UNIT 1

1.What is computer graphics? Explain computer

graphics application and software.
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ChatGPT
Computer graphics refers to the creation, manipulation, and representation
of visual content using computers. It encompasses a wide range of
techniques and technologies for generating images, animations, and
visualizations, often for the purpose of communication, entertainment,
simulation, or analysis. Computer graphics can be categorized into two
main types: raster graphics and vector graphics.

1. Raster Graphics: Raster graphics, also known as bitmap graphics, are

composed of a grid of pixels, where each pixel contains color
information. Common file formats for raster graphics include JPEG,
PNG, and GIF. Raster graphics are well-suited for representing
photographs and complex images with detailed color gradients, but
they can lose quality when scaled up or manipulated extensively.
2. Vector Graphics: Vector graphics are composed of geometric shapes
such as points, lines, and curves, which are defined by mathematical
equations. Unlike raster graphics, vector graphics are resolution-
independent, meaning they can be scaled to any size without losing
quality. Common file formats for vector graphics include SVG, PDF,
and EPS. Vector graphics are ideal for illustrations, diagrams, and
logos.

Computer graphics find applications in various fields, including:

1. Entertainment: Computer graphics are extensively used in movies,

television shows, video games, and virtual reality experiences to
create lifelike characters, immersive environments, and stunning
visual effects.
2. Design and Visualization: Graphic designers, architects, engineers,
and artists use computer graphics software to create digital artwork,
architectural renderings, product designs, and prototypes.
Visualization tools help scientists, researchers, and analysts to explore
 and communicate complex data sets through interactive
visualizations and simulations.
3. Education and Training: Computer graphics are employed in
educational materials, training simulations, and e-learning platforms
to enhance learning experiences and facilitate understanding of
abstract concepts through interactive visualizations and 3D models.
4. Medicine and Healthcare: Medical imaging techniques such as MRI,
CT scans, and ultrasound generate detailed images of the human
body, which can be visualized and analyzed using computer graphics
software for diagnostic purposes, surgical planning, and medical
education.
5. Advertising and Marketing: Advertisers and marketers use computer
graphics to create eye-catching advertisements, promotional videos,
and interactive multimedia content to engage audiences and
promote products or services.

Several software tools are available for creating and manipulating computer
graphics, catering to different needs and skill levels. Some popular
computer graphics software includes:

1. Adobe Photoshop: A raster graphics editor used for image editing,

compositing, and digital painting.
2. Adobe Illustrator: A vector graphics editor used for creating
illustrations, logos, and other vector-based artwork.
3. Autodesk Maya: A 3D animation software used for modeling, rigging,
animation, and rendering.
4. Blender: A free and open-source 3D creation suite offering features
for modeling, sculpting, animation, rendering, and compositing.
5. Unity3D: A game engine used for developing 2D and 3D interactive
experiences across multiple platforms.
6. Cinema 4D: A 3D modeling, animation, and rendering software
popular in the motion graphics industry.

These are just a few examples, and there are many other specialized tools
and software packages available for specific applications within computer
graphics.

You
2.Explain the method of circle drawing using
Bresenham’s circle algorithm.
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ChatGPT
Bresenham's circle drawing algorithm is a method used to efficiently
approximate the pixels needed to draw a circle on a raster display. Unlike
some other circle drawing algorithms that use trigonometric functions or
square root operations, Bresenham's algorithm only involves integer
arithmetic, making it computationally efficient, especially on early computer
systems with limited processing power.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of Bresenham's circle drawing algorithm:

1. Initialization: To draw a circle centered at the point (x_center,

y_center) with a given radius r, we start by setting up the initial
values. We initialize the decision parameter:
We also set the initial coordinates of the circle to (0, r).
2. Plotting Points: We plot the points corresponding to the eight
octants of the circle (assuming symmetry). For each octant, we
incrementally update the decision parameter and choose the next
pixel to plot based on its value.
3. Plotting in Octants: The circle is divided into eight octants, and we
only need to compute points in one of them and then reflect these
points across the other octants to complete the circle.
 Octant 1: For each point (x, y), if the decision parameter P is
less than or equal to zero, we choose the pixel to the east (x+1,
y) and update the decision parameter:
If P is greater than zero, we choose the pixel to the southeast
(x+1, y-1) and update the decision parameter:
4. Reflection: Once we have computed all points in Octant 1, we reflect
these points across the other octants to complete the circle. The
reflected points are obtained by swapping the x and y coordinates
and applying the same offsets for each octant.
5. Stopping Criterion: We continue plotting points until x becomes
greater than or equal to y. At this point, the circle has been
completed.
By following this algorithm, we can efficiently draw circles on a raster
display without needing to perform costly floating-point operations.
Bresenham's circle drawing algorithm is widely used in computer graphics
due to its simplicity and efficiency.

You
3.Explain the acceptance and rejection test using bit
codes in Cohen – Sutherland line clipping algorithm
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The Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm is a method used to
efficiently clip lines against a rectangular clipping window. The algorithm
divides the 2D coordinate space into nine regions based on the clipping
window: one region for lines entirely inside the window, one for lines
entirely outside, and seven for lines partially inside or outside. Each region
is identified by a four-bit code, known as a bit code, associated with the line
endpoints.
The acceptance and rejection test using bit codes in the Cohen-Sutherland
line clipping algorithm involves checking whether a line segment can be
trivially accepted, trivially rejected, or requires further processing. Here's
how it works:

1. Assigning Bit Codes: Each endpoint of the line segment is assigned

a four-bit code based on its position relative to the clipping window.
The bits represent the following regions:
 Bit 1: Top region
 Bit 2: Bottom region
 Bit 3: Right region
 Bit 4: Left region
If an endpoint is inside the clipping window, its bit code is set to
0000. If it lies above the window, below the window, to the right of
the window, or to the left of the window, the corresponding bit is set
to 1.
2. Checking Trivial Cases:
 If both endpoints have a bit code of 0000, the line segment is
entirely inside the clipping window and can be trivially
accepted.
 If the bitwise AND of the two bit codes is not 0000 (i.e., at least
one bit is set to 1), the line segment is entirely outside the
clipping window and can be trivially rejected.
3. Acceptance and Rejection Test:
 If the bitwise AND of the two bit codes is 0000 and neither bit
code is 0000, it means that the line segment crosses the
boundaries of the clipping window. In this case, further
processing is required.
4. Clipping against Window Boundaries:
 For line segments requiring further processing, the algorithm
determines which window boundaries the line intersects. It then
adjusts the endpoints of the line segment to lie on these
boundaries, effectively clipping the line against the window
edges.
5. Repeating the Process:
 After clipping against the window boundaries, the algorithm
repeats the process by reassigning bit codes to the modified
endpoints and checking for trivial acceptance or rejection.
 6. Termination:
 The process continues until all line segments are either trivially
accepted or rejected.

By using the acceptance and rejection test with bit codes, the Cohen-
Sutherland algorithm efficiently determines which line segments lie entirely
inside or outside the clipping window and quickly clips those segments that
intersect the window boundaries. This approach minimizes the number of
calculations needed for line clipping, making it suitable for real-time
graphics applications.

You
4.Distinguish between raster scan & random scan
display devices
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ChatGPT
Raster scan and random scan are two different methods used for displaying
images on a computer screen. Here's a distinction between the two:

1. Raster Scan Display Devices:

Raster scan devices are the most common type of display devices used in
modern computer monitors and televisions. Here's how they work:
  Display Method: In a raster scan display device, the screen is divided
into a grid of pixels arranged in rows and columns. The electron
beam in a cathode ray tube (CRT) or the light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
in an LCD or OLED screen scan across the screen in a predefined
pattern, usually from left to right and from top to bottom.
 Scanning Pattern: The electron beam or LED array scans each row of
pixels sequentially, one row at a time. As it scans each row, it turns on
or off the pixels according to the image data being fed to it. This
process creates the entire image on the screen.
 Sequential Processing: Raster scan devices process and display
images sequentially, pixel by pixel and line by line. This method is
efficient for displaying static images and videos.
 Resolution and Refresh Rate: The resolution of a raster scan display
is determined by the number of pixels in each row and column. The
refresh rate, measured in Hertz (Hz), determines how many times per
second the entire screen is redrawn. Higher refresh rates result in
smoother motion and reduced flicker.
 Examples: CRT monitors, LCD monitors, LED monitors, and most
modern television screens are examples of raster scan display
devices.
2. Random Scan Display Devices:

Random scan devices, also known as vector displays, operate differently

from raster scan devices. Here's how they work:

 Display Method: In a random scan display device, instead of

scanning each pixel sequentially, the electron beam in a CRT or other
display technology moves directly to the points needed to draw the
image. These points are defined by mathematical coordinates
(vectors) rather than pixel positions.
 Drawing Method: Random scan devices are suitable for displaying
line drawings and vector graphics. They can draw lines and shapes
anywhere on the screen at high speed by moving the electron beam
to specific coordinates.
 Vector Drawing: Random scan devices are well-suited for displaying
dynamic images with a lot of geometric shapes and lines that change
frequently. They excel in applications such as computer-aided design
(CAD), scientific visualization, and animation.
  Resolution: Unlike raster scan devices, random scan devices do not
have a fixed resolution determined by the number of pixels. Instead,
they can draw lines and shapes at any resolution supported by the
display technology.
 Examples: Early vector displays used in old arcade games,
oscilloscopes, and certain specialized graphics workstations are
examples of random scan display devices.

In summary, raster scan devices display images by scanning pixels

sequentially in rows and columns, while random scan devices draw lines
and shapes directly to specific points on the screen defined by
mathematical coordinates. Each type of display device has its advantages
and is suited to different applications.

You
5.Distinguish between active & passive graphics
devices.
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ChatGPT
Active and passive graphics devices are two types of display technologies
used for generating and presenting visual content. Here's a distinction
between the two:

1. Active Graphics Devices:

Active graphics devices actively emit light to generate images. They include
technologies such as:
  Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): In LCD screens, each pixel consists of
a liquid crystal cell that can be controlled individually to either block
or allow light to pass through. A backlight behind the LCD panel
provides the light source, and the liquid crystals modulate the
intensity and color of the light to produce the desired image.
 Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Displays: LED displays use an array of
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as the light source. LEDs emit light when
an electric current passes through them, and they can be controlled
to produce different colors and brightness levels. LED displays can be
either organic (OLED) or inorganic (LED-backlit LCD).
 Plasma Displays: Plasma displays use small cells containing
electrically charged ionized gases (plasma) to emit ultraviolet light,
which then excites phosphors to produce visible light. Each pixel on
the screen consists of multiple cells that can be independently
controlled to create images.
 Active Matrix Displays: Active matrix displays, such as TFT-LCD (Thin
Film Transistor-Liquid Crystal Display), use a matrix of thin-film
transistors to control the individual pixels. This allows for faster
response times and higher refresh rates compared to passive matrix
displays.
 Projection Displays: Active projection displays, such as digital
projectors, use light sources and imaging systems to project images
onto a screen or surface. They can use various technologies, including
LCD, DLP (Digital Light Processing), and LCoS (Liquid Crystal on
Silicon).

Active graphics devices generally offer high image quality, brightness, and
color accuracy. They are commonly used in computer monitors, televisions,
smartphones, tablets, and digital signage.

2. Passive Graphics Devices:

Passive graphics devices do not emit light themselves but instead rely on
external light sources to illuminate the display. They include technologies
such as:

 Electronic Paper Displays: Electronic paper (e-paper) displays use

microcapsules containing positively charged white particles and
negatively charged black particles suspended in a clear fluid. By
 applying electric fields, the particles can be repositioned to produce
visible patterns without the need for a backlight. E-paper displays are
commonly used in e-readers and electronic shelf labels.
 Reflective Displays: Reflective displays utilize ambient light to
illuminate the screen. They typically have a reflective surface or
coating that reflects light back to the viewer, along with an additional
layer that modulates the reflection to produce images. Reflective
displays are energy-efficient and readable in bright outdoor
environments.
 Passive Matrix Displays: Passive matrix displays use a grid of row
and column electrodes to control the pixels. Unlike active matrix
displays, which have a dedicated transistor for each pixel, passive
matrix displays share a limited number of transistors across multiple
pixels, leading to slower response times and lower refresh rates.

Passive graphics devices are known for their low power consumption, high
visibility in ambient light conditions, and suitability for applications where
energy efficiency and readability are paramount. They are commonly used
in e-readers, electronic shelf labels, smartwatches, and other portable
devices.
You
6.Explain Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA)
algorithm.
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ChatGPT
The Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm is a method used for
generating points between two endpoints in order to form a straight line
on a digital display. It's a basic and straightforward algorithm commonly
used in computer graphics due to its simplicity and efficiency.

Here's how the Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm works:

1. Input: The algorithm takes two endpoints of the line as input: (x0, y0)
and (x1, y1), where (x0, y0) represents the starting point and (x1, y1)
represents the ending point.
 2. Calculate Slope (m): First, the algorithm calculates the slope (m) of
the line using the formula:
m = (y1 - y0) / (x1 - x0)
This calculates the change in y divided by the change in x between
the two points.
3. Decide on the Number of Steps: The algorithm determines the
number of steps needed to plot the line. This is usually determined
by the difference between the x-coordinates or y-coordinates of the
endpoints, whichever has the greater difference.
4. Increment Values: Based on the slope (m), the algorithm decides
whether to increment the x-coordinate or the y-coordinate at each
step. If the slope is less than or equal to 1, it increments the x-
coordinate by 1 and calculates the corresponding y-coordinate using
the slope. If the slope is greater than 1, it increments the y-coordinate
by 1 and calculates the corresponding x-coordinate using the slope.
5. Plot Points: At each step, the algorithm plots the calculated point (x,
y) on the display.
6. Repeat: The process continues until the endpoint with the greater x-
coordinate or y-coordinate is reached.

Note: In practice, rounding functions are used to ensure that the calculated
coordinates are converted to integer pixel coordinates before plotting.

The Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm is a simple and efficient

method for drawing straight lines on digital displays, but it may suffer from
rounding errors and precision issues, especially for lines with large slopes or
lengths.

You
7.Explain the operation of CRT with a neat labelled
diagram
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ChatGPT
A Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube that generates images on a
fluorescent screen by directing an electron beam onto the screen's
phosphorescent surface. Here's an explanation of the operation of a CRT
with a labeled diagram:
1. Cathode Ray Tube Diagram:


electron beam.
 Electron Gun (Beam Focusing): The electron beam is focused into a
narrow stream by passing through a series of electrodes in the
electron gun. This ensures that the beam remains focused as it travels
towards the screen.
 Control Grid (Deflection): The control grid, also known as the
focusing or steering coils, controls the direction of the electron beam.
By applying varying voltages to the control grid, the beam can be
moved horizontally and vertically across the screen, allowing for the
creation of images.
 Accelerating Anode (High Voltage): The accelerating anode applies
a high voltage to the electron beam, accelerating it towards the
phosphor screen. This voltage determines the speed at which the
electrons strike the screen.
 Phosphor Screen: The phosphor screen is coated with a layer of
phosphorescent material. When the electron beam strikes the
phosphor screen, it causes the phosphors to emit light. Different
phosphors emit different colors of light when excited by electrons.
2. Operation:
 The electron beam is generated at the cathode and accelerated
towards the phosphor screen by the high voltage applied to
the accelerating anode.
  The control grid adjusts the direction of the electron beam to
scan across the screen horizontally and vertically. By varying the
voltages applied to the control grid, the beam can be moved to
any point on the screen.
 As the electron beam strikes the phosphor screen, it causes the
phosphors to emit light, creating a bright spot at the beam's
location. By rapidly scanning the beam across the screen and
varying the intensity of the beam, complex images can be
formed.
 Persistence of vision ensures that the emitted light remains
visible for a short time after the electron beam has moved
away, allowing the eye to perceive a continuous image.
 By controlling the intensity and timing of the electron beam,
different colors and shades can be produced on the screen.

The CRT's operation relies on the precise control of the electron beam's
position and intensity, as well as the properties of the phosphor screen, to
generate images. While CRTs have largely been replaced by newer display
technologies such as LCD and OLED, they were once the dominant display
technology for televisions and computer monitors.

You
8.What is Computer Graphics? How image is to be
display on Video Display Device?
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ChatGPT
Computer graphics is the field of visual computing that involves creating,
manipulating, and displaying visual content using computers. It
encompasses a wide range of techniques and technologies for generating
images, animations, and visualizations, often for the purpose of
communication, entertainment, simulation, or analysis.

In the context of displaying images on a video display device, such as a

computer monitor or a television screen, computer graphics involves
converting digital image data into a format that can be rendered and
displayed on the screen. Here's an overview of how this process typically
works:
 1. Digital Image Representation: An image is represented digitally as a
grid of picture elements, or pixels. Each pixel contains color
information represented by numerical values for red, green, and blue
(RGB) components in the case of color images, or a single value
representing intensity in the case of grayscale images.
2. Image Processing: Before an image can be displayed, it may
undergo various processing steps, such as resizing, cropping, color
correction, or filtering. These operations are performed using
computer graphics algorithms and techniques to modify the
appearance of the image according to specific requirements.
3. Rasterization: Once the image data is prepared, it needs to be
rasterized for display on a raster scan display device, such as a
computer monitor. Rasterization involves converting the digital image
into a raster format, where each pixel's color value is determined
based on its position in the image.
4. Frame Buffer: The rasterized image data is typically stored in a frame
buffer, which is a dedicated portion of memory in the video display
device. The frame buffer holds the pixel data for the current frame
being displayed on the screen.
5. Scanning and Display: The video display device scans the frame
buffer sequentially, retrieving pixel data for each scan line and
generating corresponding electron beams or light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) to illuminate the pixels on the screen. For a cathode ray tube
(CRT) display, electron beams are used to excite phosphors on the
screen, while for modern displays like liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or
organic light-emitting diode (OLED) displays, LEDs or liquid crystals
are used to modulate light output.
6. Refresh Rate: The display device refreshes the screen at regular
intervals to update the image being displayed. The refresh rate,
measured in Hertz (Hz), determines how many times per second the
entire screen is redrawn. Higher refresh rates result in smoother
motion and reduced flicker.

Overall, displaying images on a video display device involves a combination

of digital image processing, rasterization, and electronic display
technologies to convert digital image data into visible images on the
screen. Computer graphics algorithms and hardware play a crucial role in
this process to ensure accurate and efficient image rendering.
You
9.List and explain the graphic devices used in
computer graphics.
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ChatGPT
Various graphic devices are used in computer graphics to create,
manipulate, and display visual content. Here's a list along with brief
explanations:

1. Monitors:
 Monitors, also known as displays or screens, are output devices
used to visually present graphics and text generated by the
computer. They come in various types such as CRT (Cathode
Ray Tube), LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), LED (Light Emitting
Diode), and OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode).
2. Printers:
 Printers are output devices used to produce hard copies of
graphics and text on paper or other media. Common types of
printers include inkjet printers, laser printers, and dot matrix
printers.
3. Scanners:
 Scanners are input devices used to convert physical images,
documents, or objects into digital images that can be
manipulated and displayed on a computer. They work by
capturing the image using optical sensors and converting it
into digital data.
4. Graphics Tablets:
 Graphics tablets, also known as digitizing tablets or drawing
tablets, are input devices used by artists and designers to
create digital artwork directly using a stylus or pen-like device.
They typically consist of a flat surface on which the user can
draw and a stylus that detects the position and pressure of the
pen.
5. Joysticks and Gamepads:
 Joysticks and gamepads are input devices commonly used in
gaming and simulation applications to control on-screen
 objects or characters. They typically consist of one or more
buttons and directional controls that allow the user to interact
with the virtual environment.
6. Touchscreens:
 Touchscreens are input/output devices that allow users to
interact with graphical user interfaces (GUIs) by touching the
screen directly with their fingers or a stylus. They are commonly
used in smartphones, tablets, kiosks, and interactive displays.
7. Graphics Processors (GPUs):
 Graphics processors, also known as GPUs or graphics cards, are
specialized hardware components responsible for rendering
and displaying graphics on a computer. They accelerate
graphics processing by offloading computational tasks from
the CPU and are essential for running graphically demanding
applications such as games, 3D modeling, and video editing.
8. Projectors:
 Projectors are output devices used to display images and video
on a large screen or surface. They work by projecting light onto
the screen, typically using a lamp or LED light source and a
series of lenses and mirrors to focus and magnify the image.

These graphic devices play essential roles in various aspects of computer

graphics, including input, output, rendering, and display, enabling users to
create, manipulate, and interact with digital images and visual content.