NOTES OF

ENGLISH

PREPARED BY ABDULLAH KHATTAK AND

HASSAN SOHAIB ZIA

Q no (1)"Sentences:

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought or idea. It

typically contains a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a

predicate (what the subject is doing or what is happening). Sentences can be

short or long and can convey various types of information.

Example:

Simple Sentence: "The cat sat on the mat."

Complex Sentence: "Although it was raining, they went for a walk."

Compound Sentence: "I wanted to go to the party, but I had too much work to

do."

Simple Sentence:

A simple sentence is a sentence that contains only one independent clause

and expresses a complete thought or idea. It usually consists of a subject and

a predicate.

Example:

"She sings beautifully."

"The sun shines brightly."

Complex Sentence:

A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one independent clause and at

least one dependent clause. A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a

complete sentence because it does not express a complete thought or idea.

Example:

"Although it was raining, they went for a walk."

"Because she was tired, she went to bed early."

Compound Sentence:

A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent

clauses joined together by coordinating conjunctions such as "and," "but," or

"or."

Example:

"I wanted to go to the party, but I had too much work to do."
"She likes to read, and he likes to watch movies."

Qno (2) Punctuation

"1. Period (.)

The period is used to indicate the end of a declarative sentence. It is also used

in abbreviations.

2. Comma (,)

Commas are used to separate items in a list, to set off nonessential

information, to separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating

conjunction, and to separate introductory phrases or clauses.

3. Colon (:)

Colons are used to introduce a list, an explanation, or a quotation. They can

also be used to separate hours from minutes in time notation and to separate

titles from subtitles.

4. Semicolon (;)

Semicolons are used to join independent clauses that are closely related in
thought, to separate items in a list when the items themselves contain

commas, and to clarify complex lists or separate elements in a series.

5. Question Mark (?)

Question marks are used at the end of direct questions.

6. Exclamation Mark (!)

Exclamation marks are used to express strong feelings, emotions, or to

emphasize a point.

7. Quotation Marks (" ")

Quotation marks are used to indicate direct speech or to enclose the titles of

shorter works, such as articles or poems.

8. Apostrophe (')

Apostrophes are used to indicate possession, to form contractions, and to

indicate omissions in contractions or in dates.

9. Parentheses ( )

Parentheses are used to enclose supplementary or explanatory material that

interrupts the main sentence.

10. Dash (—)

Dashes are used to indicate a sudden break in thought or sentence structure,

to set off parenthetical elements more strongly than parentheses or commas,

and to introduce lists or explanations.

11. Ellipsis (…)

Ellipses are used to indicate the omission of words in a quotation or to

indicate a trailing off of thought.

12. Hyphen (-)

Hyphens are used to join words together, to separate syllables in a word at

the end of a line, and to form compound adjectives before a noun.

These are the primary rules and uses of punctuation marks in English writing.

Mastering them can greatly enhance the clarity and effectiveness of your

communication.

Q no (3)Rules of Capitalization
First Word of a Sentence: Always capitalize the first word of a sentence.

Proper Nouns: Capitalize names of specific people, places, and things (e.g., John,

Paris, iPhone).

Titles and Honorifics: Capitalize titles before names or when they replace names

(e.g., Dr. Smith, President Johnson).

Days of the Week and Months: Capitalize the names of days of the week and

months.

Nationalities and Languages: Capitalize names of nationalities and languages (e.g.,

French, Chinese).

Historical Events and Periods: Capitalize significant historical events or periods

(e.g., Renaissance, World War II).

Institutions and Organizations: Capitalize names of institutions, organizations, and

companies (e.g., Harvard University, Microsoft).

Religions and Religious Terms: Capitalize names of religions and important religious

terms (e.g., Christianity, Bible).

Titles of Books, Movies, and Songs: Capitalize the principal words in the titles of

books, movies, and songs.

Geographical Locations: Capitalize names of geographical regions, continents, and

landmarks (e.g., Sahara Desert, Mount Everest).

Seasons: Capitalize the names of seasons (e.g., Spring, Fall).

Directions: Capitalize directions when referring to specific regions (e.g., North,

East).

Acronyms and Initials: Capitalize all letters in acronyms and initials (e.g., NASA,

JFK).

Brand Names: Capitalize brand names and trademarks (e.g., Coca-Cola, Nike).

Important Events and Dates: Capitalize significant events and dates (e.g.,

Independence Day, New Year's Eve).

Q no (4)"Vocabulary Building Rules:

Read Regularly: Read books, articles, and anything you find interesting to encounter

new words.

Use Context: Understand words in the context they're used to remember them

better.

Keep a Word List: Write down new words you encounter and review them
regularly.

Practice Speaking: Use new words in conversations to reinforce your memory.

Play Word Games: Engage in word puzzles, crosswords, or word association games

to expand your vocabulary in a fun way.

Learn Roots and Affixes: Understand prefixes, suffixes, and root words to decode

unfamiliar words.

Use a Thesaurus: Explore synonyms and antonyms to deepen your understanding of

words.

Learn Word Families: Understand how words are related in meaning and form

groups based on common roots or meanings.

Study Etymology: Learn the origins of words to grasp their meanings more deeply.

Use Flashcards: Create flashcards with new words and their meanings for quick

review.

Set Goals: Aim to learn a certain number of words each week to stay motivated.

Utilize Technology: Use apps or online resources designed for vocabulary building.

Read Aloud: Pronounce words as you read to reinforce their correct usage and
pronunciation.

Review Regularly: Go back to your word list and review previously learned words to

solidify your memory.

Be Patient: Building vocabulary takes time and consistency, so be patient with

yourself as you progress.