1.

4 Food Plant Design 45

Final operations of juices. The aseptic packaging of the OJ and the freezing-
packaging operations of the concentrated juice do not change appreciably the
compositions and amounts of the materials.
Material balances for 20,000 kg/h of oranges: 12 Brix OJ,
20,000 0.45 ¼ 9000 kg/h. Pomace 15 % TS, 20,000 0.497 ¼ 9940 kg/h. 12
Brix OJ for concentration, 20,000 35 ¼ 7000 kg/h.
Packaged 12 Brix OJ, 20,000 0.09 ¼ 1800 kg/h. Total 65 Brix COJ,
20,000 0.0646 ¼ 1292 kg/h.
Packed 65 Brix FCOJ, 20,000 0.0516 ¼ 1032 kg/h.
Canned 42 Brix FCOJ, 20,000 0.023 ¼ 460 kg/h.
Water evaporated in evaporator, 20,000 0.2854 ¼ 5708 kg/h.
Feed to essence recovery column 5708/3 ¼ 1900 kg/h.
Concentrated (distilled) essence,

20, 000 0:002 ¼ 40 kg=h:

Dried orange pomace, 20, 000 0:083 ¼ 1660 kg=h:
Peel oil, 20, 000 0:003 ¼ 60 kg=h:

Heat Balances
The material flows obtained from material balances are utilized in energy balance
calculations. For preliminary calculations of equipment sizing and process eco-
nomics, the heat balances are the most important, and they can be estimated on the
PBD. Mechanical and electrical energy, refrigeration, and fuel calculations require
more details of the processing equipment and typical numerical examples are given
in subsequent chapters of this book.
Calculation of heat balances around each processing unit requires
thermophysical data, particularly specific heats, enthalpies, and densities of the
process streams. For this example, the specific heats (Cp) of orange juices were
obtained from Kimball (1999). They are very close to the Cp of aqueous sucrose
solutions: 12 Brix (OJ), 3.86 kJ/kg K; 42 Brix (COJ), 3.06 kJ/kg K; and 65 Brix
(COJ), 2.44 kJ/kg K.
The specific heat of the orange juices decreases slightly with decreasing tem-
perature down to the freezing point. For preliminary analysis, the specific heats of
unfrozen juices are considered constant. The effect of freezing can be taken into
consideration by using the heat of fusion (or freezing) of water, which is
ΔHf ¼ 333 kJ/kg. Empirical equations for the prediction of the thermophysical
properties of orange juices are given by Kimball (1999).
Steam requirements. Steam is used for evaporation, pasteurization, and steriliza-
tion. Assume that saturated steam of 100 % quality at 110 C (1.43 bar absolute
pressure) is to heat the first effect of the evaporator. The heat of vaporization
(or condensation) of water at 110 C is ΔHv ¼ 2230 kJ/kg (Smith and Van Ness
1987). The theoretical steam economy (kg of evaporated water/kg steam) for the
triple-effect evaporator is close to 3 (see Example 7.1). However, in practice, the
steam economy (E) would be lower, and for a triple-effect evaporator, assume
46 1 Design of Food Processes and Food Processing Plants

E ¼ 2.5. Thus, the steam requirement for evaporating 5708 kg/h of water will be
5708/2.5 ¼ 2283 kg/h.
The condensate from the first effect of the evaporator (at 110 C) is used to
preheat the feed of orange juice to the evaporator.
Steam requirement for the essence recovery column: The feed enters the
column as a saturated liquid and the rate of F ¼ 1900 kg/h. The distillate is
D ¼ 20,000 0.0002 ¼ 40 kg/h and the residue B ¼ F D ¼ 1900 40 ¼ 1860
kg/h (see Chap. 11). Assume a practical reflux ratio of R ¼ 2, i.e., L/D ¼ 2.
Therefore, L ¼ 2D ¼ 2 40 ¼ 80 kg/h, and V ¼ 80 + 40 ¼ 120 kg/h (L, V, and
D are the flow rates in the enriching section of the column). For the stripping
section of the column, L0 ¼ F + L ¼ 1900 + 80 ¼ 1980 kg/h, and
0 0
V ¼ L B ¼ 1980 1860 ¼ 120 kg/h. The steam (110 C) required in the reboiler
of the distillation column will be approximately equal to the flow rate of vapors in
the stripping section, i.e., S ¼ V0 ¼ 120 kg/h. The column is assumed to operate at
atmospheric pressure with a practically constant boiling point of 100 C.
Steam requirements for pasteurization and sterilization, using 1.43-bar steam
(110 C): Pasteurization of 9000 kg/h 12 Brix OJ by heating from room temper-
ature (assume 20 C) to 90 C requires steam (X, kg/h), obtained from the equation,
X ¼ [(9000) (3.86)(90 20)]/2230 ¼ 1090 kg/h. For sterilization of 1800 kg/h 12
Brix OJ at 95 C for 15 s, steam requirement [(1800) (3.86) (95 20)]/
2230 ¼ 202 kg/h.
Total steam requirement is 3695 kg/h.
The air-dryer of the animal feed will use a fuel (e.g., gas) as a heat source, since
steam is not economical for this product and flue (combustion) gases of high
temperature can be tolerated for this product (see Example 8.1).
Cooling water. The major requirement for cooling water is to condense the water
vapors of the last effect of the evaporator. Assume that the vapors in the last
(vacuum) effect condense at 50 C (see Example 7.1) and that cooling water at
20 C is used. The heat of condensation of water at 50 C is ΔHv ¼ 2384 kJ/kg, and
the required water will be [(1900)(2384)]/[4.18(50 20)] ¼ 36,121 kg/h.
The essence column operates at atmospheric pressure, condensing the vapors
(V ¼ 120 kg/h, mainly water) at 100 C (ΔHv ¼ 2257 kJ/kg), without subcooling.
Cooling water requirement: (120)(2257)/[4.18(100 20)] ¼ 810 kg/h.
Total cooling water requirement: 36,121 + 810 ¼ 36,931 kg/h or about 40 m3/h.
The cooling requirements of the pasteurizer and sterilizer are neglected (heat
regeneration).
Summary of material and energy balances of Example 1.1
Raw material: 20,000 kg/h oranges (13.6 % TS)
Products: Packaged orange juice (OJ) 12 Brix, 1800 kg/h
Canned frozen concentrated (FCOJ) 42 Brix, 460 kg/h
Packed frozen concentrate (FCOJ) 65 Brix, 1032 kg/h
Dried orange peels (pomace) 10 % moisture, 1660 kg/h
Peel oil, 60 kg/h
Fruit essence 40 kg/h
References 47

Steam requirements: evaporation 283 kg/h

Essence recovery 120 kg/h
Pasteurization 1090 kg/h
Sterilization 202 kg/h
Total steam 3695 kg/h

Fuel requirement for drying: 485 kg/h LPG (Example 8.1)

Cooling water: condenser of evaporator 36,121 kg/h

Essence recovery column 810 kg/h
Total cooling water 36,931 kg/h

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Chapter 2
Design and Selection of Food
Processing Equipment

2.1 Introduction

The principles of mechanical design and construction of food processing equipment

are similar to those for the equipment of the chemical and process industries. The
basic engineering requirements of process equipment are the containment of the
material, the strength of the components, the efficiency of the operation, and the
transfer of energy during processing. The equipment should be resistant to corro-
sion and be cost effective, and its operation should not present occupational hazards
to the operators. In addition, the food processing equipment must comply with strict
standards and regulations, which are necessary for securing the quality and safety of
the food products to the consumers.
Hygienic (sanitary) design of food processing equipment involves selection of
appropriate materials of construction and design, fabrication, and operation of the
equipment that will ensure the safety of the food products from microbial and other
contaminations and preserve the food quality. The equipment should be easily
cleaned and sanitized by continuous (CIP; see p. 65) or noncontinuous techniques
and be adapted to integrated systems of process control and automation.
Plant and equipment maintenance in food processing are of paramount impor-
tance. Due to stricter regulations and more or less fluid products, mechanization and
automation are more advanced in dairy technology than in other food processing
plants (Tannine and Law 2001).
Equipment used in the processing of seasonal products, such as tomatoes,
oranges, and sugar beets, requires special maintenance. All equipment, remaining
idle for a substantial time, should be examined thoroughly and repaired, if needed,
before starting the new processing period. Equipment failure during the busy
processing period can result in significant losses of raw materials, due to spoilage.
The quality of processed food products is affected significantly by the processing
equipment (Kostaropoulos and Saravacos 1995).

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 51

G. Saravacos, A.E. Kostaropoulos, Handbook of Food Processing Equipment,
Food Engineering Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-25020-5_2
52 2 Design and Selection of Food Processing Equipment

2.2 Sizing and Costing of Equipment

The sizing of food processing equipment is based on material and energy balances
around each process unit. The process block diagram (PBD) and data tables
obtained in process design (Chap. 1) are essential. Shortcut (simplified) equations
are normally used for preliminary sizing of process equipment. Food engineering
properties and databanks, especially transport properties, are needed for the calcu-
lations (Rao and Rizvi 1995; Rahman 1995; Saravacos and Maroulis 2001). Sizing
calculations yield preliminary data on the dimensions of the equipment and the
requirements for utilities (steam, water, refrigeration, power).
An oversizing capacity of 10–20 % is normally used to account for production
problems, e.g., breakdown of a critical unit, and to meet production peaks.
Oversizing is also advisable, when operating or environmental conditions change
substantially, e.g., higher capacity of an air-cooling unit to account for increased
humidity of cold storage rooms or for higher temperature and humidity of
ambient air.
Equipment sizing also depends on the manufacturing plans of the food company.
Thus, if greater flexibility is desired, two smaller units are better than a larger one.
Splitting the capacity of process and utility units may also be advantageous for a
more steady and flexible operation and for a reduction of the maintenance cost of
the whole processing plant.
The cost of materials is the major component of the cost of the processing
equipment. Typical costs of metallic materials, converted to year 2000 (M&S
index), are carbon steel $430/t, SS 304 $2000/t, SS 316 $3200/t, and aluminum
$1600/t (Sinnott 1996). The cost of construction also depends on the type of
material used, i.e., raw, rolled, extruded, plate, and alloy, and the precision of
workmanship in fabrication.
The price of standardized or “off-the-shelf” equipment is, in general, consider-
ably lower than the price of custom-made equipment. Whenever possible, such
equipment is preferred.
Cost indices and Guthrie charts of Chemical Engineering magazine (M&S, CE)
can be used for general processing equipment (Table 1.3 and Fig. 1.2). Published
cost data for various food processing plants and equipment are very limited, e.g.,
Bartholomai (1987). These data are useful in preliminary equipment and plant
design and in economic evaluation of a proposed food processing plant. Of course,
more realistic cost data on specific equipment can be obtained from price quotations
of equipment suppliers.
Cost data were collected in Europe for certain food processing equipment for the
period 1960–1990 (Kostaropoulos and Saravacos 1997). Typical diagrams of cost
versus capacity for food tanks, plate heat exchangers, and centrifuges, used in the
dairy, edible oil, and juice/beverage industries, are shown in Figs. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
and 2.5. The material of construction is food-grade stainless steel, and the cost in
USD (US dollars) was converted to year 2000, using the M&S equipment cost
index. The “2/3” rule (1.3) was applicable to most equipment, except for tanks of
Fig. 2.1 Cost of storage 50
tanks for liquid foods (year
2000). Data from 40

USD(x1000)
Kostaropoulos and 30
Saravacos (1997)
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
cubic meters

Fig. 2.2 Cost of plate heat 50

exchangers (year 2000).
Data from Kostaropoulos 40
USD(x1000)

and Saravacos (1997) 30

20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
cubic meters / h

Fig. 2.3 Cost of centrifugal 10

pumps for liquid foods (year
2000). Data from 8
USD(x1000)

Kostaropoulos and
Saravacos (1997) 6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40
cubic meters / h

Fig. 2.4 Cost of centrifugal 5000

pumps (5 m3/h) in the
period 1960–2000. Data 4000
from Kostaropoulos and
Saravacos (1997)
3000
USD

2000

1000

0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
54 2 Design and Selection of Food Processing Equipment

Fig. 2.5 Cost of centrifugal 30

separators (6 m3/h) in the
period 1960–1990. Data

USD(x1000)
from Kostaropoulos and 20
Saravacos (1997)

10

0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year

low capacities (below 200 L), where a higher capacity factor (n) was found. The
capacity factor for special mechanical equipment, like centrifuges and homoge-
nizers, is nearly n ¼ 1. There is an almost linear relationship between the weight and
the power of the centrifugal pumps.
Nearly linear increases of the cost of centrifugal pumps and centrifuges during
the period 1960–1990 were observed (Figs. 2.4 and 2.5), corresponding to average
annual increases (inflation) of 6.5 and 7.5 %, respectively. These increases are
significantly higher than the average annual increases of the M&S equipment index
(4.5 %) over the same period (Fig. 1.2). The higher inflation rates of food
processing equipment are due to the higher increases of prices of the alloying
metals, i.e., Cr, Ni, and Mo, used in food-grade stainless steels (Hall et al. 1988).

2.3 Materials of Construction

The properties and cost of materials of construction are very important factors in the
design, construction, operation, and maintenance of general processing equipment.
Selection and application of these materials are based on the principles of metal-
lurgy and materials science (Murray 1999; Cardarelli 2000).
The main materials being used for food processing equipment are metals,
plastics, and glass–ceramics. Furthermore, wood and some natural fibers are used
in some special applications. The materials used in the construction of food
equipment must have the following properties: (1) mechanical strength, (2) easy
to fabricate, (3) easy to repair, (4) resistance to corrosion, (5) hygienic properties,
and (6) desirable thermal properties.
The mechanical strength is especially important in the construction of equipment
used in processing of large quantities in a relatively short time, e.g., in seasonal
processing. Furthermore, strength is usually more important in the first stages of
processing, in which large amounts of raw material have to be processed. Mechan-
ical strength is also important when material stress is involved, such as in loaded
tanks and silos and in abrasion during cutting, milling, and pneumatic transport of
grain. For protection against abrasion, hardening of the surface of the metal is
2.3 Materials of Construction 55

necessary. In fabrication and repair of food processing equipment, the hardness and
welding ability of the materials are also important.
The resistance against corrosion is especially important in (1) wet processing
(e.g., canning industry) and (2) processing of foods or food ingredients of relatively
low pH, which may attack the equipment materials and when corrosive chemicals
are used, e.g., caustic solutions for peeling, SO2 for preservation, and cleaning
chemicals.
Factors that may enhance corrosion are (Perry and Green 1997) (1) increase of
temperature, (2) pressure, (3) acidity (pH), (4) presence of impurities, (5) aeration,
(6) relative velocity (material/product), and (7) temperature difference (ΔT ) during
heat transfer.
Corrosion of food processing equipment may be distinguished as: (1) uniform
corrosion (e.g., oxidation due to humidity), (2) pitting (tiny holes on the surface of
the metals, due to the attack of aqueous solutions containing chlorides), (3) stress
corrosion (e.g., overloading of pumps and grinding machines), (4) intergranular
corrosion (due to high temperature during welding), and (5) galvanic corrosion (due
to the direct contact of dissimilar metals).
The materials that are used for food processing and preservation equipment may
come directly in contact with the food or may be part of supporting elements of
machines and structures without contacting food at all. Nevertheless, due to strict
measures taken for protecting food from contamination, even materials not coming
in direct contact with food should fulfill the hygienic conditions established by
regulations for food protection. For materials of equipment that come directly in
contact with food, the hygienic regulations are to a great extent the same as the
regulations for food containers and packaging materials.
The hygienic (sanitary) materials do not exchange components with the food,
i.e., they do not contaminate the food or absorb components of the processed
product. They should have smooth or polished surfaces, not react with detergents,
and they should be cleaned easily. Thermal properties are important when heat
transfer to and from the processed products must take place (e.g., pasteurization of
liquids in tubes, cooling down food in plate freezers). The main characteristics of
materials employed in the construction of food processing equipment are given in
Table 2.1.

2.3.1 Metals

Metals are the most important materials used in the construction of food processing
equipment. They can be classified into two main categories: ferrous metals and their
alloys and nonferrous metals. The nonferrous metals are either used in the con-
struction of equipment and in equipment parts coming directly in contact with food
or are included in alloys or in chemicals that are used for influencing the properties
of other materials (e.g., paints, plastics).