GENERAL CHEMISTRY II

LESSON 1  These forces are stronger than van der Waals

INTRODUCTION forces.
Solids and liquids are two of the three states of HYDROGEN BONDS
matter. In this presentation, we will explore the  are a special type of dipole-dipole force that
kinetic molecular model to better understand the occurs when hydrogen is covalently bonded to a
behavior of particles in these states. Join us as we highly electronegative atom such as oxygen,
delve into the hidden world of solids and liquids. nitrogen, or fluorine.
THE KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL  These bonds are responsible for many important
 explains the behavior of particles in solids and biological processes.
liquids. In this model, particles are in constant ION- DIPOLE FORCE
motion and are attracted to one another.  Ion and a nearby polar molecule attract each
 solids particles are tightly packed and vibrate in other
place  An ion dipole result
 liquids particles are close together but can cation- dipole attraction
move past one another.
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
 have a definite shape and volume due to the anion- dipole attraction
strong intermolecular forces between particles.
They are also relatively incompressible.
 The arrangement of particles in a solid can be LONDON DISPERSION FORCE
crystalline or amorphous.  Intermolecular force of attraction that exist
 Examples of solids include ice, diamond, and between all atoms and molecules.
wood.  Only forces acting in non-polar molecules
PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS  Weakest among the forces
 have a definite volume but take the shape of  The larger the dipole, the stronger the
their container due to weaker intermolecular attraction
forces. They are also relatively incompressible. EXAMPLES:
 The arrangement of particles in a liquid is SO2 (Sulfur dioxide)
amorphous.  Polar, dipole- dipole
 Examples of liquids include water, oil, and N2 (Nitrogen Gas)
mercury.  Non polar, London dispersion
PHASE CHANGES HF (Hydrogen Fluoride)
 occur when energy is added or removed from a  Polar, hydrogen bonds
substance. NaCl + H20
 Melting is the change from solid to liquid.  Polar, ion dipole
 Vaporization is the change from liquid to gas POLAR Unequal distribution of
 Sublimation is the change from solid to gas. electron.
 In the reverse direction, freezing, condensation, NON – POLAR Equal distribution of
and deposition occur, respectively. electron
LESSON 2 IONIC Metal and non-metal
THE INVISIBLE BONDS: AN EXPLORATION OF COVALENT Non metal – non- metal
INTERMOLECULARFORCES OF ATTRACTION METALLIC Metal – metal
INTRODUCTION ELECTRONEGATIVITY Ability of atom to attract
electron towards itself.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
LESSON 3
 are the attractive and repulsive forces between
PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
molecules that influence their physical and
 Can be attributed
chemical properties.
SURFACE TENSION
 Understanding these forces is essential to
 Tendency of fluid to acquire the least possible
comprehend many natural phenomena.
surface area
TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
 Water strider to walk over water because of
VAN DER WAALS FORCES
surface tension.
 are the result of temporary fluctuation in electron
COHESION
density around an atom, causing a temporary
 Attraction between like molecules
dipole.
ADHESION
 These temporary dipoles can induce similar
 Attraction between unlike molecules
dipoles in neighboring atoms, leading to an
attractive force.
DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
CAPILLARY ACTION
 Dipole-dipole forces occur between polar
when liquid flows through narrow spaces without
molecules, where the positive end of one
external forces, such as gravity; rather, the liquid’s
molecule
movement is aided by intermolecular forces present
 is attracted to the negative end of another
in between the liquid and solid surface(s).
molecule.
 Concave menisus
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY II

Adhesive > cohesive MISCIBLE LIQUIDS

 Convex menisus  If 2 liquids dissolve or mix together
Adhesive<cohesive IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS
VISCOSITY  If 2 liquids do not dissolve or mix together
 Measure of a fluid resistance to flow HYDROPHILIC
 Liquid that flow easily (low viscosity)  Substances or molecules that form interactions
 Liquid that do nit flow easily (high viscosity) with wáter
 Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces  Dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding are
have greater resistance to flow the primary IMFA in hydrophilic substances
VAPOR PRESSURE HYDROPHOBIC
 Pressure exerted by its emper when in  Substances or molecules that repel wáter
equilibrium with its liquid or solid  London dispersion forces are the primary IMFA in
 Pressure = F/A these substances.
BOILING POINT AMPHIPATHIC MOLECULES
 Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature of  Molecules with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
which its emper pressure is equal to the external regions.
or atmospheric pressure.  Soap and detergent molecules have hydrophilic
 Boiling point is affected by IMFA heads and hydrophobic tails
 The greater the IMFA the higher the energy  The stronger the intermolecular forces between
needed to increase the kinetic energy of the the solvent molecule and the solute molecule,
molecules to break this forces. the greater the solubility.
MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION BOILING POINT
 Amount of heat required to vaporize 1 mol of a  is the temperature at which a substance changes
substance at its boiling point. from liquid to gas.
ENTHALPY OF VAPORIZATION  happens when the molecules of a liquid gain
VAPORIZATION enough energy to overcome the intermolecular
 the process where a fraction of the kinetic energy forces of attraction that hold the molecules
of a liquid escapes from the surface to enter the together.
vapor phase.  Stronger intermolecular forces mean a greater
ENTHALPY OF VAPORIZATION (∆Hvap), amount of energy is needed to break the
 called the heat of vaporization, is the heat attractive forces between molecules.
required to induce this phase change.  Hydrogen bonding makes the boiling point of
Vaporization occurs more readily with: water significantly higher than similar binary
 increased emperatura as more molecules have compounds of hydrogen and a Group 6A element.
sufficient kinetic energy to overcome Compound Boiling Point (°C)
intermolecular forces of attraction in the liquid.
 increased surface area of the liquid since a H2O 100
greater proportion of the liquid molecules are at H2S -61
the surface.
H2Se -41
 decreased strength of intermolecular forces
as the kinetic energy needed to overcome H2Te -2.2
intermolecular forces of attraction is less, and LESSON 4
more molecules have enough energy to escape. ENERGY CHANGES ACCOMPANYING PHASE
 The enthalpy of vaporization is the quantity of CHANGES
heat that must be absorbed if a certain quantity PHASE
of liquid is vaporized at a constant temperature  defined as a homogeneous state in which the
ΔHvap ¿ 0 substance has a uniform composition and
governed by the same intermolecular forces
VAPOR PRESSURE throughout the material.
 the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium  are accompanied by a change that occurs as a
with its liquid phase in a closed system result of energy interactions and the
 Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces intermolecular forces in the substance itself.
have less tendency to escape into gas, and thus, MOLECULAR ORDER IN PHASE CHANGES
have lower vapor pressure compared to those  there is a decrease in molecular order if the
with weaker IMFA. transition is MORE CONDENSED STATE TO LESS
SOLUBILITY CONDENSED STATE
 The ability of a substance to dissolve in a given  the expected change in molecular order is LESS
amount of solvent at a specified temperature CONDENSED STATE TO MORE CONDENSED STATE
 Like dissolves like. When the solute and the ENDOTHERMIC
solvent both exhibit the same intermolecular  When molecular order decreases, this results in
forces of attraction, they form a solution. absorption of energy.
 Water and ethanol both are polar substances  When heat is absorbed, it is endothermic; heat
capable of exhibiting same IMFAs. When mixed enters the system.
together, they form a solution.  heat is added (+). Therefore, ΔH is positive (+).
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY II

EXOTHERMIC
 When molecular order increases, this results in ΔT is the
release of energy. change in
 When heat is released, it is exothermic; heat temperature
exits the system.
 heat is removed (-). Therefore, ΔH is negative (-).
 where q is the amount of heat energy in joule, m
ENERGY IN PHASE CHANGES
is the mass, c is the specific heat, ΔT is the
 The amount of heat energy transferred from the
change in temperature.
surroundings to the substance is a change in
In calculations involving purely phase changes under
enthalpy, represented by the symbol ΔH.
constant pressure, use the equation
 For an endothermic process, the change in
CONCEPT FORMULA DESCRIPTION
enthalpy is always positive.
 ΔH
Energy change q=n Δ H Use this formula
during phase q is the amount when the
 When ice melts, heat energy from the changes material
of heat,
environment causes the water molecules to undergoes
break free from the intermolecular forces that n is the number phase changes
hold it in the solid state. of moles, but its
 For an exothermic process. The change in temperature
enthalpy will always be negative. ΔH is the molar does not
enthalpy of the change.
 ΔH
 When water condenses on a leaf on a cold specific process
morning, intermolecular forces become stronger,
and the spaces between molecules become
where q is the amount of heat, n is the number of
closer. Heat is released to the environment.
moles, and ΔH is the molar enthalpy of the process.
SPECIFIC HEAT
LESSON 5
 The temperature of a substance is independent
SOLUTE, SOLVENT, SOLUTION
of the amount of material, since it is a measure
SOLUTION
of the average kinetic energy of each particle in
 a homogeneous mixture of two or more pure
the substance.
substances
 However, the amount of heat will depend on the
 consists of a solute and a solvent
quantity of material.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS
 The amount of heat needed to raise the
● phase of the solvent
temperature of a specific substance by one
● saturation
degree Celsius is defined as specific heat.
● concentration
 In the case of water, the specific heat for ice is
TYPES OF SOLUTION BASED ON THE SOLVENT
2.00 J/(g∙°C); for liquid it is 4.186 J/(g∙°C); and
PHASE
for water vapor it is 2.11 J/(g∙°C).
LIQUID SOLUTIONS
ENTHALPY AND PHASE CHANGES
 solutions where the solvent is a liquid
MELTING POINT
 most common type
 The temperature at which a substance melts
 solid-liquid solution, liquid-liquid solution, or a
 The amount of heat needed to melt a substance
gas-liquid solution
is called the heat of fusion or the enthalpy of
fusion symbolized by ΔHfus.
SOLUTE SOLVENT RESULT EXAMPLE
FREEZING POINT Solid Salt water
 The reverse process is freezing and the Liquid liquid liquid Ethanol
temperature where this occurs. gas coke
 The melting point and the freezing point of any SOLID SOLUTIONS
substance is the same. ● solutions where the solvent is solid
BOILING POINT ● solid-solid solution, liquid-solid solution, or a gas-
 The temperature at which liquid turns to gas solid solution
 The amount of heat needed to complete the ● e.g., H2 gas trapped in palladium metal
evaporation process is called the heat of SOLUTE SOLVENT RESULT EXAMPLE
vaporization or the enthalpy of vaporization, Solid Brass
symbolized by ΔHvap. Liquid solid solid Amalgam
gas Hydrogen
In calculations where no phase changes are involved gas in
and under constant pressure, use the equation palladium
CONCEPT FORMULA DESCRIPTION metal
Energy change q=mc Δ T Use this formula GASEOUS SOLUTIONS
without phase m is mass (in g when the  solutions where the solvent is gas
changes ) material  solid-gas solution, liquid-gas solution, or a gas-
c is specific undergoes gas solution
heat (in temperature  e.g., air
J/(g✕0C)) changes but not
phase changes. SOLUTE SOLVENT RESULT EXAMPLE
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY II

Solid Camphor in ● Temperature

N2 ● Pressure (or volume)
Liquid gas gas Water ● Mechanical changes
vapor in air SOLUTE – SOLVENT INTERACTIONS
gas air ● the nature of solute and solvent
TYPES OF SOLUTION BASED ON SATURATION ● “like dissolves like”
● classifying solutions based on the amount of ● solute and solvent molecules with the same
solute dissolved in a given amount of IMFAs are soluble to one another
solvent at a specific temperature ● stronger interaction between solute and solvent
● solubility at a specific temperature must be molecules with similar IMFAs → more soluble
considered
TYPES OF SOLUTION BASED ON THE SOLVENT ● Ionic solids are more soluble in polar
PHASE solvents than nonpolar solvents.
UNSATURATED SOLUTION o Ion-dipole interactions are stronger than
 The amount of solute is less than the solute’s ion-induced dipole interactions.
solubility at a given volume and temperature. ● Polar molecules are soluble in polar
SATURATED SOLUTION solvents.
 The amount of solute is equal to the solute’s ○ dipole-dipole interactions
solubility at a given volume and temperature. ● Nonpolar molecules are soluble in nonpolar
SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION solvents.
 the amount of solute is greater than the solute’s ○ LDFs
solubility at a given volume and temperature ● solubility → depends on the amount of solute
 done by dissolving a solute at a higher and solvent present in solution
temperature, and subsequently cooling it down TEMPERATURE
 unstable → agitation causes crystallization ● the most evident factor that affects solubility
 In unsaturated solutions, the amount of solute is ● Most solids are soluble at higher temperatures.
less than the solubility capacity of the solvent. ● the steeper the slope of the curve = the greater
In saturated solutions, the amount of solute is the effect of temperature on the solubility
equal to the solubility capacity of the solvent. In ● Solubility of gases decreases as temperature
supersaturated solutions, the amount of solute is increases.
greater than the solubility capacity of the PRESSURE OR VOLUME
solvent. ● does not significantly affect the solubility of solids
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS BASED ON and liquids
CONCENTRATION ● greatly affects the solubility of gases
CONCENTRATED SOLUTION ○ increasing the pressure increases the
● when a solution contains an excessively large amount of dissolved gas in solution
amount of solute HENRY’S LAW
● most common unit of concentration: molarity ● The relationship between pressure of the gas
(M) over the solution and solubility of the gas
● molarities > 1 M ● The solubility of gases increases with pressure.
● used as stock solutions in preparing diluted
solution
Cgas=k H P
● concentrated sulfuric acid = 18 M cgas = concentration of gas (M)
● glacial (concentrated) acetic acid = 17 M P= pressure of gas (atm)
DILLUTED SOLUTION kH = Henry’s constant at a specific gas-solvent
● solution of low concentration combination and temperature (M/atm)
● prepared through the process of dilution MECHANICAL CHANGES
1. taking an aliquot (portion of the STIRRING
stock solution) ● improves dissolution
2. adding more solvent to lower the ● adds heat to the solution
concentration ● increases the probability of contact between solid
solute particles and solvent particles
LESSON 6 INCREASE IN SURFACE AREA
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY ● improves dissolution
● The amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) increases ● e.g., granules are more soluble than blocks.
as the temperature lowers.
SOLUTION FORMATION
● dynamic equilibrium between two opposing
processes—dissolution and crystallization
) X (S)↔ X (aq)
● forward reaction: dissolution process
● reverse reaction: crystallization process
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY
● Nature of solute and solvent
GENERAL CHEMISTRY II