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Napoleonic Code
Civil Code of the French
Code civil des Français

Legislature of the French

Consulate
Citation Code civil (https://ww
w.legifrance.gouv.fr/co
des/texte_lc/LEGITEX
T000006070721/2020
-09-18/)
Territorial France
extent
Enacted by Corps législatif
Signed by First Consul Napoleon
Bonaparte
Effective 21 March 1804
Introduced Jacques de Maleville
by Jean Portalis
Félix Bigot de
Préameneu
François Tronchet
Repeals
Civil Code of the French Republic (h
ttps://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5
6510716?rk=21459;2) (1803)
Amended by

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Code 1/11
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Law 2019-2022 (https://www.legifran

ce.gouv.fr/loda/id/LEGIARTI000038
262578/2019-03-25#LEGIARTI0000
38262578) on 1 September 2020
Status: Amended

The Napoleonic Code (French: Code Napoléon), officially the Civil Code of the French
(French: Code civil des Français; simply referred to as Code civil), is the French civil code
established during the French Consulate in 1804 and still in force in France, although heavily and
frequently amended since its inception.[1] Although Napoleon himself was not directly involved in
the drafting of the Code, as it was drafted by a commission of four eminent jurists,[2] he chaired
many of the commission's plenary sessions,[3] and his support was crucial to its passage into
law.[4]

The code, with its stress on clearly written and accessible law, was a major milestone in the
abolition of the previous patchwork of feudal laws.[5] Historian Robert Holtman regards it as one
of the few documents that have influenced the whole world.[2] The Napoleonic Code is often
portrayed to be one of the most widespread systems of law in the world, claimed to be in force in
various forms in about 120 countries, but many of those countries are civil code countries that had
their own version of their civil code for centuries.[6]

The Napoleonic Code was not the first legal code to be established in a European country with a
civil-law legal system; it was preceded by the Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis (Bavaria,
1756), the Allgemeines Landrecht (Prussia, 1794), and the West Galician Code (Galicia, then part
of Austria, 1797). It was, however, the first modern legal code to be adopted with a pan-European
scope, and it strongly influenced the law of many of the countries formed during and after the
Napoleonic Wars.[7][2] The Napoleonic Code influenced developing countries outside Europe
attempting to modernise and defeudalise their countries through legal reforms, such as those in
the Middle East,[8] while in Latin America the Spanish and Portuguese had established their own
versions of the civil code.[9]

History
The categories of the Napoleonic Code were not drawn from
earlier French law, but instead from Justinian's sixth-century
codification of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, and within
it, the Institutes.[10] The Institutes divide into the law of:
The Napoleonic Code in the
1. persons Historical Museum of the Palatinate
2. things in Speyer
3. actions.
Similarly, the Napoleonic Code divided the law into four sections:

1. persons
2. property
3. acquisition of property

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4. civil procedure (moved into a separate code in 1806).

Prior codification attempts

Before the Napoleonic Code, France did not have a single set of laws; law consisted mainly of local
customs, sometimes officially compiled in "custumals" (coutumes), notably the Custom of Paris.
There were also exemptions, privileges, and special charters granted by kings or other feudal lords.
With the Revolution, the last vestiges of feudalism were abolished.

Specifically, as to civil law, the many different bodies of law used in different parts of France were
to be replaced by a single legal code. The Constituent Assembly on 5 October 1790 voted for a
codification of French laws, the Constitution of 1791 promised one, and the National Assembly
adopted a unanimous resolution on 4 September 1791 providing that "there shall be a code of civil
laws common for the entire realm."[11] However, it was the National Convention in 1793 which
established a special commission headed by Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès to oversee the
drafting process.[12]

His drafts of 1793 (for which Cambacérès had been given a one month deadline), 1794, and 1796
were all rejected by a National Convention and the French Directory of the time was more
preoccupied with the turmoil resulting from various wars and strife with other European powers.
The first draft contained 719 articles and was very revolutionary, but was rejected for being too
technical and criticised for not being radical or philosophical enough. The second, with only 297
articles, was rejected for being too brief and was criticised for being a mere manual of morals. The
third, expanded to 1,104 articles, was presented under the conservative Directory regime, but never
even came up for discussion.

Another commission, established in December 1799 established a fourth outline drafted in part by
Jean-Ignace Jacqueminot (1754–1813). Jacqueminot's draft, the so-called loi Jacqueminot, dealt
almost exclusively with persons[13] and emphasised the need to reform the divorce laws, to
strengthen parental authority and increase the testator's freedom to dispose of the free portion of
his estate.[14] It was rejected.

Napoleonic reforms
Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Marengo allowed him to consolidate his power in France[15]
Returning to Paris, he appointed on 12 August 1800 a commission of distinguished jurists and
politicians, including fr:Jacques de Maleville, François Denis Tronchet, Félix-Julien-Jean Bigot de
Préameneu, Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis to draft a civil code.[16] For this commission, Cambacérès
(now Second Consul), and Napoleon himself chaired the plenary sessions.[3] After this process
finished, the Code was sent to the Legislative Body as a preliminary bill in December 1801, where it
was rejected by a vote of 142 to 139.[17] In response, Napoleon announced on 2 January 1802 that
he was suspending all projects, effectively closing the assemblies' sessions; simultaneously, he
went to the Sénat conservateur to berate its members. These tactics cowed the legislature into
submission, and gave Napoleon the majority he needed.[18] The code finally came into effect on 21
March 1804.[19]

The process developed mainly out of the various customs, but was inspired by Justinian's sixth-
century codification of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis and, within that, Justinian's Code
(Codex). The Napoleonic Code, however, differed from Justinian's in important ways:

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it incorporated all kinds of earlier rules, not just legislation;

it was not a collection of edited extracts, but a comprehensive rewrite;
its structure was much more rational;
it had no religious content
it was written in the vernacular.
The Napoleonic Code marked a fundamental change in the nature of the civil law legal system,
making laws clearer and more accessible. It also superseded the former conflict between royal
legislative power and, particularly in the final years before the Revolution, protests by judges
representing views and privileges of the social classes to which they belonged. Such conflict led the
Revolutionaries to take a negative view of judges making law.

This is reflected in the Napoleonic Code provision prohibiting judges from deciding a case by way
of introducing a general rule (Article 5), since the creation of general rules is an exercise of
legislative and not of judicial power. In theory, there is thus no case law in France. However, the
courts still had to fill in the gaps in the laws and regulations and, indeed, were prohibited from
refusing to do so (Article 4). Moreover, both the code and legislation have required judicial
interpretation. Thus a vast body of case law has come into existence, but without any rule of stare
decisis.

Contents of the Napoleonic Code

The preliminary article of the code established certain important provisions regarding the rule of
law. Laws could be applied only if they had been duly promulgated, and then only if they had
previously been officially published (including provisions for publishing delays, given the means of
communication available at the time). In brief, no secret laws were authorised. It prohibited ex
post facto laws (i.e. laws that apply to events that occurred before their introduction). The code
also prohibited judges from refusing to do justice on grounds of the insufficiency of the law,
thereby encouraging them to interpret the law. On the other hand, it also prohibited judges from
making general judgements of a legislative nature (see above).[20]

With regard to family, the code established the supremacy of the husband over his wife and
children, the status quo in Europe at the time. Women had even fewer rights than children.
Divorce by mutual consent was abolished in 1804.[21]

Other French Napoleonic-era codes

The draft Military Code was presented to Napoleon by the special commission headed by Pierre
Daru in June 1805; however, as the War of the Third Coalition progressed, the code was put aside
and never implemented.

In 1791, Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau presented a new criminal code to the National
Constituent Assembly.[22] He explained that it outlawed only "true crimes", and not "phony
offences created by superstition, feudalism, the tax system, and [royal] despotism".[23] He did not
list the crimes "created by superstition". The new penal code did not mention blasphemy, heresy,
sacrilege, witchcraft, incest, or homosexuality, which led to these former offences being swiftly
decriminalised. In 1810, a new criminal code was issued under Napoleon. As with the Penal Code
of 1791, it did not contain provisions for religious crimes, incest, or homosexuality.
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After an overhaul of the entire legal system, the new code of civil procedure was adopted in
1806.

The commercial code (code de commerce) was adopted in 1807.[24] The kernel of the
commercial code is the Book III, "Of The Different Modes of Acquiring Property", of the
Napoleonic Code, which sets out norms for contracts and transactions.
Code d'instruction: In 1808, the code d'instruction criminelle was published, laying out criminal
procedure. The parlement system from before the Revolution, had been much abused, and the
criminal courts established by the Revolution were complex and ineffective, subject to many
local pressures. The genesis of this code resulted in much debate and the basis of the modern
inquisitorial system of criminal courts in France and many civil law countries. It has significantly
changed since, especially with regard to the rights of the defendant.[25]
The French Revolution's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen enunciated the
presumption of innocence until found guilty. Concerned by the possibility of arbitrary arrest and
detention, or excessive remand, Napoleon remarked that care should be taken to preserve personal
freedoms, especially before the Imperial Court: "these courts would have a great strength, they
should be prohibited from abusing this situation against weak citizens without connections."[26]
However, remand still was usual for defendants suspected of serious crimes such as murder.

The possibility of lengthy remand periods was one criticism, particularly voiced in common law
countries, of the Napoleonic Code and its de facto presumption of guilt. Another reason was the
combination of magistrate and prosecutor into a single role.[27] However, with the work of the juge
d'instruction accomplished, the trial itself did not have the same de jure presumption of guilt; for
instance, the juror's oath explicitly required jurors not betray the interests of the defendants or
ignore their defence.

The rules governing court proceedings gave significant power to the prosecution; however,
criminal justice in European countries in those days tended to repression. For instance, it was only
in 1836 that prisoners charged with a felony were given a formal right to counsel in England. In
comparison, article 294 of the Napoleonic Code of Criminal Procedure allowed the defendant
access to a lawyer before a Cour d'assises, and mandated the court to appoint a lawyer for the
defendants who did not have one. (Failing to do so nullified the proceedings.)

Whether or not the Cour d'assises, which judges severe crimes, should operate with a jury was a
topic of considerable controversy. Napoleon supported jury trials (or petit jury), and they were
finally adopted. On the other hand, Napoleon opposed the indictment jury ("grand jury" of
common law countries), and preferred to assign this task to the criminal division of the Court of
Appeals. Special courts were created to judge criminals who might intimidate the jury.

French codes in the 21st century

The French codes, now more than 60 in number,[28] are frequently amended, as well as judicially
re-interpreted. Therefore, for over a century all of the codes in force have been documented in the
annually revised editions published by Dalloz (Paris).[29] These editions consist of thorough
annotations, with references to other codes, relevant statutes, judicial decisions (even if
unpublished), and international instruments. The "small (petit)" version of the Civil Code in this
form is nearly 3,000 pages, available in print and online. Additional material, including scholarly

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articles, is added in the larger "expert (expert)" version and the still larger "mega (méga)" version,
both of which are available in print and on searchable CD-ROM. By this stage, it has been
suggested, the Civil Code has become "less a book than a database".[30]

The sheer number of codes, together with digitisation, led the Commission supérieure de
codification to reflect in its annual report for 2011:

The Commission observes that the age of drawing up new codes is probably reaching its
end. The aim of a nearly complete codification of the law is no longer pursued, for three
reasons: firstly, the technical developments by which texts are provided in non-physical
form offer to users modes of access that are comparable in many ways to those available
through a code; secondly, the creation of new codes encounters a kind of law of
diminishing returns in that, the more progress that is made in the development of new
codes, the trickier it becomes to determine in which code particular provisions should
be located; and, finally, it is clear that certain kinds of provision [...] are unsuitable for
codification, since codification makes sense only when it involves provisions that
possess sufficient generality.[31]

A year later, the Commission recommended that, after its current codification projects were
completed, there should not be any further codes; an additional reason was government delay in
publishing reforms that the Commission had completed.[32] The government responded
encouragingly in March 2013, but the Commission complains that this has not been followed
through; in particular, that the government has abandoned its plan for a public service code (code
général de la fonction publique).[33]

Codes in other countries

Even though the Napoleonic Code was not the first civil code and did not represent the whole of his
empire, it was one of the most influential. It was adopted in many countries occupied by the
French during the Napoleonic Wars.[34] In the German regions on the west bank of the Rhine
(Rhenish Palatinate and Prussian Rhine Province), the former Duchy of Berg and the Grand Duchy
of Baden, the Napoleonic Code was influential until the introduction of the Bürgerliches
Gesetzbuch in 1900 as the first common civil code for the entire German Empire.[35]

A number of factors have been shown by Arvind and Stirton to have had a determinative role in the
decision by the German states to receive the code, including territorial concerns, Napoleonic
control and influence, the strength of central state institutions, a feudal economy and society, rule
by liberal (enlightened despotic) rulers, nativism among the governing elites, and popular anti-
French sentiment.[35]

A civil code with Napoleonic code influences was also adopted in 1864 in Romania, and remained
in force until 2011.[36]

The term "Napoleonic Code" is also used to refer to legal codes of other jurisdictions that are
influenced by the French Code Napoléon, especially the Civil Code of Lower Canada (replaced in
1994 by the Civil Code of Quebec), mainly derived from the Coutume de Paris, which the British
continued to use in Canada following the 1763 Treaty of Paris. However, most of the laws in Latin

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American countries are not heavily influenced on the Napoleonic Code, as the Spanish and
Portuguese versions of the civil code formed the foundation of the Latin American legal systems
e.g. the Chilean, Mexican,[37] and Puerto Rican civil codes.[38]

In Mauritius, the Civil Code, which originates from the Napoleonic Code, represents an important
primary source of law and provides for the rights of individuals, matrimonial regimes, contract
law, and property law, amongst others.[39] The French Civil Code was extended to Mauritius under
the title Code Napoléon by decree of Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen, Capitaine-General, on 21
April 1808.[40] The Code was modified and embodied in Chapter 179 of the Revised Laws of
Mauritius 1945, edited by Sir Charlton Lane, former Chief Justice of Mauritius. The 1808 decree
was repealed by Act 9 of 1983, but the Revision of Laws Act which was enacted in 1974, made
provision, in section 7, for the publication of the Code under the title "Code Civil Mauricien."[41]

In the United States, the legal system is largely based on English common law. But the state of
Louisiana is unique in having a strong influence from French and Spanish legal traditions on its
civil code. Spanish and French colonial forces quarreled over Louisiana during most of the 1700s,
with Spain ultimately ceding the territory to France in 1800, which in turn sold the territory to the
United States in 1803.[42] The 10th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution grants states control of
laws not specifically given to the federal government, so Louisiana's legal system retains many
French elements. Examples of the practical legal differences between Louisiana and the other
states include the bar exam and legal standards of practice for attorneys in Louisiana being
significantly different from other states; Louisiana is the only U.S. state to practice forced
inheritance of an estate; additionally, some of Louisiana's laws clash with the Uniform Commercial
Code practiced by the other 49 states.[43]

Notes
[3]

[17]

[19]

References
Hollins, David (2006). "Battle of Marengo" in The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary
and Napoleonic War. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-646-9.

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1061517/f2.image). Paris: L'Imprimerie de la République. 1804. Retrieved 28 November 2016
– via Gallica.
2. Robert B. Holtman, The Napoleonic Revolution (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University
Press, 1981)
3. Roberts, Andrew (2014), "Lawgiver", Napoleon: A Life, Penguin. Of the commission's 107
plenary sessions, Napoleon chaired 55.
4. Roberts, Andrew, Napoleon: A Life,"Lawgiver"

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5. Lobingier, Charles Sumner (1918). "Napoleon and His Code" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1

327640.pdf) (PDF). Harvard Law Review. 32 (2): 114–134. doi:10.2307/1327640 (https://doi.or
g/10.2307%2F1327640). JSTOR 1327640 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1327640).
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uny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-napoleonic-code/). courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved
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law-in-europe/french-revolution-and-the-law/39F246BD158F001C5ACBFB8B471A6D35), in
Part IV - The Age of Reforms (1750–1814), Cambridge University Press, 31 July 2017; Antonio
Padoa-Schioppa, Translated by Caterina Fitzgerald
8. Mohamed A.M. Ismail (2016). Globalization and New International Public Works Agreements in
Developing Countries: An Analytical Perspective (https://books.google.com/books?id=f-gFDAA
AQBAJ). Routledge. p. 19. ISBN 9781317127031 – via Google Books. "All civil codes of Arab
Middle Eastern states are based on Napoleonic Codes and were influenced by Egyptian
legislation"
9. Matta, Liana Fiol (1992). "Civil Law and Common Law in the Legal Method of Puerto Rico" (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/840794). The American Journal of Comparative Law. 40 (4): 783–
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or.org/stable/840794).
10. Iain Stewart (2012). "Mors Codicis: End of the Age of Codification?". Tulane European & Civil
Law Forum. 27: 17 at 23–24.
11. Constitution of 3 September 1791, 1.11: "Il sera fait un Code de lois civiles communes à tout le
Royauame".
12. Cronin, Vincent (1972). Napoleon Bonaparte. An Intimate Biography. pp. 176, 193, 283
13. Eric Descheemaeker, The Division of Wrongs: A Historical Comparative Study (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009), 128.
14. Tom Holmberg, "The Civil Code: an Overview", The Napoleon Series, September 2002,
[online] <https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/code/c_code2.html>.
15. Hollins, Encyclopedia, pp. 605–606.
16. Zamoyski, Adam, Napoleon: A Life,"Caesar"
17. Roberts, Andrew (2014), "Lawgiver", Napoleon: A Life, Penguin. It also failed in the Tribunate.
18. Zamoyski, Adam, Napoleon: A Life,"Peace"
19. Zamoyski, Adam (2018), "Caesar", Napoleon: A Life, Basic Books. It was promulgated as the
"Civil Code of the French" (Code civil des Français), but would be known as "the Napoleonic
Code" (Code Napoléon)
20. "The Napoleonic Code | History of Western Civilization II" (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/s
uny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-napoleonic-code/). courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved
30 January 2021.
21. "The Code Napoléon: French Legislation on Divorce," Exploring the European Past: Texts &
Images, Second Edition, ed. Timothy E. Gregory (Mason: Thomson, 2007), 62–64.
22. "Livre III ... du code pénal". Choix de rapports, opinions et discours prononcés à la tribune
nationale (https://books.google.com/books?id=wOcvAAAAMAAJ) (in French). Vol. VI. Paris: A.
Eymery. 1819. p. 320. Retrieved 31 March 2008.
23. "ces délits factices, créés par la superstition, la féodalité, la fiscalité et le despotisme" (id., p
325).
24. Code de commerce (http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/rechCodeArticle.do?reprise=true&page=1)
Retrieved 2011-12-30
25. Adhémar Esmein, A History of Continental Criminal Procedure (1913) pp. 528–616. online (http
s://archive.org/details/ahistorycontine01mittgoog/page/n28/mode/2up)
26. Chern, Cyril (4 April 2016). The Law of Construction Disputes (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=J1PhCwAAQBAJ). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-317-43346-0.

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27. "French Criminal Procedure" (https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1895/04/14/102

454136.pdf) (PDF). New York Times. 14 April 1895. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
00603212142/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1895/04/14/102454136.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 3 June 2020. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
28. "Recherche simple dans les codes en vigueur - Legifrance" (http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/initR
echCodeArticle.do). legifrance.gouv.fr.
29. "Code civil, Code du travail, tous les livres de droit des Editions Dalloz" (http://boutique.dalloz.f
r). dalloz.fr.
30. Iain Stewart (2012). "Mors Codicis: End of the Age of Codification?". Tulane European & Civil
Law Forum. 27: 17 at 24–25.
31. Commission supérieure de codification, Vingt et unième rapport annuel 2010 (http://www.legifr
ance.gouv.fr/Droit-francais/Codification/Rapports-annuels-de-la-CSC) (Paris, 2011), 13; quoted
and translated, Iain Stewart (2012). "Mors Codicis: End of the Age of Codification?". Tulane
European & Civil Law Forum. 27: 17 at 25.
32. Commission supérieure de codification, Vingt-deuxième rapport annuel 2011 (http://www.legifra
nce.gouv.fr/Droit-francais/Codification/Rapports-annuels-de-la-CSC) (Paris, 2012), 21.
33. Commission supérieure de codification, Vingt-quatrième rapport annuel 2013 (http://www.legifr
ance.gouv.fr/Droit-francais/Codification/Rapports-annuels-de-la-CSC) (Paris, 2014), 6-7.
34. Senkowska-Gluck, Monika. "Effects of Napoleonic Legislation on the Development of the 19th-
century Europe." Acta Poloniae Historica 38 (1978): 185–198. ISSN 0001-6829 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0001-6829)
35. Arvind TT; Stirton L (March 2010). "Explaining the Reception of the Code Napoleon in
Germany: a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis" (https://archive.today/2013010507104
7/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/123270568/abstract). Legal Studies. 30 (1): 1–29.
doi:10.1111/j.1748-121X.2009.00150.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1748-121X.2009.00150.x).
S2CID 53581236 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53581236). Archived from the
original (http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/123270568/abstract) on 5 January 2013.
36. "Noul Cod civil promovează medierea" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130725045740/http://an
ndrei.ro/noul-cod-civil-promoveaza-medierea/). 5 May 2013. Archived from the original (http://a
nndrei.ro/noul-cod-civil-promoveaza-medierea/) on 25 July 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
37. The Need to Remove the Civil Code from Mexican Commercial Laws: the Case of "Offers" and
"Firm Promises" (https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-mexican-law-review-123-articulo-the-need-
remove-civil-code-S1870057817300082); Mexican Law review Vol. 10. Issue 1, pages 21-44
(July - December 2017) DOI: 10.22201/iij.24485306e.2017.19.11382
38. Rabel, Ernst (1950), "Private Laws of Western Civilization: Part II. The French Civil Code",
Louisiana Law Review (http://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/vol10/iss2/2/), vol. 10, p. 110,
retrieved 1 December 2016
39. "The Mauritian Legal System" (https://www.mauritiuscounsel.com/mauritian-legal-system/).
January 2018.
40. "electronic" (https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/88152/114145/F-172904586/M
US88152%20Fre.pdf) (PDF). www.ilo.org.
41. Code Civil Mauricien (https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/88152/114145/F-1729
04586/MUS88152%20Fre.pdf)
42. Bonfield, Lloyd (2006). "Napoleonic Code" (http://go.galegroup.com.libezp.lib.lsu.edu/ps/i.do?id
=GALE%7CCX3446900575&v=2.1&u=lln_alsu&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=be47621d0f52559f
686e81e7fc83d650). Gale Virtual Reference Library. Charles Scribner's Sons. Retrieved
17 February 2016.
43. Engber, Daniel. Is Louisiana Under Napoleonic Code? (http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and
_politics/explainer/2005/09/louisianas_napoleon_complex.html) Slate.com, retrieved 11
September 2014

General and cited references

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G. Levasseur, "Napoléon et l’élaboration des codes répressifs", in Mélanges en hommage à

Jean Imbert (Paris, PUF, 1989) p. 371
Code Pénal and Code d'Instruction Criminelle – Original French Texts and other old legislation
(https://web.archive.org/web/20060116023443/http://ledroitcriminel.free.fr/la_legislation_crimin
elle/anciens_textes.htm)

Further reading
Crabb, John H., trans. The French Civil Code, revised ed. (as amended to 1 July 1994).
Littleton, Colo.: Fred B. Rothman & Co.; Deventer, The Netherlands: Kluwer Law and Taxation,
1995.
Fairgrieve, Duncan, ed. The Influence of the French Civil Code on the Common Law and
Beyond. London: British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 2007.
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External links
Code Napoléon in French Wikipedia
English translation of the original text (http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/c_
code.html)
The Code Napoleon, or the French Civil Code; Literally Translated from the Original and
Official Edition, Published at Paris, in 1804 by A Barrister at the Inner Temple (https://archive.or
g/stream/codenapoleonorf00statgoog#page/n4/mode/2up) (1st ed.). London: Printed for
Charles Hunter Booksellers. Retrieved 30 November 2016 – via the Internet Archive.
Beginnings of Napoleonic Code (http://www.cambaceres.org/vie-poli/code-civ/cod-civi.htm)
Current French Text: Légifrance (https://beta.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/texte_lc/LEGITEXT00000
6070721/2021-07-01)
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"The 'Other' Little Red Book" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190607/http://www.france

magazine.org/articles/issue70/article94.asp?issue_id=70&article_id=94). Interview with legal
historian Jean-Louis Halpérin in France Magazine.
Napoleonic Code (https://frenchrevolution.us/napoleonic-code/)

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