scanned with CamScanner\ ‘The physical agents act ei m either by imparti ; removing organisms through eaeenin energy in the form of heat or radiation or by Heat: Heat energy can be applied in three ‘ways: Y Moist heat v Dry heat Radiation: ‘The two types of radiations are used to kill microorganisms: Y Ultra violet light (UV) X-Rays: They have higher energy and penetrating power than UV radiations. ¥. Production of hydroxyl radicals by the hydrolysis of water. FILTERATION: ¥ Filtration is preferred method of sterilizing certain solution (those with heat sensitive + compénents). poe . ¥ Inthe past, there were solutions for intravenous. 2., CHEMICAL METHODS: ‘The method in which microorganisms are killed by using chemicals is called chemical meth > Chemicals vary greatly in their ability to kill microorganisms. > A quantitative measure of their variation is expressed as the: ‘Phenol coefficient: This is the ratio of the concentration of phenol to the concentration of th agent required to cause the same amount of killing under the standard conditions of the test. MECHANISMS OF ACTION: © Chemical agents act primarily by one of three mechanisms: Disruption of the lipid containing cell membrane: ‘The chemicals which act like this are as follows: * Alcohol =" Detergents * Phenols Modification of protein: Scanned with CamScanner‘ + Chlorine + Iodine » Heavy metals Modification of nucleic acids: * Crystal violet * Triphenylamine dye like. «Malachite green. oe STERILIZAION: b. The Process of making something free from bacteria or other living organisms carried by autoclaving (which is the exposure to steam at 121°C under the pressure of 15 Ib/inc” for 15 @ minutes). ASEPSIS: ‘The absence of disease producing organisms. ‘The exclusion of bacteria and other microorganisms typically during surgery. a ‘ ANTISEPTIC: i Chemical used to kill microorganisms on the surface of skin and mucous membrane. ASEPTIC: | IL is the state of being free from contamination caused by harmful bacteria viruses or microorganisms.” | MICROBIOCIDAL: $ An agent that kills microscopic organisms like bacteria, fungi, and viruses.” } MACROBIOTICS: - itis a diet that is organic and whole food is intended to prolong life, based on rice and 2 other organic food.” . £ ANTIBIOTICS: 4 “These are the type of anti-microbial drugs used in the treatments and prevention of bacterial infections.” > Antibioties also called anti-bactericides. > They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. 7 Scanned with CamScannerDIFFERENCE BETWEEN. NARROW SPECTRUM: NARROW AND Broan SPECTRUM The narrow spectrum is effecti i imi errEChiven® ctve against only a limited range of organisms, e Effective against onl: ly the i ‘ EXAMPLES: Gram negative bacteria, > Azithromycin > Vancomycin > Erythromycin ADVANTAGES: Do not kill the normal flora cause they only target the specific organisms. * They have less ability to cause super infection. DISADVANTAGES: © Do not kill the wide range of organisms. © Ifyou don’t choose the drug very carefully, the drug may not actually kill the microorganisms causing the infection. BROAD SPECTRUM: “The broad spectrum acts against a wide range of disease causing bacteria.” EFFECTIVENESS: = Ar antibiotic that acts on two major groups: }& Gram positive bacteria. > Gram negative bacteria. EXAMPLES: > Tetracyclines . > Phenicols > Ampicillin ADVANTAGES: i © They kill the wide range of diseases. ; . biseh antibiotics are used whether the organism is identified or not. * DISADVANTAGES: They kill the normal flora. & They have high ability to cause super infection. Scanned with CamScanner2 : * ROLE OF GOOD HEALTH IN PROTECTION AGAINST. MICROORGANISMS - hi ‘Two persons in which one got infected by a disease while other remains healthy and his good health protect him against the microbial infection in these ways: .* © He was immune competent therefore he did not get infected. — © He was taking a good diet that strengthens his immune system helping him ward off different kind of infection. . * He had proper vaccination against various diseases such as hepatitis B tetanus, diphtheria, small pox ete during his childhood. ‘RESISTANCE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY RESISTANCE: The ability of an organism to even grown in the presence of drug is known as resistance. Antibiotic resistance is a major concern of over use of antibiotic and it is also called drug . ~ resistance, SUSCEPTIBILITY: The lack of resistafice to the disease, OR The ability of microorganism to respond any drug, NON-SPECIFIC RESISTANCE: Non specific résistance is a type of resistance that protects microor; r Banisms, in general also called innate‘defense. _ into-three major categories: ¢ Physical barrier, intact skin and mucous membrane. © Phagocytic cell. such as neutrophils, macrophages and natural killer. * Proteins such as complement, Lysozymes and interferon. DESCRIBE THE ROLE OF SKIN AND MUCOUS MEMBRANE In non-specific resistance: Skin and mucous membrane act as mechanical as well as chemical barrier in non-specific resistance. 10 Scanned with CamScannerskin Mechanically: It protects mechanically due to keratinized epitheli pithelium Chemically: It protects chemical ° Sebum: it Protects * Sweat: it Protect u; ly by many ways such as; it Produces: us by forming a Protective film Over the skin, 's by washing microorganism from the skin surface, J Mucous membrane: Mechanically; ” It protects mechanically by Preventing the miei robe from penetration . Chemically: It protects chemically by creating a hole in the microbe membrane. PROCESS OF PHAGOCYTOSIS Definition: 1 The process in which the phagosytic cells (macrophages, eulrophils, dendritic cells etc) engult the solid material (pathogens, microbes etc) is known as Phagocytosis, ¢ i Process: Progess of Phagocytosis is explained in the following four steps "© Chemo taxis: it is a phenomenon of chemical attraction of phagocytes to microorganisms. © Attachment: the plasma membrane of phagocytes gets attached to the surface of microorganisms. . © Ingestion: phagocyte extends short projections known as pseudopodia which engulf the micro-organisms. / / © Digestion: enzymes of lysosomes (lysozyme) gets fused with the phagosomes and digest it. . Y DEFINE SPECIFIC RESISTANCE, INNATE RESISTANCE AND IMMUNIT" SPECIFIC RESISTANCE: 11 Scanned with CamScannerThe third line of defense is specific resistance. This system relies on antigen which are specific substances found on foreign microbes. Most antigens are proteins and act as -stimulus to produce an immune response. “Antigen” term comes from antibody generating substances. Innate immunity: The innate immunity system is also known as no-specific immunity or in-born immunity in which bacteria and foreign particles are not specifically controlled. First line of defense involves physical barrier such as; skin and mucous membrane and chemical barriers. Immunity: the ability of an organism to resist a particular infection or toxin by the action of specific antibodies. There are two types of immunity: © Specific (antibodies + sensitized cells ) * Non-specific, (chemical + physical barriers ) EXPLAIN THE FOUR TYPES OF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY ‘There are basically two types of acquired immunity: e ACTIVE IMMUNITY © PASSIVE IMMUNITY These are further classified into four types: > Artificial active immunity > Natural active immunity~ -. oad > Artificial passive immunity > Natural passive immunity ACTIVE IMMUNITY ‘The immunity in which a person's own cells produce antibodies against the infection is og called active immunity?~9 TrOALM y pyrratd por = Ibis divided into: ARTIFICIAL ACTIYE IMMUNITY; ‘When antigen are introduced in the form of vaccines then body vaccination . Produces antibodies e. g; NATURAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY: ‘When antigen entered in the body produced naturally antibodies or specialized lymphocytes ©. g; infection, 12 Scanned with CamScannerPASSIVE IMMUNITY ype of immunity in which rendymade antibodies are injected into person against ‘the t} ‘infection. RTIFICIAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY: erformed antibodies are introduced throu rabies, tetanus. Al In this type of passive immunity pt serum by injection e. g; mon RAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY: igh immune 10 colonial antibodies NATUI fetus from mother through placenta. "In this type of passive jmmunily antibodies enters the In infant antibodies enter in the body of baby through mother’s milk €. 8 ‘maternal antibodies (ig). > DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN I HUMORAL AND CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE é Tite’ eel Mecitatec Cell mediated Tmmuntt "Tecelis and Cytotoxic T- yy is and antibodies made by Fiumeral Immisnity Teconsists of helper It consists 7 B-cell plasma cel 3 of antibodies are 10 ‘The main Talon 7 opsonize bacteriasneutralize toxins and viruses: ‘Macrophages articipate, incel 7| Mediate Delayed hype! nis ma aantrophills participate in humoral_immt jediate fypersensivip) ‘Mediate soar ¢@ Hay fever,ana} hylactic sho \| e.g.poisons.o! Ttis involved in auto immunity. ( Ttis a Tor graft and transplant 4 rejection. gee ANTIBODIES. jmmune response in the body ANTIGENS AND stance which induces anil xin or foreign sub of antibodies. DEFINE Antigen: A to especially the production Examples: These ‘are substances on the substances such 8s toxins,chemicals.drugs cialized glycoprotein produc production. of light(L) and heavy chains(H). surface of cells, viruses, fungi or bacteria. Non- living and foreign particles. ced from activated B-cells(plasm2: cells) in “Antibodies: It is 2 spe response 0 an antigen that triggered its jcoproteins made up Of Composition: These are gly’ © The simplest antibody has & Y shape and consists of four polypeptide chains. 13 Scanned with CamScanner<3 hte nd ite Se ¥ x Ne & Wie - SS s 5 3 Agen x = 3 5 > Upht Chain X \2 sO VY Ye a wD 2 (erect tain row Cayo € © Two heavy and two light chains. LIST THE FIVE CLASSES OF ANTIBODIES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSES LIgG ‘Itis the only antibody to cross the placenta,made by the mother not by the fetus, Predominant antibody in the secondary respanse to infection, Most abundant immunoglobulin in newborns. * Location:Blood, lymph, intestine © Half-life in serum: 23 days & Activate complement system. ‘Knows Functions: Enhances phagocytosis, neutralizes toxins and viruses, protects fetus and newborn. I. IgM * © It is the most efficient antibody in agglutination. ©” Itis produced in primary response. * Percentage serum antibodiess5-10% * Location: Blood, lymph, B cell surface. * Activates Complement system. * Produced by the fetus in certain infections. Known Functions: First antibodies produced during an infection defense against bacteria. 14 Scanned with CamScannermI IgA * Found in secretions colos / secretions, © Itis synthesized by epithelial cells, Percentage serum antibodies: 10-15%, ° Half-life in serum: 6 days, : © Known Functions: surfaces, Provides imm itrum,sali rum,sal va,tenrs,respiratory.intestinal and genita} Prevents attachment of microorganisms to mucosal ‘unity to infant digestive tract, , IV. IgD © It may function as antigen receptor. © Percentage serum antibodies: 0.2% * Location:B-cell surface, blood, and lymph © Half-life in serum: 3 days. * Known Functions: In setum function is unknown, On B cell surface, initiate immune response. V. IgE *. Percentage serum antibodies: 0,002% © Location:Bound to mast cells and basophils . © throughout Blood. © Half-life in serum: 2 days = * Known Functions: Allergic reactions, Possibly C lysis of worms and parasites, _ ROLE OF MEMORY, TOLERANCE AND SPECIFICITY IN IMMUNITY Role of Meniory in immunity: Memory cells are important in long term immunity because these cells are able to respond faster and efficiently ina secondary infection with the same pathogen. Memory cells record information for immune system, how to fight and destroy antigen. When a disease strikes the body the memory cells instruct the body on how to produce antibodies. Role of tolerance in immunity: Immunological tolerance is the failure to mount an immune response to an antigen. It can be: 15 Scanned with CamScanner«Natural or "self" tolerance. This is the failure (a good thing) to attack the body's own proteins‘and other antigens. If the immune system should respond to "self", an autoimmune disease may result. « Induced tolerance. This is tolerance to external antigens.Deliberately manipulating the ~ “immune system to protect us from unpleasant, even dangerous, allergic reactions to such things as food (e.g. peanuts), insect stings, grass pollen (hay fever). Role of specificity in immunity: The specificity of the immune system is due to the fact that both lymphocytes and antibodies only recognize one epitope or antigenic determinant. The immune system can recognize thousands of millions of different antigens, but for each determinant, a specific lymphocyte will be induced. There are as many stimulated lymphocytes as determinants forming the antigen. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PRIMARY, AND SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE. [Primary immune response ‘Secondary immune response ‘The primary response occurs the first time that antigen | When there is second encounter with the samc is encountered.“ ~ : antigen or a closely related one, month or yea : : after a primary response. ‘Antibodies are detected serum after a lag period of 7- | The lug period of secondary immune respons 10days. - 3-5 days. ‘Duration of antibody response is short. Duration of antibody response is long. Relatively small amount of antibodies are produced. ‘Amount of antibodies produced is relatively : large. TgM is the main antibody. 1gG is the main antibody. DEFINE HYPERSENSITIVITY. Itis aterm used when an immune response result in exaggerated or inappropriate reactions harmful to the host. . - ‘Hypersensitivity occurs in response to external stimuli. = DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN DELAYED AND IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVITY. E uw | Property _ Immediate hypersensitivity | Delayed hypersensitivity _ Onset — ‘Appear and recedes rapidly | Appear slowly but long lasting, | Type of reaction. | antibody mediated IgE. cell mediated rea: Desensitization". Easy but short lived. Difficult but fong lasting Transfer Passive transfer possible by __ | Transfer by lymphocytes -+ serum. a Typical diseases ‘Systemic anaphylaxis , Poison oak , SLE steave jhon’s urticarial and hay fever. syndrome 16 Scanned with CamScannerKe pil - L/ ® 4. CONCEPT OF ASEPSIS: MEDICAL & SURGICAL ASEPSIS IDENTIFY THE SIX COMPONENTS OF THE CHAIN OF INFECTION: AN INFECTIOUS AGENT: Pathogen. RESERVOIR: *. : “ te a7 Scanned with CamScannerAnything (a person or animal or plant or substance)in which an infectious agent normally lives and multiplies. PORTAL OF EXIT: ‘A way for causative agent to be released from the reservoir. MODE OF TRANSMISSION: A way by which causative agent can be transmitted to another reservoir or host ‘where it can live, PORTAL OF ENTRY: Refers.to the method by which the pathogen enters the body. SUSCEPTIBLE HOST: (One whose biological defense mechanisms are weakened in some way. EXAMPLES OF WAYS BY WHICH INFECTION MAY OCCUR: " “There are two ways through which infection can occur: 1, DIRECT CONTACT Persou to person Animal to person Mother to fetus \ 2. INDIRECT CONTACT iL. Insects bites Food contamination DIRECT CONTACT: . Ini direct contact disease is spread by the diréct contact of disease causing organism to the body. ” PERSON TO PERSON: / ‘A common way for infectious disease to spread is through the direct transfer of bacteria,viruses or. other organism from one person ¢o another person.This can occur when an individual with the batterin or viruses touches someone cough or __sneezes on someone who is not infected. ‘ANIMAL TO PERSON: 4 Being bitten or sacratched by an infected animal even a pet it ean make you sick an in extreme circumstances ean be fatal, Handling animal waste is hazardous (o For . -example 18 Scanned with CamScannerhat cause Infectious i em rough placenta jj ie birth, “ ‘ACT; : Banisms can also be passed Berms on linger o ‘animate object suc linger on an inani bj h handle. ‘THE FAGTORS THAT INCREASE THE RISK OF INFECTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS. . The factors that inerease the risk of the infection include: 1, LENGTH OF STAY: A long hospital stay enn increase the risk eg admission for complex or multiple illness, ~ 2. OPERATIONS AND SURGICAL PROCEDURES: ‘The length and type of surgery can also have an impact. 3. HAND HYGIENE TECHNIQUES: In adequate hand hygiene practices by hospital staff and patients may increase the risk. -.4., ANTIBIOTICS: Overuse of-antibioti antibiotics become less effective. 5, EQUIPMENT: Invasive procedures can introduce infection into the body eg use of equipment like IV drips,urinary catherters ete. “6, WOUNDS: a Wounds incision(surgical cuts) burns and ulcers are all prone to infection. 7. HIGH RISK AREAS: can lead to resistant bacteria which means that 19 Scanned with CamScannerave ucpenuency Uns Ig. INCREASED SUSCEPTIBILITY: i TE In hospitals patients have lower defence quality against bacteria.This group includes premature babies or immunodeficient people. 9. INVASIVE DEVICES: e.g intubation tubes,catheters,surgical drains or tracheotomy tubes as they have already overcome bodies primarily defence line. 10, MEDICATIONS OR TREATMENT: Repeated blood transfusions themselves make the patient vulnerable to infection e.g Antacid treatment. THE: ROLE OF HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL AND HEALTH IN INFECTION ‘CONTROL ROLE OF Hi ‘TH CARE PERSONNEL IN INFECTION CONTROL: . “® All health care personnels are required to adhere the standard precautions.Labour room staff may not visit general wards and Accident and Emergency during the time-They are on duty and vice versa unless . permission is granted. Participate in atleast one infection control in service pre- employment physical annual assessment. © Employee health...All personnel with infectious diseases should have no direct patient contact. * Oricntation reluted to general hospital procedure und specific unit procedures is provided,ineluding personal hygiene and hand washing. ‘ROLE OF HEALTH IN INFECT:ON CONTROL: vc ‘The standard precautions include: © Hand hygiene according to “5 moments"for hand hygiene. Appropriate use of personnel-protective equipments according to risk of body fluids exposure. Use of Aseptic techniques where required. Appropriate reprocessing of rcuseable instruments and equipments. Safe handling of waste and linen. Environment control including cleaning and spill management. 20 Scanned with CamScannerDEFINE ISOLATION Isolation is defined as the volunts i d luntary or compulsory separation and or Suspected to be infected with a contagious disease agent prevent farther ate to® kev ions, IDENTIFY TYPES OF ISOLATION Types of isolation: i. Strict isolation: Strict isolation is used for diseas ict isolation of disease spread through the air-and in s patients must be placed in isolation to prevent the spread of infostons deus, ‘enw ii. Respiratory isolation: Respiratory isolation is a combination of practices used to prevent germs from spreading in the hospital. Germs that cause colds and the flu are spread by respiratory droplets that come from the nose and mouth, iii, Protective isolation: * : Protective isolation is a range of practices used in hospitals to protect immunocompromised patients from infection or further infection, iv. Enteric precautions: n the patient care tinits, The new sign is enteric contact precaution The new isolation sign 01 enter ents who haye active infection with C.difficile, rotavirus or and is being used for pati norovirus. Wound and skin precautions: ed to protect the medical worker when a patient hi Ve Isolation us as an open wound also known ‘AS SKIN ISOLATION. RELATE ISOLATION TO THE CHAIN OF iNFECTION CYCLE Chain of infection cycle: reservoir begins when an agent leaves its «ection i «rection that Chain of infection is a process of infection ¢ seri treugh portal-of exitand is conveyed by mode of transmission then enters throue! appropriate portal of entry to infect a susceptible host. ° oO a Scanned with CamScanner4 susceptible » pathogen { IsouaTion |. 3h host ISOLATION CHAIN Portal OF : . eaty | INFECTION | “p> xX K 8 [ ISOLATION means of portal of ISOLATION transmission qj exit | Isolation of infectious agent/pathogen: If.we isolate infectious agent or pathogen like bacteria, fungi or parasites from healthy person by.maintaining proper hygiénic environment. ii, Isolation of reservoir: . Reservoir includes places in the environment where pathogen lives(this includes people, nls and insects, soil ,water and medical equipments. If pathogenic reservoirs are Ssolated from healthy people by preventing direct or indirect contact with them. Isolation of mode of transmission: ‘Mode of transmission is the way the infectious agent can be passed on(through direct or indirest contact, ingestion, of inhalation), We can isolate infectious agent from ecnumiseion to healthy person by interrupting the mode of transmission of that pathogen Le Maintaining proper hygienic measures, Drinking filtered water. { iv. ‘ Is6lation of portal of entry: Portal of entry is the way the infectious agent can enter a new hosi(through broken skin, the respiratory track, mucous membrane, catheters and tubes).We can isolate infectious gent by interrupting the means through which a pathagen.can enter a susceptible host IDENTIFY NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES IN EACH TYPE ISOLATION There are many types of isolation 1. Contact Isolation Precautions: “Visitors must report to the nurses’ station before entering the room. Door must be kept closed. | "Hiads must be washed on entering and leaving the room. iv. Gowns, masks and gloves must be worn by all persons entering the room. + yv. _ Réport any possible exposure immediately. 2. “Droplet Isolation Precautions: ."j,__ Visitors must report to the nurses’ station before entering the room. L . 2 Scanned with CamScannerAr per BE th 3. Door must be kept closed. Gowns are not necessary. ‘Wear A Mask Wear Goggles oe PPE and Perform Hand Washing After Completing Care and Leaving the Airborne Isolation Precautions: ‘Visitors must report to the nurses' station before entering the room. Door must be kept closed. Gowns must be worn by all persons entering the room. Masks must.be, worn by all persons entering the room. Hands must be washed on entering and leaving the room. * Gloves must be worn by all persons having direct contact with the patient. Dispose of PPE(personal protective equipment) in the Adjunct Room, Not Another Patient's Room 4, ‘Wound and Skin Precautions. iii. Visitors must report to the nurses' station before entering the room. Gowns must be wom by all persons having direct contact with the infected wound. "1 Masks are not necessary except during dressing changes. Gloves must be wor by all persons having direct contact withthe infected area, Special precautions are necessary for instruments dressings, and linens. 5, . Enteric Precautions. __Masks are not necessary’ Visitors must report to the nurses’ station ‘yefore entering the room. Gowns must be wor by all persons having direct-contact with the patient. 1 é i F fing direct contact with the patient Giléves mist be wom by all persons having nat wilh PT Special precautions are necessary For antcles contain B Scanned with CamScanner6. Human and Microbial Interaction NORMAL FLORA Beneficial mixture of. human body. E,g. ‘microorgenisms (bacteria, fungi etc] found at any anatomical site of * — Sceipdermidis on skin. © ~ S.aures in nose, DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSIENT AND RESIDENT NORMAL FLORA |‘ TRANSIANT NORMAL FLORA: ‘ “"Microbs that occupy the body for a short period of time[hrs, days or weeks] then move on and die.” They are non pathogenic but slightly Pathogenic microorganisms derive from environment. E.g: S.payogens in throat, RESIDENT NORMAL FLORA; ‘Permanent resident micobs [bacteria ,fungi) occupy the body for a long period of time.” They are non pathogenic remaii n in the body produce vitamins[vitk and B) biological products [biotin and riboflavin} ete. E.g: S.mutans in oral cavity. E.coli in vagina and intestine, THREE BENEFICIAL ROLE OF NORMAL FLORA. Beneficial roles of normal flora are following: * Non pathogenic prevent ftom colonization of, pathogens on skin or other anatomical sites of body[colonization resistance]. * Important role in development of immune system [induce secretions of IgA, modulate : ee ae oF immune system | local T cells]. . ; * Fake part in metabolism, digestion and produce vitamins (vit. k and B produce in intestiriey enzyme ‘hormones. 24 Scanned with CamScanner: NOSOCOMIAL INFECTION. / > Hospital acquired infection which develops 48 hrs after hospitalions release from hospital. *PHalztion Avithin 48 he er Source: 1-Hands of health workers, 2-Filood transfusion, 3- Contaminated surface Gi-use equipment and instruments, E.g: tuberculosis, diphtheria etc List at least three measures to control Nosocomial infection. “Measures to control nosocomial infection are following: * Establishment of infection control program. Sterlization, cleaning and disinfectants, & © Safe and strict disposal of hospital waste. SOME PATHOGENIC MICROBES AND DISEASE % 1. Tetanus: @ ‘at i | bacterial communicable disease caused by clostridium tetani that effects the nervous Sign/symptoms: ‘© Painful muscle/stiffness . a, * Lock jaw. © Irritability. «Difficult swallowing lethargy Incubation period: average 21 days a i bacteria i 1 food bor disease ted Enterie fever caused by salmonella Typhi bacteria is water an Also called En! effect intestinal tract. 25 . “erig, Scanned with CamScannerSign/symptoms: «Abdominal pain + Poor apritite * High fever Lethargy Incubation period: 10 to 14 days can be 3 weeks 3.cholera water and food borne disease caused by vibrio cholera cause intestinal inflammation . Bacterial Sign/symptom: = Diarrhea = Lethargy * Lowbp © Vomiting * Dehydration few hrs to 3 days Incubation perio 4.Diphtheria ¥y corynebacterium diphtheria cause local infection caused b} ffects on heart Air born communicable bacterial i ion with production of toxins cause systemic tissue upper respiratory.tract infect and peripheral tissues. Sign/symptoms: Runny nose Grey black membrane in throat Painful swallowing Breathing problem Incubation period: - 2t04 days 5.Tubercul ‘Air born communicable bacterial diseas caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis effect any body part [organs:heart brain .bones). sign/symptoms: 26 Scanned with CamScannera © cough with sputum © haemoptasis * dyspnea * body ache © lethargy Incubation period: can be from months to year 6.nertussis ' Also called whooping cough air born communi is . junicabl i pertussis effects the respiratory tract Heals becteial disease emused by bordel Gignisymptoms: * Coughing « . Sneezing, + Fever e + Runny nose Incubation period: 14 days 7.Mumps: Viral infection caused by mumps virus cause swalling in parotid salivary glands in the face. le, 7 Sign/symptoms: ° Fever ~ @ Head ache ¢ Muscle pain © Poor appetite Pain while chewing and swallowing Incubation period: 3 weeks 8.Measles: i l ot ‘Also called rubeola contagious comriunicable viral disease caused by morbilli virus is specialy marked by an eruption of red spots called rubeola. Sign/symptom: «fever sore throat inflamed eyes a Scanned with CamScanner© dry cough © letharg Incubation period:average 14 days 9.poliomyelitis Communicable viral disese caused by polio virus leads to invasion of system the spinal cord and brain, Sign/symptom: + fever = head ache body ache © muscle stiffnes * fatigue ‘central nervous Incubation period: 7-21 days can exceed 10.Ascariasis Worm infection caused by Ascan’s lumbricoids effects GIT -tract. Sign/symptoms: bloody sputum © cough © low grade fever © passing worm in stool © skin rash > stomach pain Incubation period : 4-8 weeks 11.Influenza: ‘Communicable viral infection caused by influenza virus also called flu. Cause infection of respiratory passages. Signi/symptoms « ‘fever * cough 28 Scanned with CamScannera head ache fatigue body ache Inebation period: 1-4 day 12.Teaniasis: Parasitic disease caused b: y taenia saginata (tape worm] due to eating raw food or under cooked beef,meat, y ° Sign/symptoms: * Abdominal pain ©. Poor appetite + Weight loss © Upset stomach Incubation period: 8-14 weeks 13.Dermatomycosis: Fungal infection caused by dermatophytes yeast and other fungi cause superficial skin infection. Sign/symptotns: © Skin changes + Rashes © Muscle pain Incubation period: 1-3 weeks 7; Microbiology in everyday life 29 Scanned with CamScannerWATER HOW MICROORGaNism AFFECTS ENVIRONMENT LE. AIR» AND Foon, Foop * Useful Effects: 1). Different strains of bacteria fant dit? and fu entation of Products for the prodi ungus are used for the ferm luction of a wide variety of cultured milk products. a 2. Molds ate used for rotting of grapes for production of different varieties of wines. Harmful Effects: 1. Bacteria, molds and ieast Ate the micro-organisms that cause food spoilage. Bacteria cause intoxication of food, specifically gram positive rods. WATER Useful Effects: 1. Bacteria degrade Pesticides, fuels and other Organic contaminants, 2. Some bacteria in Bround water affects the distribution and solubility of some metals €.g. Arsenic, Uranium. Harmful Effects: J Micro-organism reduces the amount of oxygen inthe water. 2. Micto-organism hinder the water's ability to suppor aquatic animals and plants by contaminating it. AIR “Useful Effects: Ir Nitrogen fixation isa process found only in some bacteria which removes Na from the atmosphere and convert it to ammonia (NHs) for use by plants and animals, 2. The metabolic processes of fermentation and respiration in which organic molecules are eventually broken down to CO2 which is returned to atmosphere - Harmful Effects: 1. Micro-organisin present in environment cauises severe respiratory diseases, 2. Micro-organism Present in air in the form of suspended droplets causing pathogenicity, LIST SOME SAFETY MEASURES TO CONTROL WATER AND FOOD BORNE DISEASES, Scanned with CamScannerSAFETY Me, EASURES TO CONT! y Drink only filtered or bottled i ig EE con soe Water. Avoid drinking water at parks and other fers and creeks is Rives can be breeding ground for bacteria, avoid swimming in such Avail . Avoid ice cubes as these are a major source of contaminated water. Bru eae Re fruit juices and milk shakes from roadside vendors © take proper care in disposing of toddler and infant faeves, Safety measures to control food borne diseases yay } Wash your hands before handling food and often during food preparation. i is . Separate raw meat, poultry and sea food in container to avoid contact between raw ry /oid contact Do not leave cooked food at room temperature for more than 2 hours. Refrigerate promptly all cooked and perishable food ( preferably below 5°C). Do not store focid too long even in refrigerator. 5. Wash fruits and vegetables, especially if eaten raw. ay Differentiate between Food Poisoning and Food Infection. Food Poisoning Food Infection 1. Definition Food poisoning is caused by Food infection is when food Infectious organisms including bacterial or other microbial Bacteria, viruses and parasites infectious pathogen which Orit is a result of eating contam- infects the body after itis inated, spoiled or toxic food. eaten. 2. Production 7 ‘These micro-organisms These toxins are produced ese mi ios isms that multiply in the intestine. By micro-organisms Occur naturalty in food. 3. Toxins T ly affect the These micro-organisms release ese micro-organisms rel ‘oxins directly affect the s taking toxins that im Biological reaction: 31 Scanned with CamScanner aryPlace in the body. 4. Symptoms ‘Symptoms of food poisoning Are: 1. Nausea 2. Vomiting 5. Causes 1. Staphylococcus aures 2. Clostridium botulinum 32 epithelial cells. Symptoms of food infection are: 1, Stomach ache 2. Diarrhea 1, Salmonella app 2. Compylobacter 3.E. Coli Scanned with CamScannerSTRUCTU RE OF BACTE Structural Component “ues Y Cell Wali Y Cytoplasm Y External structure 1. Cell Wail: v ’ Located external to the cytoplasmic membrane. Composed of peptidoglycan. 2. Cytoplasm: . Anamorphous Matrix: Y Contains ribosomes, nutrients, granules, metabolites and plasmids. Y An inner nucleoid region composed of DNA. Ribosomes: Y Sites of protein synthesis. ¥ -Bactérial ribosomes are 70s in size with 50s and 30s subunits Y Whereas eukaryotic ribosomes are 80s in size with 60s and 40s subunits. Granules: | ¥ Different types of granules that serves as storage areas for nutrients. Nuctoid: v Inwhich DNA is located. ¥ DNA of prokaryotes isa sing) weight 2x10°and contains about 2000 genes. smids: aayctreinosortsl double stranded, circular DNA molecules that are capable of replicating vndependently ofthe bacterial chromosome. 3, External structures e Capsule - ° Flagella Je circular molecule that has 4 molecular 33 Scanned with CamScanner° Pili e Glycocalyx Capsules: “-Gelatinous layer covering the entire bacterium. “Composed of polysaccharide. “+ A determinant of virulence. Flagella: > Flagella are long, whiplike appendages _ Move the bacteria toward nutrients and other attractants. This process called chemotaxis. “It is composed of many subunits of a s ingle protein, flagellin arranged In several intertwined chains. Pili: BS Pili are hairlike filaments that extend from the cell surface. «: They are shorter and straighter than flagella. Composed of subunits of pilin. st Mediate the attachment of bacteria. +A specialized kind of pilus, the sex pilus, forms the attachment “ between the male. Glycocalyx: “# The glycocalyx isa polysaccharide coating. + It covers surfaces like a film and allows the bacteria to adhere firmly to various structures. Scanned with CamScannerMICROS INtRODvCTog COPE History :Zacharias jansen in mic is deri TOScope is derived from Greek word “miko: vented microscope in 15 look or see, : = $" mean small and “skopein"* mean to DEFINITION An optical instrument having magnifyin small to be seen distinctly and in detail by itd Jen Odes thet are too y an unaided eye, PRINCIPLE OF MICROSCOPE The principle of microscope is to magnified the obj focus it through the ocular lens to the observer eye TERMS RELATED TO MICROSCOPE 1. MAGNIFICATION Itis the ability of an optical instrument to make an object bigger or larger. 2. RESOLUTION ‘The ability of an instrument to produce image that are clearer,finer and sharper. TYPES OF MICROSCOPE © Electon thicroscape,an electron microscope is an electrical microscope in which a beam of electro is used to produce the enlarged image of minute objects. Light microscope,use focus light and lenses to magnify a specimen usually a cell. a) Simple microscope, have single lens to magnify object. b) Light compound microscope,focus light and lenses to magnify the objects. . | c) Phase contrast microscoe,for examining the such specimens as biological tissues. ; : d) Dark ground microscope,use:to observe un-stained sample, e) Fluorescent microscope,use much higher intensity light source which excites a fluorescent species in a sample of interest. ject placed on the stage and then MAIN PARTS OF MICROSCOPE >- Eyepiece lens > Objective lens. > Body tube > Am - > Base 35 Scanned with CamScanner> Stage > Minov/illuminator OBJECTIVE LENS: Usually there are three objectives ranges in 10,40 and 100X, BODY TUBE; Carries the lens system and Permits them to be moved, STAGE: Js a platform that accommodates the Blass slide on which the object to be examined is mounted. BASE: . Isa heavy casting and usually horse shoe shaped. it carries rest of components MIRROR: Reflect the light up to the whole optical system of microscape to produce an image on retina of observer eye. Astacio ae Pyuasion and. malLiplialion a gucr as VIBUS Baclesia and nol nosmally present within TYTiero - or geunsms Rarasiles. thal are dhe body. 36 Scanned with CamScannerOcular lenses Rotating nose piece Objective lenses: Fine adjustment knob Scanned with CamScanner— ONY LURE OFB CELL MORPHOLOGY ACTERIA + Cell wall % Plasma membrane Us “itscellulasteuctares 2) Fimbriae and pitt; —s Ah >) Stayer —5 een bayer nt ©) Flagetia —s! nf agpoe d) Glycocalyx. u 17 Mata ctor structures)” es a) Bacterial DNA and si f T Ribosomes =~" Pissmids c) Cytoskeleton— - . . Intra cellular * Nutrients'storage structures membrane a) Inclusions b) Gas vacuoles ©) Magmentosoms d). Micro compartments ©) Carboxysomes CELL WALL 2 Ht determines the shape of bacteria, * Is main component is peptidogiyean, PLASMA MEM BRANE —<——e ANE * compose. of phospholipids bilayer. ° + Functions , active transport ,energy gencration ,secretions etc, EXTRA CELLULAR STRUCTURES SALMA ALULAR STRUCTURES FIMBRIAE & PILLI: Made up of pillin protein and helps in attachment and conjugation, S-layer, is a cell surface protein layer found in different bacteria, FLAGELLA: : 7 ‘made up of flagellin protein , responsible for motility. Classification of bacteria on the of flageila = Monotrichous=single flagella. < ~ « Lophotrichous=tuft of flagella found at one pole. “38 Scanned with CamScanner+ Amphitrichous=single flagellum at each of t + Peritrichous=multiple flagella found at seve Glycocalyx, Isan extra cellular polymer secreted b which protect the bacteria from dess the two opposite poles, ral locations, y bacteria outside the cell wall ion and phagocytosi INTRACELLULAR §' TURE: Bacterial DNA & plasmi Bacterial DNA is a single circular molecule whereas plasmids are extra chromosomal, double stranded,circular DNA capable of replicating independently, Ribosomes, are site of protein synthesis.bacterizt ribosomes are of 70S with 30S and SOS subunits, Nutrients storage structures Are used to store the nutrients in times of plenty for use in times of need. ‘These include: * Inclusions © Gas vacuoles * Micro compartments *.* Carboxysomes * Magmentosomes aan iahly resistant structures form by bacteria in response to adverse conditions. ‘There is no. metabolic activi Spores are produced by onl 3 CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA Classification of bacteria on the basis of: © Shape © Cell wall © Staining © Temperature ° Ph 39 Scanned with CamScannerOxygen Nutrition 3 % Bacilli (rod shaped) % Cocci (round) 2 Spirochetes (spiral) % Vibrio (comma shaped $ Pleomorphie (have many shapes) * Filamentous (elongated) > SHAPE : 1) Coceus : round shaped bacteria) Diplococcus Pair (Pneumococeus) One plane. Streptococcus chains (Streptococcus salivarius) ne — plone Staphylococcus clusters (s.aureus) three plane (rod shaped bacteria) O * Coccobacilli (brucelia) * Streptobacilli (bacillus subtilis) * Comma shaped bacteria (vibrio cholera) 3) Spirochetes_——__ = (Spiral shaped bacteria e.g troponema,) > CELL WALL 1) Rigid thick wall / ; * Etec living ¢.g gram positive , gram negative and acid fast bacteria, * Non-free living e.g ri 2) Flexible thin wall * Borellia, ceptospira. 3) Wall less "= Mycoplasma oe 7 > STAINING . ; ~Gram positive bacteria / / seg. emg - es Contain thick wall of peptidoglycan layer and stains purp + staphylococcus. - “2) Gram negative bacteria , 40 Scanned with CamScanner—— 3) > LD) — 2 3 > ) 2) 1) 2) = 3) Best grow in alkali hi ine Sxample of alkaliphiles, '"°AMent ph Tanges fro Neutrophils Ph ranges from 5.4 t0.g TEMPERATUR RoE) Ehsveroy An organism that grows by . est at tem . vibrio cholera St at temperature close to freezing (-20 to +19 Oveg Mesophit An organism that grows best in mode ©). e.g. E.coli, worate temp. neither 109 hot nor too col(20 to4s Thermopi ‘Bacteria that can OW at higher than the normal tem mp.(41 to 122 C) NUTRITION tant noma Autotrophs An organism that is able to form the nutritional Oraganic substances from simple in- organic substances such as CO) , Nit Hetrotrophs ; Organism that driving its nutritional requirements from complex organism. Eg saprophytic bacteria. OXYGEN bligate nerobes - ° i an organism that, requires oxygen to grow. oxygen ranges at(8%] Eg. M. tuberculosis. i be . oon naerabe tht Do. not require oxygen to grow. Oxygen ranges ai fisvieg clostridium,tetni. Facultative anaerobes mes ATP by aerobie respon if oxygen i presel. oygen organism kes A An = Ct . ranges aif5%] Example‘is ) 4) Aero-toleran(anscrovet 4 oxygen for grovth but can tolerate its presence. i jt 1 ore FY Gaprepiles bctra are aerdolerant anaerobes, oxygen ranges al *E) Mierophiles at {riel. Scanned with CamScannerAerobie bacteria that requires Q but les than present in the air gnd grow best under Modified atmospheric conditions. Oxygen ranges af 110 10%) Streptococcus is vm example. CLASSIFICATION OF BLOOD CELL, Ge Matiptetalhemaopoie Sena Henacyobas) bo ‘Conon nye pagers Caron yh proper , © @eE - ¢ TAX 5 Enfrroqte — Masteal yeast te Vv \ 6 & Tyrptote — Biymehoeye ver € Pasna cet az Scanned with CamScannera \WATER BORNE DISEASES AW Diarrhea(Noroviras o r Rotavi a Dysentery Emtamcoba Hisehice 7 Typhoid Fever (Salmonella Typhi) 7” Cholera(Vibrio cholera) Hepatitis ” Hepatitis A(Through Contaminated drinking and eating) 2..FOOD BORNE DISEASES © Listeriosis (Listeria monocytogenes) * Salmonellosis (Snake, turtles, lizards, frogs) * _Bacillary dysentery or Shigellosis(Pathogens) 7~ Diarthea (Vibrio parahaemolyticus,Salmonella) 2-7 Typhoid fever (Salmonella paratyphi) 27 Food poisoning (contaminated food) 3. BLOOD BORNE DISEASES e © Malaria (Plasmodium) * Syphilis (Treponema pallidum) © Hepatitis B (HBV) © - Hépatitis C (HCV) e AIDS (HIV) 4, AIR BORNE DISEASES > Anthrax (Inhalational) 2& Chicken pox (Herpex zoster virus) <7 Influenza SX Measles (Paramyxo virus) '¢ Small pox (Genus orthopox virus) 5, VECTOR BORNE DISEASES (4 Malaria ( Plasmodium) _#~ Dengue fever (Aedés aegypti) _A© Leishmaniasis (L.donovani, L.tropica) 7 Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) a Tick borne relapsing fever 6. BACTERIAL DISEASES «(Vibrio choles oo “Cholera Diphtheria (Corynebacterium diphtheria) Scanned with CamScannerA Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) _& Tick bome relapsing fever 6, BACTERIAL DISEASES x Chokes Diphtheria (Corynebacterium diphtheria) 5 a8 | 27 Lyme dieeebonetn ardor %, Gonontes (acum Nene &SyphliscTreponema pallidus) 4_Teanuscostidim tay 7. VIRAL DISEASES 7 Hepatitis a ‘Small pox (genus omthopox vinis) Measles ’ 7 TB (Matuberculosis) * Cryptococeoss(Crypocoosus neoformans 8. FUNGAL DISEASE " ose , 7, Aspetillosis (cryptic Asperilu) A Candidiasis (thrush) | + Biasomycosis (Blakiomyces dermatitis) 77 Histoplasmosis( Histoplasma eapsulatam) L 2° Pacumocystc peumonia Preumo:yaisjroveci) PHAGOCYTOSIS. | INTRODUCTION foling Greek word hago Devout Gye {Ca DEFINITION ‘ A process by which certain tving cell called phagocytes i es. ‘They may be free living on celled organism such as amoebe or one of the body cells such as WBC’S. - FUNCTION / ROLE a > Main function is a defensive reaction against the infection and invasion of hady by.. foreign substances. > Also helps in eating of the cells. PROCESS Four steps of Phagocyto Scanned with CamScanner