INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES — PERSONALITY AND ABILITY Outline *Overview *The Nature of Personality *The Big Five Model of Personality *Other Organizationally Relevant Personality Traits *The Nature of Ability *The Management of Ability in OrganizationsLEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Understand the nature of personality and how it is determined by both nature and nurture. Describe the Big Five Personality triats and their implications for understanding behaviour in organizations. Appreciate the ways in which other personality traits influence employees’ behaviours in organizations. Describe the different kinds of abilities that employees use to perform their jobs.INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: The ways in which people differ from each other THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY Personality * The pattern of relatively enduring ways that a person feels, thinks, and behaves. Determinants of Personality: Nature and Nurture * Nature: Biological heritage, genetic makeup * Nurture: Life experiences Personality and the Situation ieee aes poe) on ain Fig. Nature and Nurture: Determinants of PersonalityDefinition of Personality? ™Personality refers to the relatively enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another and that lead people to act ina consistent and predictable manner, both in different situations and over extended periods of time. "Personality is defined as: the enduring or lasting patterns of behavior and thought (across time and situation).Types of Personality Two types of Personality: 1. Type A: refers to behaviour that is restless, impatient, achievement oriented, perfectionist 2. Type B: refers to behaviour that is relaxed, sociable with a balanced view towards lifePero Bind ei Behaviour Situational factors Personality Fig. The interaction of Personality and Situational factorsPersonality: A Determinant of the Nature of Organizations * Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) FrameworkTHE BIG FIVE MODEL OF PERSONALITY In 1990, Digman extracted five basic traits, known as Big Five model of Personality traits. Cees The Big Five dimenstions | Extraversion of Personality DEC Jeii) | Conscientious to veut Specific Anviety Trust Traits Positive emotions Sof Straightforwardn Competence Fantasy Related to | Sregariousness consciousness ess Order Actions Warmth Tender- Self-discipline Ideas The Big Five Vulnerability mindedness Fig: The Hierarchical Organisation of PersonalityExtraversion: * Also called positive affectivity * The tendency to have a positive outlook on life * Extraversion is a personality trait that predisposes individuals to experience positive emotional states and feel good about themselves and about the world around them. Tend to be sociable *Less likely to experience positive emotional “Affectionate states friendly Have fewer social interactionsNeutoricism (Negative Affectivity) * The tendency to experience negative emotional states and view oneself and the world around one negatively Negative emotions & moods —_*Do not experience negative *Stress over time & situations emotions *Negative orientation towards *Not as critical & pessimistic work *More criticalAgreeableness * The tendency to get along well with others High on Agreeableness ee Likability Ability to care for others Affectionare Antagoinistic Mistrustful Uneympathetic Uncooperative rudeConscientiousness * The extent to which a person is careful, scrupulous, and persevering alee ee alee ey ee Reel uy “Organized *Lack direction *Lot of self-discipline *Lack self-disciplineOpenness to Experience * The extent to which a person is original, has broad interests, and is willing to take risks ae ek Low on openness to Cau gras “Original *Narrow minded Open to a wide variety of “cautious stimuli Has broad interests Willing to take risksFig: A Measure of Extraversion of Positive Affectivity Instructions: Listed below is a series of statements a person might use to describe her or his attitudes, opinions, interests, and other characteristics. If a statement is true or largely true, put a“T” in the space next to the item. If the statement is false or largely false, mark an “F” in the space. Please answer every statement, even if you are not completely sure of the answer. Read each statement carefully, but don’t spend too much time deciding on the answer 1. Itis easy for me to become enthusiastic about things | am doing 2. often feel happy and satisfied for no particular reason. . 3. I live a very interesting life 4, Every day | do somethings that are fun | usually find ways to liven up my day . Most days | have moments of real fun or joy . often feel sort of lucky for no special reason . Every day interesting and exciting things happen to me Conan . In my spare time | usually find something interesting to do . 10. For me, life is a great adventure . 11. | always seem to have something pleasant to look forward to.Scoring: Level of extraversion * Level of extraversion or positive affectivity is equal to the number of items answered “True”A Measure of Neuroticism or Negative Affectivity Instructions: Listed below is a series of statements a person might use to describe her or his attitudes, opinions, interests, and other charactistics. If a statement is true or largely true, put a “T” in the space next to the item. If the statement is false or largely false, mark an “P” in the space. Please answer every statement, even if you are not completely sure of the answer. Read each statement carefully, but don’t spend too much time deciding on the answer. . 1. | often find myself worrying about something : 2. My feelings are hurt rather easily . 3. Often | get irritated at little annoyances . 4. | suffer from nervousness . 5. My mood often goes up and down . 6. | sometimes feel “just miserable” for no good reason . 7. Often | experience strong smotions — anxiety, anger — without really knowing what causes them . 8. | am easily startled by things that happen unexpectedly . 9. I sometimes get myself into a state of tension and turmoil as | think of the day’s events : 10. Minor setbacks sometimes irritate me too much : 11. | often lose sleep over my worries : 12. There are days when I'm “on edge” all of the time . 13. | am too sensitive for my own good . 14. | sometimes change from happy to sad, or vice versa, without good reasonScoring: Level of neuroticism Level of neuroticism or negative affectivity is equal to the number of items answered “True”Measure of Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience Listed below are phrases describing people’s behaviours. Please use the rating scale below to describe how accurately each statement describes you. Describe yourself as you generally are now, not s you wish to be in the future. Describe yourself as you honestly see yourself, in relation to other people you know of the same gender as you are, and roughly your same age. 1 2 3 4 5 Very inaccurate moderately inaccurate neither inaccurate moderately accurate very accurate nor accurate + __ 1. Am interested in people 17.0 ften forget to put things back in their . 2. Have a rich vocabulary proper place.* . . Am always prepared 18. Do not have a good imagination.* . ‘Am not really interested in others.* ___19. Take time out for others . Leave my belongings around." 20. Like order. + _6. Have difficulty understanding abstract ideas.* _21. Am quick to understand things. . 7.Sympathize with others’ feelings 22. Feel little concern for others.* + __8 Payattention to details ___23. Shirt my duties. + __9, Have a vivid imagination ___24. Use difficult words + __10. Insult people." 25. Feel others’ emotions + __11. Make a mess of things.* ___26. Follow a schedule. + _42. Am not interested in abstract ideas.* ___27. Spend time reflecting on things + __13. Have a soft heart, 28. Make people feel at ease + __14. Get chores done right away. 29. Am exacting in my work . 15. Have excellent ideas. 30. Am full of ideas. . 16. Am not interested in other people's problems.*Scoring of Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience *ltems reverse scored 1=5;2=4; 4=2;5=1 Scoring: Sum responses to items for an overall scale Agreeableness = Sum of items 1,4,7,10,13,16,19,22,25,28 Conscientiousness = Sum of items 3,5,8,11,14,17,20,23,26,29 Openness to experience = Sum of items 2,6,9,12,15,18,21,24,27,30A Big Five Personality Profile Extraversion Agreeableness, Cons¢ientiousness Openness to-experienceBT Reyes Conscientiousness att Big Fi Personality Aico ca Agreeableness Res ael 8 eared el) iil LSC Col df)Personality Traits — In Brief Extraversion — Sociability Agreeableness — kindness Openness - creativity and intrigue Conscientiousness — thoughtfulness Neuroticism - sadness or emotional instability* Score high or low in each trait can give you insight into your own personality, also help you better understand others+ Traits are often split into two categories: 1. Positive personality traits 2. Negative personality traits. PeCs Meee A a lL NS eee A a TL * Adaptable + Aggressive + Ambitious + Arrogant * Considerate * Cold * Cooperative + Deceptive * Friendly * Egotistical * Gracious * Guarded * Humble + Intolerant * Insightful + Judgmental * Objective * Moody * Optimistic + Neglectful * Respectful * Pompous * Steady + Selfish * Thorough * Unreliable * Well-rounded * WithdrawnStudy found that most people do tend to fall into one of four main types based on the Big 5 traits. + Average (the most common type, characterized by high levels of extroversion and neuroticism and low levels of openness) + Self-centered (high in extroversion and low in conscientiousness, openness, and agreeableness) Reserved (low on extroversion, neuroticism, and openness, and high on conscientiousness and agreeableness) + Role models (high on every big 5 trait other than neuroticism) Source: Gerlach M, Farb B, Revelle W, Nunes Amaral LA. A robust data-driven approach identifies four personality types across four large data sets. Nat Hum Behav. 2018;2(10):735-742. 1. doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0419-zMyers-Briggs Personality Type + The Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator is a self-report inventory designed to identify a person's personality type, strengths, and preferences. The questionnaire was developed by Isabel Myers and her mother Katherine Briggs based on their work with Carl Jung's theory of personality types. Today, the MBTI inventory is one of the world's most widely used psychological instruments.+ Based on the answers to the questions on the inventory, people are identified as having one of 16 personality types. The goal of the MBTI is to allow respondents to further explore and understand their own personalities including their likes, dislikes, strengths, weaknesses, possible career preferences, and compatibility with other people.The questionnaire itself is made up of four different scales. + Extraversion (E) — Introversion (I) + Sensing (S) — Intuition (N) * Thinking (T) — Feeling (F) + Judging (J) — Perceiving (P)The Myers Briggs Types Each type is then listed by its four-letter code: + IST]~ ‘The Inspector: Reserved and practical, they tend to be loyal, orderly, and traditional. + ISTP - The Crafter: Highly independent, they enjoy new experiences that provide first-hand learning. + ISE]-The Protector: Warm-hearted and dedicated, they are always ready to protect the people they care about. + ISEP - The Artist: Easy-going and flexible, they tend to be reserved and artistic. + INEJ=The Advocate: Creative and analytical, they are considered one of the rarest Myers- Briggs types? + INEP - The Mediator: Idealistic with high values, they strive to make the world a better place. + INT The Architect: High logical, they are both very creative and analytical. inker: Quiet and introverted, they are known for having a rich inner world ESTP - The Persuader: Out-going and dramatic, they enjoy spending time with others and focusing on the here-and-now. + EST]-The Director: Assertive and rule-oriented, they have high principles and a tendency to take charge. + ESEP - The Performer: Outgoing and spontaneous, they enjoy taking center stage. + ESE ‘The Caregiver: Soft-hearted and outgoing, they tend to believe the best about other people. + ENEP - The Champion: Charismatic and energetic, they enjoy situations where they can put their creativity to work. + ENEJ- The Giver: Loyal and sensitive, they are known for being understanding and generous. + ENTP - The Debater: Highly inventive, they love being surrounded by ideas and tend to start many projects (but may struggle to finish them). + ENTJ- ‘The Commander: Outspoken and confident, they are great at making plans and organizing proiects.Other Organizationally Relevant Personality Traits Cree eure uur Deu ee ars ml Locus of Control 1 Relauehners ae eR aaa Need for Achievement NTC Rola Ut Ice) il Need for Power |Johari Window Model Known to self Not known to self Known . toothers] Openarea Blind spot Not known . a GaABILITY * The mental or physical capacity to do something * What a person is capable of doing Two basic types of ability affect performance: 1. Cognitive or Mental Ability 2. Physical AbilityCognitive Ability (General Intelligence) aoa eens Verbal PonsEmotional Intelligence (El) * Emotional Intelligence (El) refers to the ability to recognize, understand, manage, and effectively use one's own emotions and _ navigate interpersonal relationships empathetically. It involves a combination of self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness, and_ relationship management. The concept gained prominence through the work of psychologists Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer and was popularized by Daniel Goleman.Components of Emotional Intelligence: Self-Awareness: 4. Definition: Recognizing and understanding one’s own emotions. 2. Importance: Enables individualsto understand how emotions influence thoughts and behavior. Self-Regulation: 1. Definition: Managing and controlling one's emotions in various situations 2. Importance: Helps individuals stay calm under pressure, make thoughtful decisions, and avoie impulsive reactions. Motivation: 1. Definition: Being driven to achieve goals beyond external rewards 2. Importance: Fosters resilience, perseverance, and a commitment to personal and professional growth, Empathy: 4. Definition: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others. 2. Importance: Enhances interpersonal relationships, cooperation, and effective communication. Social Skills: 1. Definition: ttfe 2. Importance: Fac \vely managing relationships influencingothers, and resolving conflicts tates collaboration, teamwork, and positive socal interactionsSignificance of Emotional tcatentiottecwere, INtelligence: 1. Leaders with high El are often more effective in inspiring and motivating their teams, navigating conflicts, and fostering a positive organizational culture. Communication Skills: 1. Individuals with high El excel in effective communication, active listening, and understanding non-verbal cues. Team Collaboration: 1. El contributes to better collaboration within teams by promoting empathy, understanding, and a positive team environment. Conflict Resolution: 1. Individuals with strong El are adept at managing conflicts constructively, finding compromises, and ‘maintaining positive relationships. Adaptability: 1. El helps individuals navigate change, remain flexible, and adapt to new circumstances with a positive and constructive mindset. Stress Management: 1. High E enables incviuals to cope with stres effectively maintaining emotional balance and preventing urnout Customer Servic 1. In professions involving customer interactions, such as sales or customer support, Elis crucial for understanding and responding to customer needs empatheticallyDeveloping Emotional Intelligence: Self-Reflection: 1. Regularly reflect on emotions, triggers, and behavioral patterns. Active Listening: 1. Practice listening attentively to others, seeking to understand their perspectives and emotions. Empathy Exercises: 1. Put oneself in others’ shoes to understand their feelings and experiences. Mindfulness and Meditation: 1. Techniques such as mindfulness can enhance self-awareness and self-regulation. Feedback Seekin; 1. Solicit feedback from others to gain insights into how one's emotions and behaviors impact them. Continuous Learning: 1. Stay open to learning and adapting in various situations, embracing challenges as opportunities for growth.PERCEPTIONOutline * Overview * The Nature of Perception * Characteristics of the Perceiver * Characteristics of the Target and Situation * Biases and Problems in Person PerceptionLearning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: * Describe how perception is inherently subjective and how characteristics of the perceiver, the target, and the situation can influence perceptions. * Understand how the use of schemas can both aid and detract from accurate perceptions. * Be aware of biases that can influence person perception without perceivers being aware of their influences.Overview * Two people in an organization with the same qualifications are viewed differently. * people can view things differentlyThe Nature of Perception Perceptionis the process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses (vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste) to give meaning and order to the world around them. Perception has three components: 1. The perceiver 2. The target of perception 3. The situation Motivation and Performance Fairness and Equity Ethical ActionCharacteristics of the Perceiver EXHIBIT 4.2 Characteristics of the Perceiver That Affect Perception Schemas Motivational state Perception of a Perceiver target MoodSchemas: The Perceiver’s Knowledge Base * ARE SCHEMAS FUNCTIONAL? * STEREOTYPES: AN EXAMPLE OF A DYSFUNCTIONAL SCHEMA- Stereotypes based on highly visible characteristics, such as race, gender, nationality, or age, and we are aware of the damage they can doThe Perceiver’s Motivational State * The perceiver’s needs, values, and desires at the time of perception—influences his or her perception of the target. * Motivational states can result in inaccurate perceptions and faulty decision making. Suppose a manager does not get along with a hardworking, productive subordinateThe Perceiver’s Mood * How the perceiver feels at the time of perception—can also influence perception of the target.Characteristics of the Target and Situation EXHIBIT 4.3 Factors That Influence Perception Characteristics ofthe | Characteristics ofthe _| Characteristics of the ee irre Sra Schemas: The perceiver’s Ambiguity: A lack of Additional information: knowledge clearness or definiteness _ Situational information base that makes it difficult to that the perceiver uses to determine what a person, interpret the target place, or thing is really like Motivational state: The Social status: Aperson’s _Salience: The extent to perceiver’s needs, values, real or perceived position which a target stands out and desires at the time of in society or an among a group of people perception organization or things Mood: The perceiver’s _Use of impression feelings at the management: A person’s time of perception efforts to control others’ perceptions of him or herImpression Management by the Target EXHIBIT 4.4 Impression Management Tactics Behavioral The target of perception A subordinate tries to imitate her boss’s matching matches his or her behavior to. behavior by being modest and soft-spoken that of the perceiver. because her boss is modest and soft-spoken. Self-promotion _The target tries to present ‘An employee reminds his boss about his herself or himself in as positive past accomplishments and associates with a light as possible. coworkers who are evaluated highly. Conforming to The target follows agreed-upon An employee stays late every night even if situational norms __ rules for behavior in the she has completed all of her assignments, organization. because staying late is one of the norms of her organization. Appreciating or The target compliments the Acoworker compliments a manager on flattering others _ perceiver. This tactic works best _his excellent handling of a troublesome when flattery is not extreme employee. and when it involves a dimension important to the perceiver. Being consistent _The target's beliefs and A subordinate whose views on diversity behaviors are consistent. are well known flatters her boss for her There is agreement between _handling of a conflict between two coworkers of the different racial backgrounds. When speaking to target’s verbal and nonverbal__her boss, the target looks her boss straight in the behaviors. eye and has a sincere expression on her face.* Information Provided by the Situation * Standing Out in the Crowd: The Effects of Salience ina SituationBiases and Problems in Person Perception A bias is a systematic tendency to use or interpret information about a target in a way that results in inaccurate perceptions. ES Primacy The initial pieces of information a Interviewers decide in the first effects perceiver has about a target have few minutes of an interview an inordinately large effect on whether or not a job candidate the perceiver’s perception is a good prospect. and evaluation of the target. Contrast The perceiver’s perceptions of | Amanager’s perception of an effect others influence the perceiver’s average subordinate is likely to be perception of a target. lower if that subordinate is in a group with very high performers rather than in a group with very low performers.Similar-to-me effect Harshness, leniency, and average tendency Knowledge of predictor People perceive others similiar to themselves more positively than they perceive those who are dissimilar. Some perceivers tend to be overly harsh in their perceptions, some overly lenient. Others view most targets as about average. Knowing how a target stands on a predictor of performance influences perceptions of the target. Supervisors rate subordinates similar to them more positively than they deserve. When rating subordinates’ performances, some supervisors give almost everyone a poor rating, some give almost everyone a good rating, and others rate almost everyone as about average. A professor perceives a student more positively than she deserves because the professor knows the student had a high score on the SAT.How many legs does this elephant have?How many blocks do you see? It is really confusing!!!AmbiguousWORK GROUPS AND TEAMSIntroduction * Organizations don’t consist of individuals working alone. * Organizations use groups or teams because they can sometimes accomplish things that no one individual working alone. + Agroup if more than the sum of its parts. * Groups are the basic building blocks of an organization.Group — A set of two or more people who interact with each other to achieve certain goals or to meet certain needs. Group Goal: A goal that all or most members of a group can agree on as a common goal.Types of work groups -—— | oe | PT | Sas’ ite ee TES SSGROUP DEVELOPMENT Fig: Tuckman’s Five-Stage Model of Group Development | | | Forming Storming ——> Norming —~» Performing ——> Adjourning J J J Group members Groupsis in conflict, Groupmembers Group The group Ne to get 0 h members resist develop close members work disbands once its now each other i know each oth being controlled by ties, feelings of toward goals have been the group, and friendship and achieving their achieved common disagreements arise camaraderie goals. understanding. concerning abound and leadership in the group members group. share a common purpose.Stage | Stage II Forming Storming Stage III Stage IV Stage V Norming Performing AdjourningForming © Groups members try te set rules for group behaviors © Individuals start to find out about each other. © Guidance is needed from the leader. Characteristics of the Forming Stage: « Exploration. « Focus on similarities and differences. « First impressions are key. « Confusion/anxiety, « Lower productivity. « Issues of inclusion, leadership, developing trust. » Open communication is a must.Storming © A conflict stage where members bargain with each other. © Individuals reveal their personal goals and may resist the control of others. » Characteristics of the Storming Stage: « Competition. » Strained relationships, « Leader is challenged. » Tension and disunity. « Differences are uncomfortable. « Issues of autonomy vs. control, support vs. competition, influence, and decision-making,-Norming ° Group members are developing ways of working together. e They agree on the shared goals. ® Rules have been developed. Characteristics of the Norming Stage: « Increased cohesion. * More collaboration. « Emerging trust. « Appreciation of differences. « Issues of strengthening relationships, open communication, positive/constructive feedback.Performing ° The group has developed unity or cohesion. ° People are getting the job done to realize goals. Characteristics of the Performing Stage: ¢ Productivity. * Problem-solving. Shared and participative leadership. Full development of potential.Adjourning ° The group ends. © The group terminates because the task has been achieved or when the members have left due to failure or loss of interest. ° The feelings of members vary at this stage. © While some may be happy about the group's accomplishments, others may be depressed that they would be losing their friends after the group is disbanded.CHARACTERISTICS OF WORK GROUPS Group Size — Number of full-time members who work together to achieve the group’s goals. Group Composition — Characteristics of members of a group. Group Function — The work a group performs as its contribution to the accomplishment of organizational goals. Group Status — The implicitly agreed upon, perceived importance for the organization as a whole of what a group does. Group Efficacy — The shared belief group members have about the ability of the group to achieve its goals and objectives. Social Facilitation — The effects that the presence of others has on performance, enhancing the performance of easy tasks and impairing the performance of difficult tasks.Turning Groups Into Effective TeamsWhat Is a Tea ° Work team - formal group made up of interdependent individuals who are responsible for the attainment of a goal ¢ Work teams are popular in organizationsnats eb UeyTypes of Teams + Product development Seas * Problem solving rent utcst Ge caeranntacrereled Brea ert ett ish purposes desired SB ccuaettstaale ahve terrae tesn rll sot ts. Managing Teams Planning Organizing Leading Controlling