Carbon dating, also known as radiocarbon dating, is a scientific method used to determine the

age of an object containing organic material by measuring the amount of carbon-14 (C-14) it
contains. This technique is commonly used in archaeology, anthropology, and geology to date
ancient artifacts, fossils, and organic remains. Bone, cloth, wood and plant fibres can be dated
by this method. Carbon-14 dating can be used on specimen that are no more than 50 000 years
old.

Carbon-14 dating measures the levels of the isotope carbon-14 in samples of material that were
once living. Each kilogram of a living organism contains a definite amount of carbon-14. The
instant an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14 in it decreases due to radioactive decay. The
age of a piece of wood or a dead body, for example, can be calculated by comparing its present
level of carbon-14 per kilogram with that expected for the living material (or organism). The
older the specimen, the smaller the amount of carbon-14 it contains.

Here's how carbon dating works:

1. Carbon Isotopes: Carbon occurs in three isotopes: carbon-12 (C-12), carbon-13 (C-13),
and carbon-14 (C-14). While C-12 and C-13 are stable isotopes, C-14 is radioactive and
unstable. C-14 is continuously produced in the Earth's upper atmosphere when cosmic
rays interact with nitrogen atoms, creating a small amount of C-14.
2. Incorporation into Organisms: Plants and animals, including humans, incorporate
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into their bodies during photosynthesis or by
consuming other organisms. This includes a proportion of C-14 along with the more
abundant C-12 and C-13 isotopes.
3. Radioactive Decay: Once an organism dies, it stops taking in carbon from the
environment. At this point, the radioactive C-14 in its tissues begins to decay into
nitrogen-14 (N-14) at a known rate. This decay process has a half-life of approximately
5,730 years, which means that after this time, half of the original C-14 in a sample will
have decayed.
4. Measuring C-14 Levels: Scientists can measure the remaining amount of C-14 in a
sample using a technique called accelerator mass spectrometry or liquid scintillation
counting. By comparing the ratio of C-14 to C-12 or C-13 in the sample to the ratio in the
atmosphere, they can calculate how long it has been since the organism's death.
5. Determining Age: By knowing the rate of radioactive decay and the original C-14
concentration in the atmosphere, scientists can estimate the age of the sample. This age
is expressed in years before present (BP), with "present" typically defined as the year
1950.

Carbon dating has proven to be a valuable tool for dating organic materials up to about 50,000
years old. It has been used to date archaeological artifacts, fossils, ancient manuscripts, and
other organic remains. However, it is less effective for dating materials older than about 50,000
years due to the diminishing amount of C-14 and the limitations of the method.

It's important to note that carbon dating provides estimates rather than precise ages, and
calibration is often necessary to account for variations in atmospheric C-14 levels over time.
Additionally, it is not suitable for dating inorganic materials or objects that have never
contained organic material.
Carbon forging is a process in metallurgy and manufacturing that involves the shaping and
strengthening of metal materials, particularly steel, through the application of heat and
pressure. This process is used to produce high-quality, durable, and reliable metal components
with specific properties and shapes. Carbon forging specifically refers to the use of carbon steel
as the base material for the forging process.

Here's an overview of the carbon forging process:

1. Material Selection: Carbon forging primarily involves the use of carbon steel, which
contains carbon as the primary alloying element along with small amounts of other
elements such as manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon. The specific grade and
composition of the carbon steel are selected based on the intended application and
desired properties of the forged component.
2. Heating: The carbon steel is heated to a specific temperature, often referred to as the
forging temperature. This temperature varies depending on the type of steel and the
desired outcome. The steel needs to be heated to a range where it becomes malleable
but does not melt.
3. Forging: Once the steel reaches the appropriate temperature, it is placed in a forging
machine, typically a press or hammer, and subjected to significant pressure. The force
applied causes the steel to deform and take on the desired shape. Forging can be
performed in different ways, including open-die forging and closed-die forging,
depending on the complexity of the component.
4. Heat Treatment: After forging, the components may undergo heat treatment processes
such as quenching and tempering to enhance their mechanical properties, including
hardness, strength, and toughness.
5. Machining and Finishing: In some cases, the forged components may require additional
machining, grinding, or finishing processes to achieve the desired surface finish and
dimensional accuracy.

Carbon forging offers several advantages, including:

 Improved mechanical properties: Forged carbon steel components tend to have higher
strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance compared to cast or machined parts.
 Enhanced grain structure: The forging process refines the grain structure of the steel,
improving its metallurgical properties.
 Customization: Forging allows for the production of complex shapes and customized
components.
 Durability: Forged carbon steel components are known for their durability and
resistance to wear and tear.

Carbon forging is commonly used in various industries, including automotive, aerospace,

construction, and manufacturing, to produce components such as gears, crankshafts, axles, and
other critical parts that require high strength and reliability.
Extraction of sucrose from the juice of sugar cane.

1. Shredder: Contains rotary knives for cutting cane into small pieces.
2. Crusher: Juice is extracted as water is sprayed on the cane and rollers apply pressure to
crush the cane. The cane fibre, known s ‘bagasse’, later burnt to supply fuel for the
boilers.
3. Clarifier: Cane juice is acidic and is neutralized by the addition of calcium hydroxide
(lime). Heating allows for the precipitation of impurities in the form of insoluble calcium
salts.
4. Filter: The precipitated solid materials are removed from the cane juice. The clarified
juice passes to the first of several boilers.
5. Boiler: The juice is evaporated under reduced pressure to prevent charring. Several
boilers, each at a more reduced pressure then the previous one, are used.
6. Crystallization: The thick syrup is supersaturated. Pure sugar crystals are added to cause
the crystallization of the liquid.
7. Centrifuge: Here the mixture from the crystallizer is spun at high speeds to separate it
into molasses and raw sugar crystals.
8. Collectors: Containers for collecting the separated molasses and sugar.

The refining process is where raw sugar is further purified to produce clean, white
sugar crystals:

 Raw sugar is mixed with warm sugar syrup and centrifuged to separate the
crystals.
 The crystals are dissolved to remove any final impurities before flowing
through filters.
 At this point, a clear, golden-coloured liquid is passed through ion-exchange
columns and a white syrup is produced. This syrup is seeded with fine sugar
crystals and when large enough, both the crystals and syrup are spun
through a set of centrifuges to separate out the crystals.
 The refined sugar is dried and then graded ready for bagging and delivery to
customers – whether in small packs, bulk bags or tankers.