[Link] MICROBIOLOGY MICRO-ORGANISMS ‘A micro-organism is any living organism so small that, on its own, itis invisible, Individuat micro-organisms can only be seen with the aid of a microscope. The micro-organisms. of most concer in food service are: © Viruses. = Bacteria. © Yeasts + Moulds, Micro-organismns can be found everywhere in aur environment - they are on us, in the air, soil and water. The effects of micro-organisms can be desirable or undesirable. BENEFICIAL MICRO-ORGANISMS These micro-organisms can play a crucial rote in: © the breakdown of dead plant and animal matter, the production of certain foods such as microbial action in yoghurt, cheese, bread, wine, * the production of some antibiotics eg penicilin, SPOILAGE MICRO-ORGANISMS These micro-organisms alter the appearance, texture, flavour and odour of food, making the food undesirable to eat. Consumption of spoiled food such as sour milk, does not result in ilinass or disease. PATHOGENS Less than 1% of all micro-organisms are harmful and produce disease. These are relerred to as pathogens €9. viruses, food poisoning bacteria. the smallest of ail micro-organisms. Viruses do not have their own cellular structure, and to become active must enter a living cell, Once a virus enters a host cell, it redirects the activities of that cell towards reproducing itselt, Viruses are always pathogenic but are host specific i@. animal cells are only susceptible to animal viruses. Most viral diseases affecting people are transmitted by contact eg measles, mumps, H.l.V.. colds and influenza. However, afew viral infections are transmitted by contaminated food or water. Both Hepatitis A and viral gastro-enteritis are food borne. Healthy humans produce antibodies, as a defence in response to invading viruses. Once exposed to a virus, either through an attack of the disease or artificially through vaccination, immunity is conterred. BACTERIA Bacteria are single cell organisms and their narne gives a clue to their shape. Bacteria are important for the ageing of meat and in producing foods such as cheese, yoghurt, sour cream, sauerkraut, pickled cucumbers, salami, peperoni and vinegar. Sometimes bacteria spoil food. Slime and ‘off’ smells indicate their action. Other bacteria can cause food poisoning eg. Salmonella. Regardless of their shape, bacteria have the same internal structure and reproduce in the same way. It reproduces by the one cell dividing into two parts. This is called binary fission. Under ideal conditions binary fission can be completed in 15-20 minutes, This means that a single bacteria can multiply to fargo numbers in a relatively short time. Under ideal conditians, bacterial population can grow trom one thousand to aver tour million in under four hours. Between one and twa million bacteria form a serious food poisoning threat. Under adverse canditions, growth slows down, and many bacteria die. Bacillus and Clostridium have a special way of coping with adverse conditions. They form spores which is a protective means of survival. They go into @ dormant state Until conditions become favourable again. They are not killed by freezing or boiling while in this ‘protective’ state: YEASTS Yeasts are single celled organisms, larger than bacteria. Yeasts reproduce by a process called budding. A small growth appears on the ‘mother’ cell. As this bulge grows, the mother cell progressively cuts olf the new ‘daughter’ cell, The ‘daughter cell is about hall the size of the original cell. twill increase in size until it is ready to bud or reproduce. Yeasts breakdown sugars to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. This reaction is utlised in the production of alcoholic beverages and bread, MOULDS Moulds are usually muiticellular but each cell is capable of growing independently. Moulds are often quite visible. They appear in various forms such as powdery blue-green-white paiches on lemons, white flufly patches on tomato paste or blackened areas along the rubber lining on refrigerator doors. Moulds consist of fine thread-tike strands called hyphae.UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS OF MOULDS Many foods such as pumpkin, citrus fruits, zucchini and bread are susceptible to mould spoilage. Some moulds are pathogenic and can cause infections of the skin eg tinea and ringworm. A few moulds produce dangerous toxins. These are of concern in the bulk storage af peanuts and grains, It produces a toxin called aflatoxin, Long term consumption of aflatoxin causes liver cancer, DESIRABLE APPLICATION OF MOULDS Moulds are responsible for the particular flavours and textures of the blue vein cheeses and the surface ripened cheeses, brie and camembert. A highly prized sweet dessert wine is made with grapes affected by a particular mould. Moulds and yeasts are the microscopic members of the fungi group. Larger fungi, mushrooms and truffles are also used extensively as foods. Environmentally, moulds are important because of their ability to change complex organic materials into simple substances og the rotting and decay of dead matter. Medically, moulds are significant for their antibiotic properties eg. Peniciliun mould producing Penicilin. [Link] AFFECTING MICROBIAL GROWTH Micro-organisms form an invisible world around us. They are in the air, on us, on food, equipment and food preparation surfaces. It would be difficult to find an environment free of micro-organisms. In some situations microbial growth will be encouragad eg. in the making of yoghurt or bread. At other times thoit presence will be actively discouraged eg. taking precautions to prevent food poisoning. Either way, to undersiand how to Control micro-organisms, the food worker needs to have some basic knowledge of the conditions required for microbial growth. ‘There are six factors required for the growth of micro-organisms: 1. Suitable food. 2. Suitable water, 3, Suitable temperature. 4. Suitable oxygen levels. 5. Suitable pH. 6. Time. SUITABLE FOOD Micta-organisms exhibit a wide varfation of nutrient requirements, Some can be sustained on inorganic material. However, the bacteria responsible for food poisoning thrive well in the foods we like to eat, especially those high in protain, high in moisture and not very acidic. SUITABLE WATER + Micro-organisms need liquid water for growth and muttiplication. * Dried foods will not support microbial growth providing they are kept dry, and tend to be spoiled by yeasts and moulds. + The majority of microbes will not grow in high sugar foods. + Freezing makes water unavailable to micro-organisms, ‘+ Food is not the only aspect of a kitchen environment that may supply moisture for microbial growth. Soiled, wet tea-towels, dish cloths, and mops, as well as improperly dried items of small equipment provide suitable breeding grounds for micro-organisms. SUITABLE TEMPERATURE Micro-organisms vary in their temperature requirements. Some thrive at low temperatures eg. Listeria Monocytogenes, ‘while others can live at higher temperatures. Pasteurisation will destroy pathogenic bacteria , but not spoilage bacteria in milk, Baclerial spores can survive bolling. Each mioro-organism has an optimum temperature for growth. Below a minimumIs likoly to bo destroyed, Bacteria that cause food poisoning grow woll at the tomperatura botwoen 4°C and 60°. ‘This | callod tho TEMPERATURE DANGER ZONE. Tho tomporaturos in a commercial kitchen fall within the Tornperaturo Danger Zone, Food should nol be kept long in {ho Temperature Danger Zone. * Cold foods are to be kept below 4°C, * Hol foods are to be kept above 60°C, This refers to the internal of core temperature of the food, SUITABLE OXYGEN LEVELS © Most microbes are aerobes .e. need oxygen for respiration, * —Anaerobes do not use oxygen, and will not grow in the presence of It, + sgh ral group of bacteria are capable of growing nner aorobe or anaorobe conditions and aro cal lacultatve. + All moulds are aerobic, which explains why they grow on the surface of foods. + Yeasts are facuitativo, ‘SUITABLE PH * Bacteria preter neutral or slightly acidio environments, + Moulds and yoasts tolorato quite acidic erwvironmonts. ‘SUITABLE TIME Givon optimal conditions micro-organisms can roproduce rapidly, Bactoria aro the fastest growing microbes, Growth rolates to increase in numbers, not size, Micro-organisms need time to multiply enough to cause food potsoning or sorlous spollago of food, [Link] SPOILAGE Food spoilage may be due to three separate but intor- related factors: PHYSICAL SPOILAGE * Damage to the protective surtace layer of a food tem 9. cracked egg shell, dented cars, damage to packages, This increases the chance of chemical anclor microbial spollage, ‘+ Moisture loss og, witod loaty vegetables, treezar burn on incorrectly packaged frozen goods, staling of bread. Moisture gain a9. staling of biscuit, ‘Aroma joss og. ground cotlee ‘Odour absorption eg, trult salad prepared on board used previously for crushing garlic, Presence of undesirable objects eg, stone in a packet of lentils, fish hook in canned fish, nsect or rodent CHEMICAL SPOILAGE * —Chomical contamination og, cloaning substances improperly rammoved from surtaces or equipment. + Enzymo action og. browning or ripening at frult + Ranecidity of fats and oils, MICROBIAL SPOILAGE ‘The action of bacteria, yeasts and moulds is the major cause af food spoilage. When present in large numbers thelr activity is easy to detect, The appearance of the food is altered, There might be colour changes, visible whiskery growth, surface slime, softening of texture, off odours and off flavours, How do these microbes get on to food? Contamination occurs through contact with sail, air, water, equipment, packaging ‘materials and food handlers, To keep the microbial population small, care must be given to personal hygiene, tho ‘leantiness of the premises and equipment and proper storage conditions and times, Otherwise microbial growth is ‘engouraged and toads spall faster, BACTERIA Bacieria spoil food rapidly. Foods thal support bacierial growth include meats, fish, poultry, mik and many vegetables, Often the food becomos slimy and develops an unpleasant odour, Bacteria requira high levels of moisture, thus do not spoil dry foods. To minimise bacterial growth keep food surfaces as cry as possible when storing. Foods that are acidic are loss susceptible to bacterial spoilage. Also store foods out of tho tomperature danger zane. Ensure that cold foods ‘aro opt cold, and hot foods aro Kept hotYEASTS ‘Yeasts spoil foods that are acidic andl high in sugar, Such as jams, fruit, ules, syrups and alcoholic beverages, The product may develop a beery smell and show signs of gas bubbles, Yeasts grow well in warm, moist environments, Low: Temperatures inhibit their growth, while heating above 60°C will destroy them, MOULDS Moulds are aerobic so they lirst appear as whiskery patches on the surlace of the foods, Their mycelium will however spread down into the food. Moulds are slow growing and favour moist, slightly acidic foods, such as fruits, some vegetables and bread, Mould affected food has a musty odour, Gold, dry cenditions inhibit mould growth, FOOD PRESERVATION To minimise or prevent food spoilage the growth of micro-organisms must be inhibited. This can be achieved by altering ‘one oF mare of the conditions necessary for micrabial growth. Food proservation techniques are based on this principle. DEHYDRATION ‘Controlled condition: water Heat is applied to evaporate the moisture, Bacteria can survive the drying process. Care must be taken with some rehydrated products. Once water is added, Pow red mik must bo trated as fresh milk Sun drying - tomatoes, sultanas, Air drying in heated chambers ~ apples, bananas Spray drying - used for liquids - milk, eggs. instant coffee. Roller drying - used for tomato paste, instant mashed potato and breakfast cereals, Tunnel drying - used for vogolablos. Freeze drying ~ meat, instant coffee, instant meals, SALTING Controlled condition: water. In low concentration, salt binds with the maisture in the food thus making the water unavailable to microbes, At higher concentration galt will dehydrate the microbial cells, + Brings ~ olives. * Cures - salt in combination with potassium nitrate and potassium nitrite eg. carned beef, bacon, ‘THE ADDITION OF SUGAR Controlled condition: water. * Sugar acts in the same way as salt ‘syrups, jams, glace fruits, candied truits, erystalized fruits, PASTEURISATION Controlled condition: temperature. In this process healing destroys pathogens, but does not destroy spoilage organisms or bacterial spores. UHT - ULTRA HIGH TEMPERATURE Controlled condition: temperature. Product is heated ta 132°C tor two secands, then cooled to below 4°C. The item is sterilised. All micro-organisms, both spollage and pathogonic are destroyed Examples include long lle milk, fruit juices specially packed, Reltigeration is not required until opening, CANNING Controlled condition: temperature. In this process, heat is used to destroy Clostridium Botulinium spores. The times and tomparatures used in canning may ‘vary depending on the acidity ofthe food. Inthe standard method, food is cooked in the ean. For larger cans the food may be heat treated first, then canned. FREEZING Controlled condition: temperature and water.‘At -18°C the growth rate of micro-organisms is severely reduced, The low temperature inhibits growth and wator in the frozen state is not available tor microbial growth Note, Micro-organisms are nat necessarily destroyed by Ireezing. Some may survive and can become active once tha food Is thawed. VACUUM PACKAGING Gontrolled condition: oxygen, ‘Oxygen is withdrawn, A spocial plastic packaging is used, Anaerobic micro-organisms survive, Examples include vacuum packaged meats, fish, cheese. Thase foods must be held at refrigeration temperatures. items such as coffee beans can be stored al room lemperature. CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE Controlled condition: oxygen and temperature. ‘Oxygen levels are reduced and carbon dioxide levels are increased, Ternperatures are kept low. Examples include pears and apples which can be stored for many months under controlled atmospheric conditions. Further ripening is suspended, thus deterioration is slowed too, PICKLING ‘Controlled condition: pH. ‘Vinegar is most often used to change the pH of feods, Examples include pickled vegetables, ‘SMOKING ‘Smoke contains anti-microbial substances formaldehyde and Gresol. Nowadays, smoking is most alten used for flavour, ‘not primarily for preservation, (CHEMICAL PRESERVATIVES ‘These are anti-microbial substances. Gertain additives are used to control the growth of undesirable bacteria, yeasts and moulds, Examples. + propionic acid used as a mould inhibitor in bread. ‘+ sulphur dioxide effective against bacteria, yeasts and moulds and used in dried fruits and peeled potatoes, * nitrates and nitriles used to cure meats to control Clostridium botulinium, ‘Controlling one or more canditions required for the growth of micro-organisms stows the rate of food spoilage, 6. FOOD POISONING Foods that are spoiled look, smell and taste ‘off’. These are detectable signs ta warn the consumer nat to eat them. Eating spoiled faods hawover is unlikely to cause illness. On the other hand, foods that are contaminated with harm{ul micro-organisms or toxins look, smell and taste okay, Toxins in foods can be {rom a number of sources, Some foods are naturally poisonous or are subject to natural contaminants. Examples: + Poisonous mushrooms. ‘green’ potatoes - poison ‘solanine' Comfrey - contains a poisonous alkaloid, Rhubarb leaves - high levels of oxalic acid, ‘Apricot kernels - contain cyanide, ‘Appia saeds - contain cyanide. Peanuts - may be contaminated with high levels of Aspergillus flavus mould.‘CHEMICAL FOOD POISONING Harmful chemicals may end up in the food supply as a resutt of agricuitural practices or industrial pollution, Posticidesiherbicides are widely ised in the control af undesirable plants and insects, The surtace-of fruits and vegetables may have spray residues, It is good practice to wash frult and vegetables botore use, Somotimas cloaning chemicals can accidentatly contaminate food eg. sodium hypochlorite inadequately rinsed trom drink containers, Always store chemicals away from food. Make sure chemicals are correctly labelled, Always follow ‘manufacturers instructions lor us, BACTERIAL FOOD POISONING “The term food poisoning Is used to describe the iliness that results from the consumption of food containing pathogenic bactoria ‘Symptoms of food poisoning vary but usually invalve vomiting, diarrhoea and abxlominal pain, “Tho bacteria responsible for food poisoning may be derived fram Contaminated raw ingredionts., Infected ood handlers, Pests contaminating raw or processed foods. ‘Tho equipmont, surfaces andl wtonsils In tha food proparation aroa, ‘The growth of these bacteria can be accelerated by: + Proparing food too far in advance, * Inadequate cooking, * Inadequate rehoating + Improper thawing. ‘+ Improper hot holding of cooked foods ‘Most food poisoning is the result of unhygienic practices. The causes of food poisoning ara sometimes summarised as tho Food Poisoning Chain, Thora are six links. source of bactoria bacteria transferred to food food, pH, ‘moisture, ‘oxygen conditions time and temperature contaminated food is eaten food poisoning Broaking any link in the chain will prevent food poisoning, source of bacteria no transfer making conditions of food, moisture, pH & oxygen unsuitable for bacterial growth time & temperature food is sate tooat 10 food poisoning Food service workers should organise their work so that the links in the food paisoning chain are broken, They should be ‘especially careful when handling potentially hazardous foods. These foods aro high in protein and moisture and will“These bacteria cause infection llingss is due to toxins produced by the bacteria Salmonella Staphylococcus Aurous Listeria monacytogens Campylotoacter jejuni Clostridium botulinum Bacillus Gere Vibrio parahaemolyticus SALMONELLA Incubation time:8-48 hours. ‘Symptoms: Diarrhoea, vomiting, abdominal pain, tever. Lasts: 4-7 days. ENVIRONMENTAL AND FOOD SOURCE ‘© Present in the intestines of animals, Spread by flies, cockroaches, mice and rats, Meats, poultry and eggs contaminated with excreta during processing, Sholfish and fish from sewerage polluted waters. Vegetables grown using animal manure. Transferred from raw foods to cooked foads by hands, equipment and surfaces in the kitchen food handlers can be carriers of Salmonella, ‘CONTROLS ‘+ Thorough cooking of foods. Temperatures above 65°C will destroy Salmonella, * Wash hands and equipment between handling raw and cooked foods. * Wash vegetables, especially those to be eaten raw. + Enforce strict personal hygiene. * Avoid cross contamination after cooking by keeping raw and cooked meat apart. ‘CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS Itis anaerobic and forms spores. ILLNESS Incubation time: 8-20 hours. Symptoms; Diarrhoea and abdominal pain, Vorniting is rare, Lasts: 12-48 hours. ‘Occurs particulary in situations of large scale catering ENVIRONMENTAL AND FOOD SQURCES * Present in the intestines of animals, commonly found on meat and pouttry. * Spores occur widely in soil, dust, air and water. * Vegetables contaminated with animal manure, soil or dust may harbour spores, + Large quantity meat dishes that involve long slow cooking and roasts that are cooked ahead, then reheated. Spores may survive the cooking process. I cooling is slow and not under reftigeratian, spores may germinate and Clostridium Porfringons bacteria grow to dangerous numbers. ‘CONTROLS + Keop soil carrying vegetables out of preparation aroa, Avoid parlial cooking of foods, then reheating Coo! cooked meat dishes quickly (within 1 hours) and refrigerate. It foods must be reheated, do it quickly and thoroughly Enforce strict personal hygiene.LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES The organism responsible for listeriosis has caused several major food-borne outbreaks affecting particular at-risk groups Inthe community, The bacteria can be found in a variety of ready-to-eat foods such as deli-meat, cooked diced chicken, smoked mussels, smoked fish, pre-prepared salads and soft serve ice-cream, It has also been found in unpasteurised milk, soft cheese, coleslaw and pate ‘WHO IS AT RISK FROM LISTERIA INFECTION? Listeria infection can affect people differently. Healthy people may develop few or no symptoms, However, for some people, the infection can be serious enough to require hospillisation and be a threat to life, People who are at particular risk of infection include: * Pregnant women and their unborn babies. * Newborn babies. © The elderly * Anyone whose immune system has been weakened by disease or iliness eg cancer, leukemia, diabetes, liver or kidney disease ‘+ Anyone on prednisone or cortisone as this can also suppress the immune system. ‘SYMPTOMS, Hoaithy poopia may not be affected at all In persons at risk, symptoms may include favor, headache, tiredness, achos and pains, These sympioms may progress to more serious forms of the iiness, such as meningitis and septicaemia, Less common symptoms are diarrhoea. nausea and abdominal cramps. In preanant women the iliness may vary {rom a mild form to. resulting in miscarriage, still bith, premature birth or a very il baby. How common is Listeria Infection? Itis relatively uncommon but the fatality rate among at-risk people is very high. Between 8-24 cases are reported each year. ‘Gan Listeria infection be treated? ‘Yes, with antibiotics if treatment is started early, How can you avoid Listeria Infections? ‘As Listorla bacteria are commonly found in tho environment, they aro impossible to eradicate, Some oxpasure to tho bacteria is unavoidable; most people are, however, at low risk of Listeria Infection, HIGH RISK FOODS ‘+ Ready to eat seatood such as smoked fish and smoked mussels. * Premixed raw vegetable salads, such as coleslaw. * Pre-cooked meat products which are eaten without further cooking or heating, such as pate, sliced deli-meat, and ‘cooked diced chicken. * Any unpastourised milk or foods made trom unpasteurised milk * Soft serve ice-cream, + Soff cheeses such as brie, camembert, ricotta, ‘SAFE FOODS * All freshly cooked foods. + Hard cheeses, cheese spreads, processed cheeses, * Milk, froshly pastourised ang UHT. © Yoghurt + Tinned and pickled foods,BACILLUS CEREUS Bacillus organisms are aerobic and spore forming. in the vegetative state they produce toxins, infective dose is large; 100 milion bacteni lines Incubation time: 1-12 hours, ‘Symptoms: Vomiting, some diarrhoea and abdominal pain. Lasts: 6-24 hours. ENVIRONMENTAL AND FOOD SOURCES © Found in soil, dust and water + Frequently present in rice, corntiour, dried peas and beans. ‘© Mostly associated with spore germination in cooked foods incorrectly stored and reheated. CONTROLS Hold food out of the temperature danger zone Discard water used for soaking dried peas and beans. Retrigarate leftovers quickly. ‘Tharoughly reheat leftovers. SATHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS Staphylo is from the Greek, moaning "bunch of grapes. Under the microscope this bacteria looks like a bunch of grapes. Staphylococcus is a facultative micro-organism and able to survive without oxygen. It does not form spores, but does rolease heat resistant toxin. The bacteria themselves are oasily destroyed by heating. The toxin, however may survive bailing temperatures for thiny minutes: Staphylococcus is tolerant of salt, Approximately 50% of the human population permanently or intermittently carry Staphylococcus Aureus in the nose, throat and on the skin. It is the micro-organism which infects pimples, cuts and burns. lines Incubation time:2-6 hours. ‘Symptoms: ‘Acute vomiting, abdominal cramps and sometimes diarrhooa. Lasts: 2-24 hours. ENVIRONMENTAL AND FOOD SOURCES Food handied with contaminated hands Food handler coughing or sneezing over food. Ham, cold meats, sausages. Bakery items eg. cream filled cakes, trifies, custards. Salads 09. pasta. potato. Unpastourised mik trom cows with infected udder CONTROLS Enforce strict personal hygiene. Food handlers with coids should not work with food. Use gloves, tongs, spoons to minimise contacting food with bare hands when mixing, slicing, serving Store food items under retrigeration. guard against cross contamination.‘CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINIUM The word ‘Botulinium’ is a Latin derivative of sausage, Through the ages, sausages have need associated with the most deadly form of bacterial food poisoni ‘A.0.2mg dose of the toxin produced by the bacteria is thought to be lethal to: an adult. Fortunately, botulism is rare and an anti-toxin is available, Clostridium botuliniurn is anaerobic and forms spores. Hlinoss Incubation time: 12:36 hours ‘Symptoms, ‘Toxins act an the central nervous system. Vision and speech are impaired. Respiratory muscles are paralysed. In the worst cases breathing stops ENVIRONMENTAL AND FOOD SOURCES © Foundin soil, sea water. * Low acid canned foods that have been inadequately heal pracessed eg. beetroot, car, beans, mushrooms, fish + Vacuum packed fish eaten raw. ‘CONTROLS + Donot use detective ‘blown’ canned foods, + Ensure sutficiont time temperature combinations in cookery. + Add acid (vinegar, lemon juice, wine) to low acid foods bottled on the premises, CASE STUDY In a local community house the Council provides a lunchtime meal service for the elderly people, Gn most days, custard is served with the dessert, As tis easy to propare, the new kitchen assistant is given this task, Sho starts work at 8,00am and on this parlicular morning decides te prepare the custard first, At8 30am she leaves the custard to cool and begins other preparation. Suddenly she wonders f she added the sugar, She tastes the custard with a spoon and thinks itis sweet enough, but checks again just in case, using the same spoon without washing it, Satisfied that the sugar has been added the custard is lett on the bench in the kitchen forthe rest of the morning, At 12.15pm the custard is gently ‘warmed and then served at 12,30pm with apple crumble, By aftarnoon tea time several people have started to vornit and have severe abdorninal pain, That evening all the people who had eaten custard are ll [Link] HYGIENE AND FOOD STORAGE Food hygiene is about protecting foad from contamination and minimising micrabial growth, The many ways that food ‘may be exposed to cross contamination are shown below. Insect and rodent pests. Domestic pets Food handler hi = Raw food FOOD Garbage _ Oe Utensis, equipment and surlaces, Soil! air/water/dust borne ‘contaminants1 Origin of pathogenic bacteria and conditions for their development ‘Origins and growth conditions of a few pathogenic bacteria; Intoatines, ani ‘or human stools (ior healthy carriers) Dirty hands Manure Purntication station Work environment Floor, water, intestines, Abscesses Saliva, throat, ns wounds and ‘or human stools Spores in nature, soil, dust Plant sediments Spores in nature (soll, air, water) andl intestines of animals Plant sediments: Eggs, agg products, meat-based products, poulry, faw milk, prepared ‘meat products: Vegetables: pacially pre-cul) ‘smoked fish (walmon!) Vegetables Raw milk-bas dairy products, Prepared meat products. made from eggs ‘and milk, ico cream, pro-cooked dish ‘slow reheating Vacuum-packed foads, cooking in large quantities, in broth, leftover ‘sauce, foods: ‘cooked the day botore, dishos ‘cooled lob slowly, etc. preserved food Prepared maat products Min, T°: 5°6 Optimal T*: 37°C Min. Ay! 0.94 Min, pl 4 Min, Ay : 0,89 Min. pl 4 Max, 7": 70°C Min pH 5 Min. T°: 40°C Optimal T°: 87" MIN, Aw: 0.94 Min. pl: 4.6 Chapter 3 nig and una of oes rinks 2 oe ce ce oe 7hHuman digestive ina arse | tract, water Fruit saledsand | iin ay 9.05 contaminated by | raw vegetables excrements Minced meat Mince as ‘Treatment plant Raw milk, dal aaa Evecaration products = Man: T?, 68°C Droppings (ihermal-resistant toxins) Bread Min. 8:40" lant seedings | Crumb (inside) of | Optimal T° 37 °C Cereals, rice faa Socos Rice dishes: Max. T" 65°C. ‘There are other important pathogenic bacteria but they are specifically associated with animal products or products of animal origin, For example, the Campylobacter genus Jejuni and C, coli) includes some of the most frequent and most pathogenic bacteria, which come from the intestines of wild or farmed animals and contaminate chicken, duck and turkey meat, pre-cut poultry, etc. ‘To develap in food, bacteria need: + Water in any form (liquid, steam, mist, etc,), The availability of water (described as ‘water activity’, Aw) is @ eritieal factor for bacterial growth. * An appropriate temperature (N.B.; some bacteria can develop in cold slorage and refrigerators, despite temperatures below 5 °C.) + Nutrients (sugar, fatty substances, vitamins) + Anoutral or low-acid pH (6 to 8), * Oxygen as a rule, but this varies depending on the species, and some bacteria are even anaerobic (e.9.: Clostridium botulinum, responsible for botulism, is a strict anaerobic bacterium), Clostridium botulinum, bacteria responsible for botulism. Chapter 3 Origen ana tire of foes rikke1 Microbiological cross-contamination Microbiological cross-contamination is @ major problem, especially for certain bacteria \iko Listoria monocytogenes. I can occur through direct contact with dirty unprocessed products (0,g,; vegetables pulled from the ground oF picked fruit), personnel wearing dirty clothes, sprays (0.g.: produced by a pulsed-air hand dryer), contaminated instruments (0.9.: using a knife that was used to harvest products), unwashed material, ‘tc, The problem is even more serlous when cross-contamination occurs at the end of the process (just before shipping) and! for products thal will not be cooked before being eaten (0.9.; lettuce contaminated by soil) ‘Cross-contamination can accur at any stage of the process when the product is exposed to the environment, inchiding harvest, tansport and processing, Tratfle flows of ‘employees, raw materials and material must be limited and controlled between product “reception areas’, ‘processing areas, ‘storage areas and "Yinished product areas’ In order to prevent the transfer of pathogens from unprocessed (or raw) products to processed products, Itis therefore important to apply the principle of a workflow from dirty to clean ar (the ‘processing chain’ should be designed on the basis of this principle to prevent Unprocessed and finished products from crossing paths on entry or exit) and measures to prevent contamination of products that have already been sanitized (e.g se different colaured containers‘baskets for unprocessed and finished products), [1 What aro the accoptablo limits? Regulation (EC) 178/2002 establishes genoral food safety requirements, (n particular that food cannot be placed on tha markat if tls unsafe, The general aim Is to ensure consumer safety: food must not contain micro-organisms or thelr toxins or metabolites. in quantities that would present an unacceplable risk to human health, Foad business operators are obliged to take unsafe food off the market. To contribute to the protection of public health and to prevent different interpretations, regulations thorofore establish, on tho basis of sclontiic findings, harmonised safety critoria for food acoeptabilly, particularly with respect to the presence of certain pathogenic, micro- organisms (Regulation (EC) 2073/2005 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs), Those ‘microbiological criteria’ sorvo both as references for authorities in charge of food controls. and as objectives for food business operators (0.9. the HACCP plan can be ‘gauged! to these criteria) Crows-conlaminatlon is also posible via tw work surfaci (0. culling vegetables on a work ‘surface used fo cut up poultry) or even in rerigerators (0.9); liquld dripping From maat onto \veaelables) If germs are transferred fram carcasses to cut vagetablas, It's therefore Focommandod to use different work surfaces tor meat, fish and vegotables, to perform tasks in a jortar ord (culng vagutables first) and to avoid using Kard-lo-clenn wooden chopping boards or Instruments, Regulation (EC) 2073/2008 of 15 November 2005 on microbiological criteria for foadsturts, Offcia! ‘Journal ofthe European Unton L 388/1, of 22.12.2008, = TF Chapter 3 righ ane mr Of %‘The ‘microbiological criterian’ defines the acceptability of a food product (or a food lot) or a process, based on the absence or presence or number of micro-organisms, andor the quantity of their toxins/metabolites per unit of mass, volume, area or lot It should nevertheless be kept in rind that food safety cannot bo ‘moroly by mesting criteria but that it also requires compliance wit Practices! and use of HACCP, where necessary. rantood ‘Good Hygiene ‘There are two types of microbiological criteria: > imperative standards: (safety criteria): these are public health criteria. Failure to observe an imperative standard results in action on the product lot concemed (e.g. withdrawal, recall, destruction) and in corrective action on production/processing, » other criteria (process criteria): these serve to verify good hygiene practices and pracesses in general. Failure to observe these criteria does nat result in spocific action on the products concerned but the origin of the weakness must be identified and corrective actions introduced. ‘A microbialog cat criterion is composed of the following elements: Indication of the micro-organisms and/or their undesirable toxinsimetabaltes; > analytical mathads used to detect andior quantify them; » alan defining the number of samples to be taken (n), as well as the size of the analytical unit (25g, 20 g, 109 0° 19), The number and size of analytical units per fot tested should be as stated inthe sampling plan and must not be changed. > acceptable limits for tha micro-organisms or toxins considered appropriate for the food expressed either qualitatively (presence/absence) or quantitatively (e.g.: 10° cfu/g of produdt*) » the number of analytical units that should conform to these fimits, The microbiological criterion must also define: » the point in the food chain where it applies: > the actions to ba taken when the criterion is not met ‘The values of the ‘acceptable micrabiological limits’ that will be sot should take into ‘account the risks associated with the micro-organisms and the conditions under which the food is expected to be handied and consumed. Microbiological limits shoutd also take account of the likethood of uneven distribution af micro-organisms in the food, and of the variabily inherent to the analytical method. I a Cu: colony-forming unit, Unit used to count bacteria in microbiological analysis: every live bacterium isolated during sorting of the sarnple or @ medium creates a ‘colony’ that appears in the Pett dish as a spat. Every spot. or colony, originates from one micrabe that has divided. The measure is given in chur (liquid sample) or cfulg (soll sample) Chapter 3 ”Criterion requires the absence of a given micro-organism, the size and number of the analytical unit (as well as the number of analytical sample units) should be indicated, Tha following values aro examples of acceptability levels (acceptabio li ‘sampla must #xceed this value): alue: no ‘Absence in 25 g or ml Lister Absence in 25 9 or mi ‘Absence in 25 g or ml Microbiological analyses, wherever possible, must only employ sampling and analytical methods whose reliability (accuracy, repeatability, inter and intra-laboratory variations) ‘has been statistically established in the framework of comparative or interlaboratory studies, Preference shauld also be given to methods validated for the product concerned, especially when these are reference methods developed by intemational organisations. Chapter 3 of Rogulation (EC) No 2073/2005 describes rules for sampling ‘and preparation of test samples. ‘Aithough methods must offer maximum sensitivity and repeatabilty for the intended aim, tests conducted in companies often partially sacritice sensitivity and repeatability to speed and simplicity. They must neverthelass be tested methods, capable of giving a suificiently reliable estimate of the information required (Hygiene of food, Godex ‘Alimentarius, 2009). Chapter 3 npr and ‘tw of ode risksChapter 3 3.1.3. Mould, yeast and fungi Mould and yoast found on frut and vegetables are primarily My spoilage flora, Certain moulds (.9.: Alernaria spp, Aspergils favus, Fusarium spp., etc.) are toxigenic, in particular due to the production of mycotoxins. They also present a tisk for product qually.” Yeasts are normal micro-organisms on fresh frult and vegetables, The majority of yeasts prasent on frult and ‘vegotablos ara spoilage micro-organisms, They are not a ‘s0urCa of food poisoning Grey moukt on onion ‘The following ara examples of acceptable limits to be applied to ready-to-eat food placed on the market 10g 10g sites 3.1.4, Animal pi “Tho specific hosts of parasites are often animals, However, the hosts can also Include: humans during the parasite fe cycle. Parasite infections are usually associated with ealing undercooked meat products of ready-to-eat foad, bul fruit and vegetables can also be carriers of some of those parasites. Effective freezing can gat rid of this type of ‘parasite in food that will be eaten raw, marinated or partially cooked, A Protozoa Protozoa are small single-cell organisms loss than a millimatre in size, which can form colonies, They live only In water or damp ground. They are known to cause many diseases such as malaria, certain forms of dysentery such as amoebiasis, and toxoplasmosis, ‘The pathogen responsible for amoebiasis Is a rhizopod, Entamoeba histolytica, tis the ‘only amoeba that is really pathogenic to humans. Contamination by this amo! ‘r0-faecal, |e. through ingestion of Is cysts present in soiled water or food, “Toxoplasmosis is a parasite infection caused by the protozaan Toxoplasma gondil. Tho ‘parasite Usually infects warm-blooded animals, Including man, but ts definitive host is @ folic (including cats), Tho eooysts are prosant on plants or ground soiled by animal 4 Ths hen ik eaoceed wth tb preeenceot'myaoon i be caveloped frerio te chapler, SSChapter 3 npn ane rare of Foe ‘droppings (cats in particular). From there, they can contaminate food, hands or drinking water and then be ingested, The presence of cysts in meat is frequent: 80 % of adult ‘small ruminants are contaminated, while pork is generally contaminated in less than 40 % of casas. Other animal spacies can all be contaminated, but the extent is not known, When meat is eaten raw or undercooked, the cysts are not destroyed and develop in the ‘host organism. in the case of an infection during pregnancy the risk is greatest to the foetus and the effects are particularly serious if the infection occurs during the first twa. months of pragnaney. («= ~ wm t Photo ofan amoeba Tachyzoites of Toxoplasma gondii Lambiiasis is an infection (due to Giardia intestinalis, also called Giardia farmbifa) that often goes unnoticed. However, the parasite that causes itis one of the most frequent in Europe, especially among children. Itis a majar oro-faecal disease, probably the most. widespread intestinal parasitosis in the world. Itis a frequent cause of travellers" diarrhoea, 17 Intestinal worms! Dozens of different types of worms and the other intestinal parasites that infest humans are present in every country in the world. They are more frequent, however, in tropical and sub-tropical regions and are widespread during the rainy season. Parasitic diseases caused by roundworms or nematodes that live in human intestines are called intestinal helminthiases, The eggs of these parasites are intraduced into the human system through food or water (e.g. fruit and vegetables soiled by impure water), Food soiled by earth or washed with non-potable water therefore represents a major source of contamination from intestinal worms, Other parasites that go through the skin, such as bitharziasis (Schistosoma worms) found in stagnant waters in Asia, Africa and South America, or the larvae of ankylostoma, which penetrate the skin, will not be considered here, ee so‘The transmission of intestinal worms to man is due conditions: onment by excreting stools i oe roel os ee ‘The solled ground and plants are contaminated by zi ple become infected by eating food solled by the excrements or through, viha ood va sole hones, 3nd ecto byte partie ge or lr dvelon nto ad worm that produce large numb (dab aphdoed lll ale peel “The most widespread infections of this typa in the AGP countries > ascariasis, caused by roundworm; caused by whipworm (Thichuns sp.) is, caused by hookworm, ‘Thore aro many others, howover, and we describe below the malr, charactoristics of the ‘parasites encountarad most often, Rounctworm (Ascavis fumbricoides) is a parasite that causes ascariasis, length of 17 centimetres, 1s tra through soiled water or peorly we fruit and vogotablos, Ascaris fumbricoides Trichocop! parasite infection ‘caused by the nematode Trichurls trichiura, Its more frequent in warm and damp regions, and in areas where untreated human faveal matter is used 1 fertiliser, Contamination is oral, anc caused by ingestion of fertile eggs that soll hands or food of pallute drinking water. Egq of the THchuris trichiura nomateder Pinworms aro small white worms measuring around one contimatra long and found In the ground, Children, wha place their hands on the ground ant came Into contact with parasitos, aro infested much more often by intostinal worms than ovalop in the intestine and during the night the females migrate to the anus. They lay ‘e998, which causes the itching typical of this infection. Eggs are alxo found in underwear, bedding and even on the floor, Ifthe child scratches himself and then touches his mouth, ss eo Choptor 3 fate tfooe ‘ink 8the contamination continues and the parasites can be transmitted to other famity members, Tha worms can cause an inflammation of the intestines and lungs, nausea, vomiting, major weight toss and fever, In sama cases, the parasitas can cause intense itching in the area around the rectum, Most of those parasites are not serious for people in good health, but some can have after-effects, particularly when they develop in the brain or lungs. Among immunodeficient individuals, such as AIDS pationts, the parasites can be fatal ‘To be complete, we will mention other parasitic worms that can be found in food, but only in meat. Trichinella spiralis or threadworm isa rarasitic worm (nematode) that causes trichinosis in man and in many mammals, The worm can develop in the small intestine and its larvae then migrate to the muscles where they encyst. Humans can be infected by eating the parasite-infostod meat of pigs, warthogs or any other mammal. Fish and meat can also be infected, with tapeworm for example. This parasite (Cestode) alachas to the intestines of pigs and cows using its hooks. Itis made up of a series of rings that enclose highly resistant eggs that will devetop into worms. In cows and pigs. tapeworm can encyst in muscles, Humans can therefore be contaminated by eating raw ‘or underccoked meat. Three montis later, the first rings are excreted in the stools, a process that can continue for years! oo Chapter 3 82