2023

COLOUR VISION MODEL

S AKASH
IMSC
B20
ROLL NO:15
8/8/2023
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INTRODUCTION
Colour vision is a remarkable and intricate physiological process that enables
humans and many other animals to perceive and differentiate between a wide
spectrum of colours in the world around them. Our ability to see and interpret
colours is a result of the complex interplay between our eyes, brain, and the
way light interacts with objects. At its core, colour vision is rooted in the
interaction between light and the specialized cells in our eyes known as
photoreceptors. pairs of lights that produce the same excitations in the long-,
middle- and short-wavelength-sensitive (L-, M-, and S-) cones match each other
exactly in [Link], this match survives changes in context and
changes in adaptation, provided that the changes are applied equally to both
lights. Crucially, however, while the match survives such manipulations, the
shared appearance of the lights does not. Substantial shifts in colour appearance
can be caused both by changes in context and by changes in chromatic
adaptation. The identity of lights matched in this way reflects univariance at the
cone photoreceptor level, whereas their changed
appearance reflects the complex activity of postreceptoral mechanisms acting
on the outputs of the cone photoreceptors. The figure given below shows
examples of how colour contrast and colour assimilation can affect the colour
appearance of pairs of lights that are physically identical.

Complex brain processing is involved in colour vision, which is more than just a
straightforward conversion of light wavelengths into colours. In order to
determine the hue of things in the surroundings, the brain analyses the signals
from the cones and conducts complex calculations. To offer a constant and
meaningful perception of colour, our brain also takes into account a number of
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contextual cues, such as the lighting and colours of the surroundings. This
incredible mechanism of colour vision allows us to experience the vibrant and
diverse world of colours, influencing everything from our aesthetic preferences
to our ability to identify objects and navigate our [Link] and
researchers continue to study the nuances of colour vision to gain deeper
insights into how our visual system perceives and interprets the rich tapestry of
colours that enrich our lives.

The Mechanistic Approach

The idea is to model colour vision as a series of stages that act on the responses
of the cones. Within the mechanistic approach, the central questions are: how
many stages are needed, what are the properties of the mechanisms at each
stage, and how are the mechanisms’ outputs linked to measured performance?
We focus on psychophysical (perceptual) data. Nonetheless, we are guided in
many instances by physiological and anatomical considerations. For reviews of
colour physiology and anatomy.
The distinction between colour encoded at the photoreceptors and colour
encoded by postreceptoral mechanisms was anticipated by two theories that
have dominated colour vision research since the late nineteenth century. First,
in the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory, colour vision is assumed to depend
on the univariant responses of the three fundamental colour mechanisms .
Colour vision is therefore trichromatic. Trichromacy allows us to predict which
mixtures of lights match, but it does not address how those matches appear, nor
the discriminability or similarity of stimuli that do not match.
Second, in Hering’s opponent colours theory, an early attempt was made to
explain some of the phenomenological aspects of colour appearance, and, in
particular, the observation that under normal viewing conditions some
combinations of colours, such as reddish-blue, reddish-yellow, and
greenishyellow, are perceived together, but others, such as reddish-green or
yellowish-blue, are [Link] proposed that colour appearance arises from the
action of three signed mechanisms that represent opposing sensations of red
versus green, blue versus yellow, and light versus dark.6,7 A consequence of this
idea is that opposing or opponent pairs of sensations are exclusive, since they
cannot both be simultaneously encoded. In this chapter, we will use the term
“colour appearance mechanisms” to refer to model-constructs designed to
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account for the appearance of stimuli, and in particular the opponent nature of
colour appearance.

Hue dectection
Isaac Newton discovered that white light, after being split into its component
colours when passed through a dispersive prism, could be recombined to make
white light by passing them thorough a different prism. The characteristic
colours are, from long to short wavelengths (and, correspondingly, from low to
high frequency), red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Sufficient
differences in wavelength cause a difference in the perceived hue; the just-
noticeable difference in wavelength varies from about 1 nm in the bluegreen
and yellow wavelengths, to 10 nm and more in the longer red and shorter blue
wavelengths. Although the human eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues,
when those pure spectral colours are mixed together or diluted with white light,
the number of distinguishable chromaticity can be quite high.
In very low light levels, vision is scotopic: light is detected by rod cells of the
retina. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm, and play little,
if any, role in colour vision. In brighter light, such as daylight, vision is photopic:
light is detected by cone cells which are responsible for colour vision. Cones are
sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near
555 nm. Between these regions, mesopic vision comes into play and both rods
and cones provide signals to the retinal ganglion cells. The shift in colour
perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the
Purkinje effect The perception of "white" is formed by the entire spectrum of
visible light, or by mixing colours of just a few wavelengths in animals with few
types of colour receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining
wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of complementary
colours such as blue and yellow. Now coming back to the theories lke
Trichromaticity which we will discuss in the upcoming sessions(Young-Helmholtz
theory) provides a foundational understanding of hue detection, it's important
to note that colour perception is a complex interplay of physiological,
neurological, and cognitive processes. Context, lighting conditions, and
adaptation also play significant roles in how we perceive and differentiate hues
in our environment
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like

Physiology of colour perception

Colour perception is a sophisticated process rooted in the physiology of the
visual system. Specialized cone photoreceptors in the retina detect different
wavelengths of light, particularly red, green, and blue, forming the basis for
trichromatic colour vision. As light interacts with these cones, neural signals
are red versus green. Further processing in the thalamus and visual cortex
refines colour information, enabling the brain to achieve colour constancy and
maintain colour perception consistency across varying environments. The
intricate interplay between neural pathways, opponent processing, and
cognitive influences ultimately grants us the remarkable ability to perceive and
distinguish the myriad colours that enrich our visual experiences.

Colour perception relies on the interaction between specialized cone

photoreceptors in the retina and neural processing in the brain. These cones,
responsive to red, green, and blue wavelengths, generate signals transmitted
to the brain via the optic nerve. Opponent processing mechanisms in the visual
system enhance colour contrasts, such as blue versus yellow, contributing to
colour discrimination. Higher brain regions like the visual cortex integrate and
analyze these signals, enabling colour constancy by adapting perceptions to
differing lighting conditions. While grounded in physiological processes, colour
perception is also influenced by cognitive factors, underscoring the intricate
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relationship between neural mechanisms and our conscious experience of the

vibrant and diverse world of colour’s.

THEORIES

I. Trichomatic theory

The human visual system samples the visible spectrum (roughly 400 to
700 nm) with a mosaic of three classes of photoreceptors, each sensitive
to different but broadly overlapping wavelength ranges. The receptors
have peak sensitivities to short (~440 nm), medium (~535 nm), or longer
(~565 nm) wavelengths, and are called S, M, and L cones, respectively .
The different spectral sensitivities are determined by the specific
photopigment molecule each contains. No individual receptor type can
differentiate between a change in wavelength and a change in intensity.
Although the probability that a given photon of light will be absorbed by
the photopigment depends on its wavelength, all subsequent events
within the receptor are independent of wavelength (known as the
principle of univariance). Thus wavelength information can be extracted
only by comparing the responses across different classes of receptors.

This theory was first suggested by Thomas Young and Hermann Von
Helmholtz. Thomas Young was the first to theorized three colour
receptors present in human eyes, each sensitive to a different wavelength
of light: short, medium, and long. Decades later, Hermann Von Helmholtz
set up a series of experiments to test the theory and found it was
accurate. He was better at identifying the wavelengths and proved that
having only one or two of three photoreceptors made it impossible to
match colours accurately. Accordingly, the theory is sometimes called the
Young Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory or the Young Helmholtz Theory. It
is recognized in multiple science disciplines, from anatomy and biology's
study of the body and its parts to psychology's understanding of how the
brain understands the inputs from our senses. The identification of the
three receptors responsible for colour vision did not occur until more than
70 years after the proposal of the theory of trichromatic vision.
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.The cone receptors differ in absorption amounts due to the amount of opsin
proteins in the receptor.

So, the trichromatic theory’s first principle is that there are three distinct cones
(each cone has a different kind of photopigment) in our retina, mainly
responsible for colour vision. These three different types function by absorbing
light with different wavelengths.

The second principle introduces the idea that we experience colour because we
see red, green, and blue (RGB) lights differently when they enter our eyes. For
example, when a red light enters our eye, it stimulates only red-sensitive cones,
not other cones. When a green light enters our eyes, it stimulates only the
green-sensitive cones and not other cones. When a blue light enters our eyes, it
stimulates only the blue-sensitive cones and not other cones.

The third principle is that all colours can be matched by mixing red, green, and
blue lights. For example, yellow can be matched by mixing red and green lights
in appropriate amounts; magenta can be matched by mixing red and blue lights
in appropriate amounts; cyan can be matched by mixing green and blue lights.

Researchers discovered that cone pigments have different levels of

absorption. Cones are receptors located in the retina, and they are
responsible for the vision of both colour and detail.

II. Opponent process theory

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The opponent colour process works through a process of excitatory and

inhibitory responses, with the two components of each mechanism opposing
each other. For example, red creates a positive (or excitatory) response in a
cell, while green creates a negative (or inhibitory) response. When this cell is
activated, it tells the brain that you are seeing red. Meanwhile, there is an
opponent cell that gets a positive response to green wavelengths of light and
an inhibitory response to red.

According to opponent process theory, staring at the red image for 30 to 60

seconds caused the white and red opponent cells to become "fatigued"
(meaning they started sending weaker signals to save energy).

When you shift your focus to a blank surface, those cells no longer have the
stimuli telling them to fire. When the white and red receptor cells briefly de-
activate, the opposing black and green cells fire in response. As a result, you
will see a brief after image that is black and green instead of white and red.

III. Complementary colour theory

Complementary colour theory is a fundamental concept in colour science and

art that explores the relationships between colours and how they interact
when combined. Complementary colours are pairs of colours that, when
combined, cancel each other out to create a neutral gray or white. These pairs
of colours are located opposite each other on the colour wheel, and their
interactions often produce vibrant and visually striking effects. The
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complementary colour theory has applications in various fields, including art,

design, and colour correction. Principles of Complementary Colours:
Complementary colours are based on the idea that colours can be organized in
a circular arrangement called the colour wheel. The primary complementary
colour pairs include: Red and green Blue and orange Yellow and purple When
complementary colours are placed side by side or combined, they create
strong contrast and emphasize each other's characteristics. This interaction
can create visual interest, balance, and harmony in artistic compositions and
designs.
Complementary colour theory provides a valuable tool for artists, designers,
and colour enthusiasts to manipulate and harness the power of colour
interactions. By understanding how complementary colours work together,
individuals can create captivating visuals and communicate specific emotions
or messages through colour.

IV. Munsell colour system

In colourimetry, the Munsell colour system is a colour space that specifies

colours based on three properties of colour: hue (basic colour), chroma (colour
intensity), and value (lightness). It was created by Albert H. Munsell in the first
decade of the 20th century and adopted by the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) as the official colour system for soil research in the 1930s.
Several earlier colour order systems had placed colours into a three-dimensional
colour solid of one form or another, but Munsell was the first to separate hue,
value, and chroma into perceptually uniform and independent dimensions, and
he was the first to illustrate the colours systematically in three-dimensional
space.[1] Munsell's system, particularly the later renotations, is based on
rigorous measurements of human subjects' visual responses to colour, putting
it on a firm experimental scientific basis. Because of this basis in human visual
perception, Munsell's system has outlasted its contemporary colour models,
and though it has been superseded for some uses by models such as CIELAB and
CIECAM02, it is still in wide use today.
The Munsell Colour System employs a three-dimensional model to categorize
colours based on their key attributes: hue, representing the colour's position
on the spectrum; value (lightness), indicating its relative brightness; and
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chroma (colour purity), denoting its saturation level. This systematic approach
enables precise and standardized colour description, aiding diverse fields such
as art, design, science, and archaeology in communicating, analyzing, and
understanding colours in a comprehensive manner.

V. CIE 1931 COLOUR SPACE (CIE- XYZ)

Colours are essentially an interpretation of the human brain, applied to the
limited spectral information received from the eyes. The relation between
colour perception and its physical basis is quite complicated and subject to
various variable influences. Nevertheless, extensive research has established
ways of objectively specifying perceivable colours with values in certain colour
spaces.
Based on the trichromatic theory of colour vision, it defines colours through
three imaginary primary colours: X, Y, and Z, which correspond to the human
cone responses to short, medium, and long wavelengths of light, respectively.
This colour space is designed to encompass all perceivable colours, allowing for
accurate colour communication and analysis. The CIE XYZ colour space serves
as a foundation for various other colour spaces and colourimetric calculations,
enabling precise colour matching, calibration, and reproduction in industries
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such as graphic design, imaging, and colour measurement. Its mathematical

precision and ability to describe colours independently of specific devices or
technologies make it an essential tool for achieving consistent and
standardized colour representation in various applications.
The tristimulus system, a system for visually matching a colour under
standardized conditions against the three primary colours—red, green, and
blue; the three results are expressed as X, Y, and Z, respectively, and are called
tristimulus values.
These theories are the most important theories among colour vision models.

FACTORS AFFECTING COLOUR VISION:

Colour vision models are influenced by a variety of factors that can impact how
colours are perceived and represented. These factors range from physiological
aspects of the human visual system to environmental conditions and cultural
influences. Here are some key factors that can affect colour vision models:
1. Physiology of the Human Eye: The structure and sensitivity of the cone
photoreceptors in the retina play a significant role in colour vision. Variations
in the number, distribution, and responsiveness of cones can influence how
colours are perceived.
2. Lighting Conditions: The colour of illumination can alter the way we
perceive colours. Different light sources, such as natural daylight, incandescent
light, or fluorescent light, can shift the appearance of colours and introduce
colour casts.
3. Adaptation: The process of visual adaptation, where the eyes adjust to
different levels of light, can affect colour perception. Colours may appear
differently when transitioning from a bright to a dim environment or vice
versa.
4. Surrounding Colours: The context in which a colour is viewed can influence
how it is perceived. Colours can appear different when placed alongside
contrasting or similar colours.
5. Colour Constancy: Colour constancy is the ability of the human visual system
to perceive colours consistently under varying lighting conditions. The brain
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adjusts colour perception to maintain colour consistency despite changes in

illumination.
6. Individual Differences: Factors such as age, gender, genetics, and colour
vision deficiencies (colour blindness) can lead to variations in colour perception
among individuals.
7. Cultural and Psychological Influences: Cultural and psychological factors can
impact colour preferences and interpretations. Different cultures may
associate specific meanings or emotions with certain colours.
8. Lighting Technology: Advances in lighting technology, such as LED lighting,
can introduce spectral differences in light sources, affecting colour perception
and colour rendering.
9. Display Devices: The characteristics of electronic display devices, such as
monitors and screens, can influence colour reproduction. Calibration and
colour profiles are used to ensure accurate colour representation.
10. Environmental Factors: Environmental factors like atmospheric conditions
and reflections can alter the way colours are perceived in outdoor settings.
11. Colour Space Choice: The choice of colour space and colour model can
influence how colours are represented and manipulated in various
applications, such as computer graphics, printing, and image processing. Given
the complexity of colour perception and the multitude of factors at play, colour
vision models aim to capture and account for these influences to provide
accurate and consistent representations of colour in different contexts and
applications
[Link] and temporal factors: Colour perception is strongly affected by
context. A gray square can appear reddish or greenish when viewed within a
green or red surround respectively, a phenomenon known as chromatic
contrast. For finer spatial patterns the colour can instead appear more similar
to the surround. As a result the same spectral stimulus can take on very
different hues depending on the setting . Colour appearance can also be
strongly affected by prior exposure to stimuli . Processes of adaptation
constantly adjust visual sensitivity according to the stimulus the observer is
currently viewing. A red light adapts the L and M cones more than the S cones.
This alters their relative responses to a subsequently viewed light, causing a
stimulus that previously appeared white to appear greenish. A striking
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demonstration of colour adaptation is provided by the Liliac Chanlier illusion,

in which lilac spots fade with viewing so that only the transient green
afterimage when each spot is removed is visible.

FIRST LEVEL: CONE SIGNALS

The first level in the colour vision mechanism involves the detection and
signaling of light by specialized cells known as cones within the retina of the
eye. Cones are responsible for colour vision and are sensitive to different
ranges of wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue colours. This
initial stage is essential for capturing the spectral composition of light and
converting it into neural signals that can be processed by the visual system.
Cones contain photopigments that absorb specific wavelengths of light and
generate electrical signals in response. When light enters the eye and strikes
the retina, these photopigments undergo a chemical change, resulting in the
initiation of neural impulses.
The three types of cones have varying levels of sensitivity to different
wavelengths: short-wavelength cones (S-cones), medium-wavelength cones
(M-cones), and long-wavelength cones (L-cones). The combined activity of
these three types of cones forms the basis of trichromatic colour vision. The
brain interprets the relative activation of these cones to perceive a wide range
of colours through a process called colour mixing. For example, a mixture of
signals from L-cones and M-cones might lead to the perception of yellow, while
signals from L-cones alone might lead to the perception of red. This initial level
of cone signaling lays the foundation for the subsequent stages of colour
processing in the visual system.
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SECOND LEVEL: ANTAGONIST COLOUR SIGNALS

The second level in the colour vision mechanism involves the processing of
colour signals through opponent mechanisms within the retina, particularly
within retinal ganglion cells. These opponent mechanisms enhance the
perception of colour contrasts and complementary colour pairs, contributing
to the distinct visual experience of colours. Retinal ganglion cells receive input
from cones and play a crucial role in transmitting visual information to the
brain. In the context of colour vision, certain retinal ganglion cells exhibit
antagonistic colour responses. This means that these cells are excited by the
stimulation of one type of cone while being inhibited by the stimulation of
another type of cone, creating pairs of opposing colour signals. The three main
opponent mechanisms are:
Red-Green Opponency: Some retinal ganglion cells are excited by the
absorption of light by either L-cones (red) or M-cones (green) and inhibited by
the other type. This mechanism enhances the perception of red and green as
distinct and opposing colours.
Blue-Yellow Opponency: Similarly, other ganglion cells are excited by S-cones
(blue) and inhibited by a combination of L-cones and M-cones (resulting in
yellow). This antagonistic mechanism emphasizes the contrast between blue
and yellow.
Luminance-Chromatic Opponency: Ganglion cells also process information
related to overall brightness (luminance) in conjunction with colour
information. This mechanism allows the visual system to distinguish between
changes in overall brightness and changes in colour. These antagonistic colour
signals, arising from the interactions of cones and retinal ganglion cells,
contribute to our perception of colour contrasts, afterimages, and the
vividness of colours. They represent an intermediate level in the colour vision
mechanism, refining the neural signals before they are transmitted to higher
visual processing centers in the brain for further analysis and interpretation
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THIRD LEVEL: MENTAL PROCESSING

The third level in the colour vision mechanism involves the mental
processing of colour information within the brain's visual processing
centers. At this stage, the brain receives and integrates the signals from
the retinal ganglion cells and begins to interpret and make sense of the
complex colour information it has received. This processing occurs
primarily within the primary visual cortex (V1) and beyond, leading to the
conscious perception of colour.
In the primary visual cortex, the brain processes the colour signals from the
retinal ganglion cells further. Different regions of V1 contain neurons that are
selective for different aspects of colour, such as hue, saturation, and
brightness. These neurons respond preferentially to specific wavelengths of
light and contribute to the discrimination of colours.
Colour perception is not solely determined by physiological processes but is
also influenced by cognitive factors such as memory, attention, and cultural
context. Our prior experiences, memories, and associations with colours can
shape our perception and interpretation of colour stimuli. Additionally,
attention and focus can affect how we prioritize and process different colours
within a visual scene. At this mental processing level, the brain's sophisticated
neural networks analyze, combine, and interpret the colour information
received from the eyes, leading to our conscious experience of colour. The
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brain's ability to process colour information in context and integrate it with

other visual and cognitive cues contributes to the richness and complexity of
colour perception in our daily lives.

COLOUR IMAGE SCIENCE—THE ROAD AHEAD: SOLUTIONS,

RECOMMENDATIONS, AND FUTURE TRENDS:
 COLOUR IMAGE APPEARANCE(CAM)
The aim of the colour appearance model is to model how the human visual
system perceives the colour of an object or of an image under different points
of view, different lighting conditions, and with different backgrounds. The
principal role of a CAM is to achieve successful colour reproduction across
different media, for example, to transform input images from film scanners,
cameras, onto displays, film printers, and data projectors considering the
human visual system (HVS). In this way, a CAM must be adaptive to viewing
conditions, that is ambient light, surround colour, screen type, viewing angle,
and distance. The standard CIECAM02 [60] has been successfully tested at
various industrial sites for graphic arts applications, but needs to be tested
before being used in other viewing conditions (e.g., cinematographic viewing
conditions). Research efforts have been applied in developing a colour
appearance model for predicting a colour appearance under different viewing
conditions. A complete model should predict various well-known visual
phenomena such as Stevens effect, Hunt effect, Bezold-Brucke e ¨ ffect,
simultaneous contrast, crispening, colour constancy, memory colour,
discounting-the-illuminant, light, dark, and chromatic adaptation, surround
effect, spatial and temporal visions. All these phenomena are caused by the
change of viewing parameters, primarily illuminance level, field size,
background, surround, viewing distance, spatial, and temporal variations,
viewing mode (illuminant, surface, reflecting, self-luminous, or transparent),
structure effect, shadow, transparency, neon-effect, saccades effect, stereo
depth, and so forth.
Several studies have shown that the human visual system is more sensitive to
low frequencies than to high frequencies. Likewise, several studies have shown
that the human visual system is less sensitive to noise in dark and bright
regions than in other regions. Lastly, the human visual system is highly
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insensitive to distortions in regions of high activity (e.g., salient regions) and is

more sensitive to distortions near edges (objects contours) than in highly
textured areas. All these spatial effects are unfortunately not taken into
account enough by CIECAM97s or CIECAM02 colour appearance models.

 COLOUR DIFFERENCE METRICS

Beyond the problem of the colour appearance description arises also the
problem of the colour difference measurement in a colour space. The
CIEDE2000 colour difference formula was standardized by the CIE in 2000 in
order to compensate some errors in the CIELAB and CIE94 formulas .
Unfortunately, the CIEDE2000 colour difference formula suffers from
mathematical discontinuities . In order to develop/text new colour spaces with
Euclidean colour difference formulas, new reliable experimental datasets need
to be used (e.g., using visual displays, under illuminating/viewing conditions
close to the “reference conditions suggested for the CAM). “Uniform colour
space for industrial colour difference evaluation”. The aim of this TC is to
propose “a Euclidean colour space where colour differences can be evaluated
for reliable experimental data with better accuracy than the one achieved by
the CIEDE2000 formula.” (See recent studies of the TC1- 63 “Validity of the
range of the CIEDE2000” and R1-39 “Alternative Forms of the CIEDE2000
Colour-Difference Equations.”) The usual colour difference formula’s , have
been developed to predict colour difference under specific
illuminating/viewing conditions closed to the “reference conditions.” Inversely,
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the CIECAM97s and CIECAM02 colour appearance models have been

developed to predict the change of colour appearance under various viewing
conditions. These CIECAM97s and CIECAM02 models involve seven attributes:
brightness (Q), lightness (J), colourfulness (M), chroma (C), saturation (s), hue
composition (H), and hue angle (h). Lastly, let us note that meanwhile the CIE
L∗a∗b∗ΔE metric can be seen as a Euclidean colour metric, the S-CIELAB space
has the advantage of taking into account the differences of sensitivity of the
HVS in the spatial domain, such as homogeneous or textured areas.

 COLOUR IMAGE PROCESSING

Colour image processing is a field of digital image manipulation that focuses on
enhancing, analyzing, and manipulating colour content within images. It
involves a range of techniques, such as colour correction, colour enhancement,
colour segmentation, and colour-based object recognition, aimed at improving
the visual quality, extracting meaningful information, and enabling advanced
applications in various domains, including photography, computer vision,
medical imaging, remote sensing, and multimedia. Colour image processing
algorithms leverage mathematical operations, statistical analyses, and machine
learning to transform and extract colour features from images, enabling tasks
such as image restoration, object tracking, and scene analysis while enabling a
deeper understanding and interpretation of the visual world.
A multispectral colour imagingsystem is a system which captures and describes
colour information by a greater number of sensors than an RGB device
resulting in a colour representation that uses more than three parameters. The
problem with conventional colour imaging systems is that they have some
limitations, namely, dependence on the illuminant and characteristics of the
imaging system. On the other hand, multispectral colour imaging systems,
based on spectral reflectance, are device and illuminant independent .

 COLOUR IMAGE ANALYSIS

According to several studies, colour is perhaps the most expressive of all visual
features. Furthermore, colour features are robust to several image processing
transforms such as geometric transform (e.g., translation and rotation of the
regions of interest) and to partial occlusion and pose variations. For several
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years, the main challenge for colour image analysis, and particularly for image
retrieval and object recognition, has been to develop high-level features
modeling the semantics of image content. The problem that we have to face is
that there is a gap between this objective and the set of features which have
been identified and experimented. Meanwhile, many low-level image features
have been identified, such as colour, texture, shape, and structure , or at an
intermediate level, such as spatial arrangement and multiscale saliency.
However, few high-level image features have been identified , with regard to
the variety of images which can be seen and to the number of entity features
which can be identified by an observer.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Knowledge of recent trends in colour science, colour systems, appropriate
processing algorithms, and device characteristics is necessary to fully harness
the functionalities and specificities of the capture, representation, description,
analysis, interpretation, processing, exchange, and output of colour images.
The field of digital colour imaging is a highly interdisciplinary area involving
elements of physics, psychophysics, visual science, physiology, psychology,
computational algorithms, systems engineering, and mathematical
optimization. While excellent surveys and reference material exist in each of
these areas, the goal of this survey was to present the most recent trends of
these diverse elements as they relate to digital colour imaging in a single and
concise compilation and to put forward relevant information. The aim of this
survey was to aid researchers with expertise in a specific domain who seek a
better understanding of other domains in the field. Researchers can also use it
as an up-todate reference because it offers a broad survey of the relevant
literature .
Colour vision models offer valuable insights into the complex processes
underlying human colour perception. By studying these models, researchers,
artists, designers, and scientists gain a deeper understanding of how we
experience and interact with colours. The diverse applications of colour vision
models across various disciplines highlight their importance in enhancing our
visual experiences and optimizing colour-related decisions in our technicolour
world.

REFERENCES
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 Handbook of Applied Photometry-C De Cusatis.

 [Link]/science/tristimulus-system.

 Felipe M. Gawryszewski ,Colour vision models: Some simulations, a

general n-dimensional model, and the colourvision R package.

 [Link]/the-trichromatic-theory-of-colour-vision/
 [Link]/what-is-the-opponent-process-theory-of-colour-
vision-2795830.

 [Link]/publication/Colour in Image and Video Processing

Most Recent Trends and Future Research Direction.