COMPRE FINAL FINAL REVIEWER
I. Multicultural Education of Indigenous People
Multicultural education can be defined as providing equal opportunities for all students to
learn regardless of their background: gender, social class, and ethnic, racial, or cultural
characteristics (Sherpa, 2019). In the Philippines, according to the International Work
Group for Indigenous Affairs (2024), the number of Indigenous People is estimated
between 10%-20% of the country's population which calls for the implementation of
multicultural education system.
In 2015, the Department of Education released DO 32, S. 2015 entitled Adopting the
Indigenous Peoples Education Curriculum Framework in pursuant to DepEd Order No.
62, s. 2011 entitled Adopting the National Indigenous Peoples Education (IPEd) Policy
Framework.
The IPEd Program aims to support the curriculum contextualization of Enhanced Basic
Education, mandated by Republic Act No. 10533, more popularly known as the “K to 12
Law”, promoting indigenous knowledge and cultural heritage and ensuring DepEd
schools engage with IP communities.
Throughout the years, DepEd has conducted many seminars and trainings to ensure the
proper implementation of the National Indigenous Peoples (IP) Education Policy
Framework and to ensure that the school heads and teachers are equipped to teach and
be aware of Indigenous knowledge and fundamental cultural aspects.
However, according to the study conducted by Rojean M. Balaba entitled Social Impact
of Multicultural Education on Indigenous Secondary Learners of CARAGA Region
(2023), results have shown strength and weaknesses of multicultural education.
Multicultural education significantly influenced indigenous learners' attitudes, beliefs, and
practices, enhancing self-knowledge, self-development, appreciation, respect, and
communication skills by fostering friendships with non-indigenous learners. But the
students face difficulties in school, including poverty, bullying, and limited cultural
activities, with Higaonon, Manobo, and Mamanwa learners claiming no cultural-related
activities were conducted or limited only to MAPEH.
The study suggests promoting cultural awareness, contextualized and localized lesson
plans in education for Indigenous (IP) learners. School administrators should monitor
performance, encourage parental involvement, and focus on building cultural identity
and promoting education, training and vocational pathways. Curriculum planners should
enhance curricula by incorporating multicultural concepts in classroom instruction.
The government is actively addressing the diverse needs of learners in the Philippines,
paving the way for a successful multicultural education system.
II. Factors in learning a language vis-a-vis K12
The Philippines has implemented the K to 12 Education Curriculum, which incorporates
Mother-Tongue Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE), shifting schools' language of
instruction from English and Filipino to students' local mother tongue.
The MTB-MLE approach emphasizes that academic competence requires a strong
native language (L1) grasp, starting from the learner's existing knowledge: from
kindergarten to Grade 3, gradually introducing Filipino and English as primary
languages until the Secondary level. Valerio (2016) stated that Mother Tongue
instruction fosters natural teacher-student interaction, cognitive and linguistic
development, and literacy skills, enabling learners to use different languages,
specifically English for success and lifelong learning.
Generally, the goal of the English Curriculum is to develop the learners’ communicative
and literary competence in addition to the macro-language skills of listening, speaking,
reading and writing and viewing.
The language learning process of the Department of Education (DepEd) is anchored to
a belief that for effective language acquisition and learning to take place, language
teachers must be guided by six language teaching principles: Spiral Progression,
Interaction, Integration, Learner-Centeredness, Contextualization, and Construction.
These principles guide language teaching, allowing students to progress from
foundational to higher levels of language use.
This may seem effective, but a gradual deterioration can be observed based on the
English Proficiency Index over the past years. From 14th place in 2018 to 20th in 2019,
the Philippines’ ranking dropped to 27th in 2020. Though in 2021, the Philippines
climbed up to rank 18, but slipped four notches down to 22nd place in 2022. The
country's EPI score of 578 falls under the category of "high proficiency," considered to
be enough for tasks like making work presentations, understanding TV shows and
reading newspapers. Rahman et al. (2019) highlights various aspects including
language education policies, curriculum implementation, teaching methods, materials,
assessment, and teacher professional development, preclude the improvement of
language teaching and learning situations.
Moreover, there are different factors that affect language acquisition.
Social and academic readiness Cherciov (2013), Hoglund and Leadbeater (2004)
suggest that factors such as poverty, socioeconomic status, home life, classroom
ecology, and attitudes towards L1 and L2 influence students' learning attitudes and
achievement levels.
Positive Learning Environment: Creating a comfortable learning environment for
students is crucial for promoting English language development, academic success,
and develops a positive self-identity.
Promotion and Support of the Home Language: Incorporating the home language in
the student’s learning can support the development of English language proficiency.
It can also promote the student’s confidence and self-identity and the valuing of their
home culture and language.
Teachers should tailor instructional strategies to individual English language learners,
providing resources with reading or listening-comprehension levels, providing
feedback, focusing on vocabulary development, encouraging peer interaction, and
promoting the use of learning strategies, including language-learning strategies.
Student Characteristics and Traits: The age of exposure to a new language, attitude
towards English, motivation, cultural background, and personality all influence a
student's language acquisition. Cultural background influences preferred learning
methods and classroom interactions. Some students focus on grammatical
accuracy, while others focus more on being understood.
Furthermore, Valerio (2016) suggests that effective language proficiency and English
language development involve providing practical applications and personal
experiences, while fostering a comfortable, participatory learning environment. Similarly,
Hindman and Wasik (2015) indicates that the exposure to a specific language
significantly impacts its growth and development.
English teachers play a crucial role in providing essential literacy skills, but effective
learning requires teamwork among all English-medium instruction teachers. Gouthro
(2003) emphasizes the significance of skilled teachers who possess adaptable
techniques, comprehend curriculum literacy requirements, and respect each learner's
interests and abilities.
As the students learn the second language, Goswami (2010) mentioned that students
can use opportunities to practice English outside classrooms, which can enhance the
students’ English proficiency. Likewise, Goldin (2021) stated that cconversational
language skills are acquired rather quickly while academic language takes several
years to learn and master.
Silverman and Hines (2009) found that augmentation: read-aloud with multi-dimensional
multimedia presentational techniques may be effective because "complementing the
traditional storybook reading format, in which children hear a book read aloud and see
the static pictures in the book, with a multimedia presentation that reinforces the
meaning of the text may benefit children learning a second language" (p. 305)
In order to effectively implement recommendations, teachers need to be adequately
prepared. Increased quality teacher preparation programs and professional
development opportunities, including obtaining qualifications in English medium of
instruction like Master's degree, teaching methods, and presentational skills, can
improve English proficiency among learners.
III. Ambiguity of phrases/clauses/sentences
A word, phrase, or sentence is ambiguous if it has more than one meaning.
Three kinds of Ambiguity
Lexical ambiguity arises when one word can mean several things: meet me by the
First National bank or meet me by the river bank, since bank can refer either to a
place to keep money or to the earth immediately adjacent to a river
Constructional (structural) occurs when a word can modify more than one other word.
Thus, the old men and women left can mean either the old people left (but the
young ones stayed) or the old men and all the women left (but the young men
stayed). In the first instance, old is interpreted as modifiying men and women: in the
second, it modifies only men.
Derivational ambiguity, the shooting of the soldiers was terrible can mean either that
the soldier were terrible marksmen, or that it is terrible that the soldiers were shot.
Here the ambiguity arises not form a word having two or more meanings, or from of
the soldiers modifying or not modifying shooting (which it does in either case), but
from something else, something the writer will analyze in some detail below.
Ambiguity- having An expression is ambiguous because
two or more distinct it has more than more than one
meanings possible constituent structure.
(Structural Ambiguity- very
common)
Larry raises can mean
miniature badgers ‘miniature badgers Miniature badgers and raccoons
and raccoons. and miniatures
raccoons’ Badgers and raccoons forms a
or constituent: adjective miniature
applies to both the badgers and the
raccoons.
‘miniature badgers
and raccoons (of any Miniature badgers and raccoons
size)
miniature badgers form a constituent:
only the badgers are miniature
We need more can mean
intelligent leaders ‘a greater quantity of
intelligent leaders’ More intelligent leaders
or
intelligent leaders is constituent for
this reason: represents the
interpretation a greater quantity of
intelligent leaders.
‘leaders who are
more intelligent’ More intelligent leaders
more intelligent form a constituent:
represents the meaning leaders “who
are more intelligent”
A sentence containing a word with
more than one meaning is said to be
lexically ambiguous
The cranes were crane can refer either both meanings are represented with
transported by boat to a kind bird or to a the same constituent structure.
to Minneapolis. large construction
device
Two kinds of Ambiguity: Polysemy and Homonym
Polysemy refers to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings, in other
words, it is one form several meanings. \
Homonymy is the relation between two or more expressions which have the same form
but different meanings. In other words, it is two lexical items which happen to have the
same phonological form.
Example: “a bird flew into the bank”. This sentence is lexically, ambiguous because of
the word ‘bank’ can either mean “institution for the custody of money” and “raised body
of earth or river bank”.
Ambiguity arises when a single word or string of words is associated in the language
system with more than one meaning.
a) You should have seen the bull we got from the people
- papal communication / male cow /nonsense
Example below shows a simple kind of structural, or syntactic ambiguity
b) Competent women and men hold all the good jobs in the firm
- the men holding the good jobs are competent /the women and the men holding the
good jobs are competent.
Example below shows lexical ambiguity
c) Mary claims that Jhon saw her duck.
- The duck (bird) belonging / lower her head.
Example below illustrates scope ambiguity
d) Someone loves everyone.
- can be interpreted that “some lover to each person (there is always the person’s
mother) or as saying that someone is a universal lover (perhaps a divinity). The
ambiguity here arises from the relation between someone and everyone.
Structural ambiguity
I saw someone with a telescope.
This has two possible interpretations:
I was using a telescope, and I saw someone. (PP/ prepositional phrase
modifies VP/ verb phrase)
In the first interpretation, the prepositional phrase [PP with a telescope]
modifies the verb phrase headed by saw
I saw someone, and that person had a telescope. (PP modifies NP/ noun
phrase).
In the second interpretation, the same prepositional phrase modifies the noun
phrase someone.
The same will be true for other cases of structural ambiguity—each meaning will
correspond to a different potential tree structure.
Importance of studying linguistic meaning, and how what we are learning about
meaning in this textbook might have an impact on our lives. One immediate way in
which linguistic meaning has an impact on our lives is how meaning affects the law.
This can range from how a legal contract is to be interpreted to how statements are to
be interpreted in court. The momentary confusion is likely not harmful in everyday
conversations. In a legal context however, how something is to be interpreted can be
life-changing, so an informed understanding of types of linguistic meaning and possible
sources of ambiguity is critical.
Syntax- branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of structure and formation
of sentences. Explains how words and phrases are arranged to form correct sentences.
Example of tree diagram.
Insert some from notebook
lexical ambiguity- arises when one word can mean several things
meet me by the First National bank or meet me by the river bank,
since bank can refer either to a place to keep money or to the earth immediately adjacent to
a river.
constructional (structural) ambiguity- occurs when a word can modify more than one other
word.
the old men and women left.
can mean either the old people left (but the young ones stayed) or the old men and all the
women left (but the young men stayed). In the first instance, old is interpreted as modifiying
men and women: in the second, it modifies only men.
derivational ambiguity- precise meaning will become clearer shortly.
the shooting of the soldiers was terrible
can mean either that the soldier were terrible marksmen, or that it is terrible that the soldiers
were shot. Here the ambiguity arises not form a word having two or more meanings, or from
of the soldiers modifying or not modifying shooting (which it does in either case)
Types of lexical ambiguity
There are a lot of lexical ambiguity, the ones that are explored in this paper only include:
1. They went to the bank (O’ Grady et al. 1997 : 44)
The word ‘bank’ in the sentence has two possible meanings, the edge of a river, or a
financial institution. From the sentence it self, it is diffcult to get the meaning of ‘bank’. It
needs a context to clear up the message conveyed. In other words, the sentence is
ambiguous due to lacking of information. It can be disambiguated by providing
additional information as in. ‘They went to the bank to save some money’.
2. I saw her duck (Finegan, Edward 2008: 174)
The word duck here, can be interpreted into two ways, duck may refer to ‘the act of
bending over quickly (while walking through a low door way) or it may be a noun
refering to a type of waterfowl..
3. Eric is a drawing a cart (Adi Sutrisno Wagiman 2008 : 60)
The word drawing, can also be interpreted into two ways: (1). Making a picture of a cart,
or (2). Pulling a cart.
4. I found the table fascinating (Crystal, David 1983 : 24)
5. I’ll meet you by the bank (Fromkin and Roodman 1998: 164)
6. I saw ally on my way to school (Richard, Platt, and Weber 1985 : 11)
7. The old matron fed her dog biscuits (Jacob and Rosenbaun 1968 : 9)
Structural (constructional ambiguity)
1. Abnormal psychology professor (Frank 1986: 62). This phrase can be interpreted into
two ways :
(a). Professor of abnormal psychology
(b). Psychology professor who is abnormal
2. Red oak table. This phrase can be interpreted into two ways :
(a). Table made of red oak
(b). Oak table painted red
3. Big truck Driver. This phrase can be interpreted in to two ways :
(a). One who drives big trucks
(b). Truck driver who is big
4. Second language teacher. This phrase can be interpreted into two ways : _
(a). Teacher of a second language
(b). An additional teacher of language
5. American history teacher (Frank, Parker 1986 : 62)
6. The lamb is too hot to eat (Richard, Platt, and Weber 1985: 11)
7. New houses and shops (Crystal, David, 1980 : 23). This phrase can be interpreted
into two ways :
(a). New (houses and shops) both are new
(b). (New houses) and shops the houses are new.
8. The English king (Hornstein and Lightfoot 1981 : 46)
9. I saw a neck on my way home (Lyons, John 1981 : 147)
10. Nicole saw the people with binoculars (0, Grady et al. 1997: 260)
The sentence can be grasped in two ways. One interpretation is that Nicole used
binoculars to see the people. In this sense, binoculars modify Nicole (Nicole with
binoculars). The other meaning, the people had binoculars when Nicole saw them. It
means that ‘binoculars’ modifies the people (people with binoculars).
Derivational Ambiguty
1. The shooting of the snipers was terrible. This sentence can be interpreted into two
ways:
(a). The snipers shooting were terrible. or
(b). It is terrible that the snipers were shot.
2. The shooting of the hunters that can mean either
(a). The hunters shot something ( taking hunters as the subject)
(b). Someone shot the hunters or (the hunters were shot) (taking hunters as the objeet)
3. Starving children can be dangerous (Koutsoudas, Andreas 1966 : 3) ,
4. I dislike visiting relatives (Huiddeston, Rodney 1976: 132) ,
5. Visiting Great aunts can be a nuisance (Aitchison, Jean 1978 : 83)
IV. Multicultural education in a sociopolitical context
Multicultural education in sociopolitical context involves understanding laws, regulations,
and practices that intersect social and political life, aiming to reduce inequalities,
enhance student achievement, and prepare them for democratic society.
Education's primary purpose is to prepare students to prepare students to become
productive members of society, classroom practices must reflect the characteristics of
the larger social and political community.
In the Philippines, schools use student governments to teach students democratic
principles through debates, elections, and representation in educational decision-
making, emphasizing the importance of engaging in political process. The Department
of Education has organized trainings and workshops to enhance student leadership
competence, enabling them to transition from daily activities to becoming young
leaders.
School policies and practices are reflected by the ideological perspectives and
worldviews of the sociopolitical context. Schools in democratic societies often have
democratic student government organizations reflecting the larger society's political
organization, educational policies and practices may reflect societal beliefs (Cozart, et.
al. 2017)
Nieto and Bode (2012) identified four key terms that are central to understanding
sociopolitical context surrounding multicultural education. These terms include: equal
and equitable education, the ‘achievement gap’, deficit theories, and social justice.
The terms equal and equitable are often used interchangeably, but they have different
meanings. Educators should prioritize creating equitable educational experiences over
providing equal education to all students. An equal education ensures equal resources
and opportunities for all students, regardless of their background, but this doesn't
guarantee equal achievement.
For example, an equal education for English Language Learners (ELL) and native
English speakers would involve equal access to educational experiences and materials,
but this would not be equitable as ELL would not be able to comprehend lectures,
books, or assessments, and would therefore not be given the real possibility of
achieving at an equal level, which is the aim of an equitable education. Equity is the
educational process that ensures students receive the necessary support to achieve
equality (Nieto & Bode, 2012). In the case of the ELL example, an equitable education
would provide additional resources and programs to ensure that they are welcome into
the classroom community and are given the opportunity to learn and succeed equally.
A second key term that is crucial in understanding multicultural education is the
‘achievement gap’. Marginalized students, often in schools with limited resources,
opportunities, and lowered expectations, often perform less academically than their
peers (Nieto & Bode, 2012).
The third term ‘deficit theories’ refer to the assumption that some students perform
worse than others in educational settings due to genetic, cultural, linguistic, or
experiential differences that prevent them from learning. Much like the ‘achievement
gap’, deficit theories place the burden of academic underachievement on students and
their families, rather than considering how the social and institutional contexts might
impact student learning.
The fourth and final term that is central to understanding the sociopolitical context of
multicultural education is social justice. Social justice is a crucial term in multicultural
education, aiming to improve the quality of life for all individuals and communities by
addressing inequalities through critical thinking and activism, particularly in underserved
communities. Social justice initiatives in multicultural education should leverage
students' talents and strengths, incorporating their experiences into curriculum content.
This empowers students to excel academically and strengthens their community.
