Chuka University

CHUKA UNIVERSITY ODEL MODULE STRUCTURE

CHUKA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE LEARNING IN COLLABORATION WITH FACULTY OF

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

COSC 103: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

Course Author: Charles K. Gitonga, Reviewed by: Benard O. Osero

Department of Computer Science, Chuka University

© Chuka University 2016

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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INTRODUCTION

A computer is an electronic device that can perform computations and make logic decisions faster
than human beings. Today’s personal computers can perform billions of calculations in a second.
There exist different types of computers with different capabilities. Supercomputers are the fastest,
powerful and most expensive of all types of computers. They are capable of performing thousands
of trillions instructions per second!

Since their inception, computers have continued to shape people’s lives and dictate the way we
carry out our daily activities. Today, most aspects of our lives are in way dependent on computers,
ranging from communication, business, hospitals and even the mundane office works, we have
computers working with humans. It’s a new dawn, where man and machine are working together
to realize a new dream in a digital modern world. Welcome to COMP 101: Introduction to
Computer Applications.

This course is intended for students taking undergraduate programmes. Students will be introduced
to general computing skills and use of computing technology in various social and economic
sectors.

There are no prerequisite for this course. Students are expected to complete the course in 45hours
within a period of one semester.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

 Students, who successfully complete the course, should be able to:

 Explain the history of computers, and what they are.
 Discuss how the various hardware and software components of a personal computer system
work.
 Demonstrate the ability to use basic windows operating system features.
 Carry out problem solving and data analysis using a word processor, spreadsheet, and
database management application
 Create a presentation using a Presentation Graphics Software
 Demonstrate understanding on computer networks
 Identify the impact of the Internet in economic activities
 Carry out simple binary arithmetic operations and number system conversions

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction to Computers ...................................................................................................................... 6

1.1 Definition of Computers ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Components of a Computer System ............................................................................................. 7
1.2.1 Computer Organization ................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Application of Computers in the Society ........................................................................................ 13
1.4 What a Computer cannot do.................................................................................................................. 14
1.5 Why Computerize ................................................................................................................................. 15
1.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................... 15
1.7 FURTHER READING............................................................................................................................ 16
1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................................. 16
2.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS ........................................................... 17
2.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE AND SPEED .................................................................................... 21
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ON THE BASIS OF HOW THEY FUNCTION .................................... 23
2.7 Further Reading ................................................................................................................................ 23
3. 0 PARTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM................................................................................................ 24
3.1 SYSTEM UNIT............................................................................................................................... 25
3.2 STORAGE ..................................................................................................................................... 25
3.4 KEYBOARD ................................................................................................................................... 32
3.5 Monitor ....................................................................................................................................... 39
3.6 PRINTERS ..................................................................................................................................... 40
3.7 SPEAKERS .................................................................................................................................... 40
3.8 MODEM....................................................................................................................................... 41
4.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE ..................................................................... 42
4.1 Functional Components of a Computer System ......................................................................... 42
4.2 Input Devices..................................................................................................................................... 43
4.3 Storage Unit (Main Memory + storage devices) ............................................................................... 43
4.4 Memory Size ..................................................................................................................................... 43
4.5 Output Devices.................................................................................................................................. 43
4.6 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)............................................................................................................... 43

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4.7 Control Unit....................................................................................................................................... 43

4.8 Central Processing Unit ..................................................................................................................... 44
4.9 Other Hardware components on the Computer system ............................................................ 44
4.10 COMPUTER STORAGE ............................................................................................................. 45
4.11 Primary (or Main) Memory ..................................................................................................... 46
4.11 SECONDARY STORAGE ................................................................................................................ 47
5.0 COMPUTER SOFTWARE ............................................................................................................ 49
5.1 What is Software? ............................................................................................................................. 49
5.2 APPLICATION SOFTWARE .................................................................................................................. 50
5.3 CATEGORIES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE ................................................................................................ 53
5.3.1 Operating Systems .................................................................................................................. 53
5.3.2 The Boot Process............................................................................................................................ 55
5.3.3 Utility Software ....................................................................................................................... 57
5.4 SYSTEM SECURITY AND COMPUTER VIRUSES ........................................................................ 57
6.0 WORD PROCESSORS .................................................................................................................. 69
6.1 What is a word processor? ......................................................................................................... 69
6.2 Types of word processors ........................................................................................................... 69
7.0 PRESENTATION GRAPHICS SOFTWARE................................................................................ 83
8.0 SPREADSHEETS.......................................................................................................................... 85
8.1 Overview of Spreadsheet software................................................................................................... 85
8.2 Functions ........................................................................................................................................... 86
8.2.1 Entering functions ................................................................................................................... 87
8.2.2 ROUND Function ..................................................................................................................... 88
8.2.3 COUNT Function...................................................................................................................... 88
8.2.4 AVERAGE Function .................................................................................................................. 89
8.2.5 IF Function............................................................................................................................... 89
8.2.6 Embedded/Nested IF Function ............................................................................................... 90
8.5 Errors ........................................................................................................................................... 91
8.6 Charts ......................................................................................................................................... 92
9.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS AND THE INTERNET ..................................... 94
9.1 What is a computer network? .................................................................................................... 94
9.1.1 Types of Networks .................................................................................................................. 94

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9.1.2 Importance of Computer Networks ........................................................................................ 95

9.1.3 Communications media ......................................................................................................... 96
1 Wired technologies ......................................................................................................................... 96
2 Wireless technologies ........................................................................................................................ 98
9.2 The Internet ................................................................................................................................ 99
9.2.1 The Structure of the Internet ......................................................................................................... 99
9.2.2 Computers on the Internet ............................................................................................................ 99
9.2.3 Information on the Internet......................................................................................................... 100
9.2.4 Communication through the Internet .................................................................................. 100
9.2.5 Intranet and Extranet ........................................................................................................... 103
9.3 World Wide Web (WWW) and Types of Web Browsers........................................................... 103
10.0 NUMBER SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................. 106
10.2 Converting Unsigned Whole Numbers ......................................................................................... 108
10.2.1 Converting Fractions .................................................................................................................. 109
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 112

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1.0 Introduction to Computers

After successful completion of this chapter, the student should be able to describe the following
concepts:
 computer system
 hardware devices
 Software
 Data
 Measurement of computer memory
 Users

1.1 Definition of Computers

A computer is an electronic programmable machine that accepts inputs in form of data process it
under a set of instructions called programs (computer software’s) and produces processed
information via output devices. Information may also be stored in the computer.

A computer performs a variety of tasks according to specified instructions. It is a data processing

machine which accepts data via an input device and its processor manipulates the data according
to a set of instructions that guide the computer in carrying out a specific task (program).

Therefore, a computer performs the following functions:

(i). Gathering of data/ or information ( captures data from an input devices)

(ii). Processing of data into information
(iii). outputs the processed data (information) through output devices
(iv). It stores data, information and programs in its storage devices

Described in its simplest form, a computer takes data (or inputs), processes it according to a set of
instructions (a program), and gives back a result or output which is information.

Data Computer Information

(Processed data)

Input devices
Output devices
(Keyboard, Mouse, (Monitor, Printer, Speakers)
Microphones, Scanners etc)

Fig 1: General representation of data processing by computer

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The other key characteristic of a computer is that it is a multi-function platform. The same machine
can perform many different tasks by using different programs. So, one program (e.g., a word
processing application) allows letters or documents to be created, while another program (e.g., a
graphics or drawing application) allows images to be created. Generally, a computer can be defined
as an electronic device that manipulates information or data.

The computer has two major components. The first one is the Hardware which is the tangible part
of the computer. It is composed of electronic and mechanical parts that are Cleary visible. These
parts can be seen and touched. Examples are Keyboard, mouse, monitor and the system Unit.

The second major component is the software which is the intangible part of a computer that guides
the computer on how to achieve a specific task. There are two main categories of computer
software’s: the System software (operating system) and Application software’s.

Computers are referred to as programmable devices because data and programs are stored in the
same memory locations.

1.2 Components of a Computer System

A computer system consists of hardware, programs and information stored on hardware. Software
and data are normally stored in the same place on the computer hardware.

The hardware components of a computer system are the electronic and mechanical parts.

The software components of a computer system are the data and the computer programs
(software’s).

According to John Von-Newman architecture, computer systems consist of the following major
parts:

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Main memory

Secondary memory

Input devices

Output devices

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Fig 2: General structure of Von Neumann Architecture

For typical desktop computers, the processor, main memory, secondary memory, power supply,
and supporting hardware are housed in a metal case. Many of the components are connected to the
main circuit board of the computer, called the motherboard.

The power supply supplies power for most of the components. Various input devices (such as the
keyboard) and output devices (such as the monitor) are attached through connectors at the rear of
the casing.

1.2.1 Computer Organization

Although computers come in many different shapes and sizes, they are all made up of the same
basic components. In fact, all envisioned into various logical units or sections. Their design is
based on Von Neumann Architecture.

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MAIN

Fig 3: Main components in a computer system

The terms input and output say if data flow into or out of the computer. The picture shows the
major hardware components of a computer system. The arrows show the direction of data flow.

(i) The processor (Central Processing Unit)

The processor is the “brain” of the computer. It contains millions of extremely tiny electrical parts.
It does the fundamental computing within the system. Examples of processors are Pentium, Athlon
and SPARC. The processor, either directly or indirectly, controls all the work carried out in the
computer. It is commonly known as the ‘chip’ or, more correctly, the central processing unit
(CPU). The processor follows the instructions provided by both the user (via input devices) and
the program that is running in order to perform a task.

The processor is an electronic device about a one inch square, covered in plastic. Inside the square
is an even smaller square of silicon containing millions of tiny electrical parts. A processor may
contain 100 million transistors. It does the fundamental computing within the system, and directly
or indirectly controls all the other components.

The processor is sometimes called the Central Processing Unit or CPU. A particular computer will
have a particular type of processor, such as a Pentium chip or a SPARC chip.

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(ii) Memory

The processor performs all the fundamental computation of the computer system. Other
components contribute to the computation by doing such things as storing data or moving data into
and out of the processor. But the processor is where the fundamental action takes place.

A processor chip has relatively little memory. It has only enough memory to hold a few instructions
of a program and the data they process. Complete programs and data sets are held in memory
external to the processor. This memory is of two fundamental types: main memory, and secondary
memory.

Main memory is sometimes called volatile because it loses its information when power is removed.
Secondary memory is usually nonvolatile because it retains its information when power is
removed. (However, it needs power when information is stored into memory or retrieved from it.)

(iii) Main memory:

 Closely connected to the processor.
 Stored data are quickly and easily changed.
 Holds the programs and data that the processor is actively working with.
 Interacts with the processor millions of times per second.
 Needs constant electric power to keep its information.
 Main Memory

Main memory is where programs and data are kept when the processor is actively using
them. When programs and data become active, they are copied from secondary memory
into main memory where the processor can interact with them. A copy remains in
secondary memory.

Main memory is intimately connected to the processor, so moving instructions and data
into and out of the processor is very fast. Main memory is sometimes called RAM. RAM
stands for Random Access Memory. "Random" means that the memory cells can be
accessed in any order.

When people say that a computer has "512 megabytes of RAM" they are talking about how
big its main memory is. One megabyte of memory is enough to hold approximately one
million (106) characters of a word processing document. (There will be more about bytes
and megabytes later on in these notes.)

Nothing permanent is kept in main memory. Sometimes data are placed in main memory
for just a few seconds, only as long as they are needed.

The computer's main memory is considered as volatile storage. This means that once the
computer is turned off, all information residing in the main memory is erased.

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(iv) Secondary memory:

 Is connected to main memory through the bus and a controller.
 They store data that can easily be changed, but changes are slow compared to main
memory.
 Used for long-term storage of programs and data.
 Before data and programs can be used, they must be copied from secondary
memory into main memory.
 Does not need electric power to keep its information.

Secondary memory is where programs and data are kept on a long-term basis. Common secondary
storage devices are the hard disk and optical disks.

 The hard disk has enormous storage capacity compared to main memory.
 The hard disk is usually contained inside the case of a computer.
 The hard disk is used for long-term storage of programs and data.
 Data and programs on the hard disk are organized into files.
 A file is a section of the disk that has a name.

A hard disk might have a storage capacity of 500 gigabytes (room for about 500 x 109 characters).
This is about 100 times the capacity of main memory. A hard disk is slow compared to main
memory. If the disk were the only type of memory the computer system would slow down to a
crawl. The reason for having two types of storage is this difference in speed and capacity.

Large blocks of data are copied from disk into main memory. The operation is slow, but lots of
data is copied. Then the processor can quickly read and write small sections of that data in main
memory. When it is done, a large block of data is written to disk.

Often, while the processor is computing with one block of data in main memory, the next block of
data from disk is read into another section of main memory and made ready for the processor. One
of the jobs of an operating system is to manage main storage and disks this way.

Secondary memory
Primary memory

 Fast  Slow
 Expensive  Cheap

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 Low capacity  Large capacity

 Works directly with the processor  Not connected directly to the processor

Table 1: Differences between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

The secondary memory is connected to main memory. It is used to hold programs and data for
long term use. Examples of secondary memory are Hard disks and CD-ROM.

Secondary memory is considered as non-volatile storage. This means that information residing in
secondary memory is not erased after the computer is turned off.

(v) Input and Output Devices

Input and output devices allow the computer system to interact with the outside world by moving
data into and out of the system.

Input Unit is the receiving section that obtains information (data and computer programs) from
input devices and places it at the disposal of the other units for processing. An input device is used
to bring data into the system - for capturing information

Computers have input devices to allow the user to control the machine. Essentially, an input device
acts as a conduit/channel for information from the user to the computer. They translate input
information into a form that can be processed and used by other parts of a computer. Some input
devices are:

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Microphone
 Bar code reader
 Graphics tablet

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Outputs device is the shipping section that takes information that the computer has processed and
places it on various output devices to make it available for use outside the computer.

An output device is used to send data out of the system – for presenting information

Computers also have output devices which return the results of computer actions back to the user.
They are the complement to input devices.

Examples of output devices are:

 Monitor
 Printer
 Speaker
 projector

Note: A network interface acts as both input and output. Data flows from the network into the
computer, and out of the computer into the network.

1.3 Application of Computers in the Society

Computers play a great role in the society. Whether at home, in school, at the mall or in the office,
computers have a significant role to play in enabling users to accomplish various different tasks.
Be it at work or at play, computers have undeniably been utilized to perform general or specific
activities that enable life to be more convenient.

Some of the usages of a computer in the society today includes but not limited to the following:

(i) In business: computers are used in keeping daily records of business activities carried out.
These include sales and profits and other transactions dealt with. Also, we use computers
to produce documents/materials to promote the products of the business.
(ii) In Engineering: engineers use computers to create the design of a complex object using a
computer program such as Computer-Aided Design.
(iii) At home: computers are used at home for recreational purposes. You can listen to music,
watch movies, or even play games. Children use their computers to do their schoolwork.
Parents use computers to assist in carrying out their daily tasks. At home, you can also
access the Internet and do online shopping right at the comfort of your bed among many
other uses.
(iv) In the Government: computers are used to keep records of people that the government
serves. Several government agencies use computers to facilitate the task they are required
to give to people.
(v) In Manufacturing: computers are used in the manufacturing/industrial sector to manipulate
machines that perform dangerous tasks (that could endanger human life) or tasks that are
repeatedly done.

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(vi) At School and other learning centres: computer education is a subject taught in schools
today. Teachers use computers in their classroom instruction, in computing grades and in
preparing visual aids to aid in teaching. Also, students use computers to study various
computer applications, carry out research work/assignments through the Internet, and
sharing of information among others. Computers are used in training sessions such as in
aircraft training for pilots; students use simulation software on training. Also, students use
computers to analyze data collected for research purposes.
(vii) In Science and Research: computers are used in science to stimulate experiments, which
are dangerous to perform in real life. Computers are also used to record data and
information derived from experiments.
(viii) In Automobiles and other machinery: computers were introduced into cars in the late
nineteenth century, for such effects as controlling engine functions, fuel injection, and
signal light timing. It is not until recently, that computers have started to play a role in
helping to save people’s lives by enabling car manufacturers to create new automobile
safety features. Air bags are an extremely important safety feature in an automobile. A
computer is located in the steering wheel of an automobile, which is equipped with airbags
and is the only device capable of signaling the airbags to deploy in the case of an accident.
(ix) In Hospitals and Health facilities: computer programs are used in running sophisticated
machines such as kidney dialysis machines, as well as in diagnosing patients.
(x) Weather forecasting stations: computers are used in running weather simulations to predict
future weather patterns, and calculating large, complex data sets.

1.4 What a Computer cannot do

Human beings may be slow and inaccurate especially where arithmetic is concerned, but they still have
advantage over computer system:

I. Human being think but the computer does not think.

II. The computer process data by reshuffling, performing arithmetic on it or comparing it with
other data. It is the instructions that give the computer its apparent intelligence.

III. The ability to make a decision and act on them. The computer has to be given roles and
instruction that are stored in memory as bytes. The roles are called programs.

IV. Humans can innovate (discover) and adopt but a computer is not capable.

V. Humans learn by trial and errors and can use incomplete information and past experience in
various scenarios which a computer cannot do.

VI. The human brain is capable of performing many operations at once, but the majority of present
computers perform only one operation at a time.

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1.5 Why Computerize

Speed-A large modern computer can perform in one minute what could take a man 10 years in case he
is to do it manually with a pen and pencil. Large computers can perform millions of transactions within
seconds and this could be the simplest instructions in the computer can execute in a very short time
even if the execution is complex e.g. usually printers are very slow in the computer system but line
printer prints up to 1200 lines per minute. This is a performance that is far beyond any typist
achievement.

1. Storage Space/memory-A computer use the binary system in which the digits are either 0/1, 1
digit is known as a bit and a group of bits are called bytes. A byte is the amount of space it takes
to store a character. A computer usually handle data in a fixed size group of bits called words.
The storage capacity of a computer is measured in terms of bytes. A computer uses two types
of memory i.e. its main memory and external memory. The main memory is used to hold
instructions and data when the computer is working. The external memory in form of disk tape
paper etc. provides permanent copies of information which it can access very quickly. The
capacity and speed depends on the media used e.g. a diskette can store 360 kb (150 pages), and
another floppy can store 1.2 mb. Therefore it is possible to store large amount of information on
limited space and also be able to retrieve whenever necessary.

2. Cost-Computers vary in cost from a few hundreds of dollars to many hundreds of dollars;
however the cost of the computer is cheaper than human labor. Take an example of a computer
costing 100 dollars and what the computer can do in 1 minute is what can take man the rest of
his life, hence the cost of running a computer equals to hundred man years.

3. Efficiency –The above mentioned feature combine to make the computer a very efficient piece
of equipment and can do any kind of work within a short time with 100% accuracy, for example
if we take a bank with several branches and a bank clerk makes different payments for different
cheques, receive payments into account and perform various jobs with a computer on hand the
clerk’s current account will automatically update regardless of whether a withdraw or deposit
has been made and the electrical signatory red fire will ensure that only authorized persons
access their money. Computers have also proved efficient in the field of medicine, traffic
control, manufacturing, assembling, research, army/military, police reports, travel industry (air,
rail and water) etc.

4. Versatility- A computer can solve any problem that can be broken down into a sequence of
simple logical steps. Once the instructions to solve the problem are prepared the computer can
carry on without interference from the operator.

1.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

(i) COMPUTERS are electronic devices that Processes data to produce information. It
consist of physical visible elements called hardware and another part not seen but it

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controls the operations of the computer, referred to as software’s. Software’s provides

the invisible instructions that control the hardware and make it to perform specifics
task.
(ii) Any computer system consist of the following major hardware components
 Central processing unit
 Memory(main memory)
 Storage devices(such as DDs and flash disks)
 Input devices (such as Keyboard, mouse and microphone)
 Output devices such as printers, monitors
 Communication devices such a modems and network interface cards
(iii) Central processing unit is the brain of the computer. It receives information from the
memory and executes them.
(iv) Computer Memory is the computer work area for executing programs. Random Access
Memory (RAM) is the main memory of the computer and is volatile.
(v) Storage devices stores computer information and programs and does not lose it when
power goes off. Three main types of storage devices are:
 Magnetic disk drives
 Optical disk drives(CD and DVD)
 USB flash drives
(vi) Input and output devices let the users communicate with the computer.

1.7 FURTHER READING

(i) Norton, Peter. Peter Norton's Introduction to Computers: Includes Optional Computer
Activities for DOS, Windows, and Norton Desktop for Windows. Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, 1994.

1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT

(i). Discuss the application of computers in a learning institution such as a university.

(ii). List four parts of a computer system
(iii). Identify four types of computer hardware
(iv). Explain how computer memory is measure
(v). Give examples of output and input devices
(vi). Name and describe three types of storage devices
(vii). Differentiate the two main categories of computer software
(viii). List four specific types of application software.

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2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

After successful completion of this section, the student will learn the following concepts:

 Classification and types of computers

 Computer Generations
 General Purpose and special Purpose Computers
 Digital and Analog Computers
 Super computers
 Mainframe computers
 Minicomputers
 Workstation
 Microcomputers and Personal Computers

2.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

This classification is based on the time frame or period in the year when these computers were
built. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and
more efficient and reliable computers.

The earliest computer device that qualified as a digital computer was the abacus; this is a device
that permits the user to position the numbers by the position of the bit. The abacus was invented
around 600 BC. Another manual calculating device was called Napier, it was designed in 17th
century and its upgraded fashions were in use even within 1980. The first mechanical adding
machine was invented by Braise Pascal in 1664. Later in the year 1671 Baron invented the first
calculator for manipulation.

Mark One Computer-This was the first computer machine designed by Harvard University
in collaboration with IBM (International Business Machine). This machine proved to be flexible
and extremely reliable. It was very complex in design and huge in size. It used over 3000
electrically operated switches to control its operations. It was approximately 50 feet long and 80
feet high.

Attanasoff Berry Computer- This electric machine was developed by Dr. John Attanasoff
to calculate mathematical problems. It used 45 vacuum tubes for internal operations, which
means due to different tubes it produced a lot of heat and it was immovable, in other words the
problems were not solved.

Electronic Numeric Integrator and calculator (ENIAC) - It was the first electronic
computer and it was developed as a result of military need. It was faster in speed as compared to
Mark I computer, though it had two shortcomings;

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i) It could store and manipulate very limited amount of information

ii) Its programs were wired and it was very hard to detect errors/mistakes.

Manchester Mark I-This was the smallest machine based on the stored program basis. It was
designed in Manchester University by a group of Scientists headed by Dr. Morris. This Machine
was a bit fast compared to other machines. Its storage capacity was only 32 watts and this was
too limited to store data and instructions and hence the Manchester Mark I Computer was hardly
of a particular use.

The Universal Automatic Computer-This was the first digital computer and it was
commercially available digital computer which could be used for business and scientific
applications.

Computer Generations

Computer generation provides the framework for the growth of computer industry. Originally the
term generation was used to distinguish between hardware technologies but later it was extended
to include both hardware and software

The computer generations include the following:

1st Generation (1950-1958)

This started with the development of Universal automatic computer called UNIVAC introduced
by Eckert at the University of Pedislavia, it was started in 1946 and was completed I in 1951.

The first generation of computers also started the development of program and programming
languages, but most of the language was Machine Language.

The Vacuum tube computers are referred to as 1st generation Computers. Vacuum tube
computers were used in organizations to carry out calculations.

Advantages of Vacuum tube Computers

1. These computers were very fast compared to human beings as they could perform
computation in a few seconds.

2. They were used to carry out calculations in organizations.

Disadvantages of Vacuum tube Computers

1. Too bulky in size.

2. Air conditioning was required and maintaining these computers was expensive.

3. Commercial production was difficult and very costly.

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4. Manual assembly for individual components into functional unit was required.

5. Thousands of Vacuum tubes that were used to produce this kind of computer produced a
lot of heat.

2nd Generation Computers (1959-1965)

The first generation of computers ended in 1959, with the announcement from the IBM
Company which announced the 70/70 medium sized business computer systems.

This generation emerged with Transistors being the brain of the computer. The 2nd generation of
computers used transistors to store information, these computers were assembled by hand into a
functioning unit. They marked the common use of high level languages, with the objective of
making the computer easy to use.

Advantages of 2nd Generation of Computers

1. Smaller in size compared to the first generation of Computers i.e. they were a bit
movable.

2. Wider commercial use.

3. Less heat was produced compared to the first generation computers.

4. The 2nd generation computers were very fast compared to the 1st generation of computers.

Disadvantages of 2nd Generation of Computers

1. Frequent maintenance was required which made it very costly.

2. Commercial production was still very difficult due to manual assembly of individual
components.

3. The computers were still very bulky and air conditioning was required.

3rd Generation of Computers (1965-1971)

This generation started with the introduction of IBM 360 model in about 1965.

As Improvement in electronics continued this kind of technology made it possible for the IBM
Company to integrate large number of circuit into a very small surface of silicon known as chips.
The new technology was called integrated circuit (IC). The third generation of computers was
therefore based on IC technology. The computers that were designed by use of circuits were
referred to as 3rd generation of computers.

Advantages of 3rd generation of Computers

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1. They were smaller in size compared to the previous generation of computers.

2. Less heat was generated in relation to 2nd generation of computers.

3. They were widely used for various commercial applications and all over the world.

4. Manual assembly of individual components into functioning units was required.

5. Commercial production was a bit easier and cheaper.

6. They were easily portable.

Disadvantages of 3rd generation of computers

1. Air conditioning was still required.

2. Highly sophiscated technology was required to manufacture IC chips hence increasing

the cost.

4th generation computers (1971- present)

From the third generation onwards it becomes very difficult to classify the generations of
computers; since there have been so many developments and it could be difficult to classify each
development as a new generation.

Later as the changes in technology for manufacturing IC chips became possible and there were
integrated up to hundreds of components on a single chip, this kind of technology came to be
known as medium scale integration.

Another development during this period was the development and use of micro-computers and
min-computers. It was during this period that micro-computers started appearing on the market.
The first one was Altair followed by Apple 1. This computer generation also led to the
development of network system and so many operating systems

Advantages of 4th generation of computers

1. Very reliable.

2. No air conditioning was required in most cases.

3. Easily portable because of their small size.

4. Totally general purpose in other words it was introduced commercially in most

organizations.

5. It was cheaper compared to other generations.

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6. It was much faster than the previous computers.

Disadvantages of 4th generation of computers

1. Highly sophiscated technology was required and this made manufacturing to be

expensive.

5th generation of computers (Present and future generations)

Although the fourth generation is only about three decades old, research into the fifth generation
of computers is still underway.

Scientists are now at the 5th and 6th generation of computers and a promise is made to bring a
machine with genuine IQ and with the ability to reason logically, having real knowledge of the
world. The idea of coming out with 5th generation of computers is based in Japan and USA, they
already are working towards this direction; the idea is to have a final machine which can talk
with human beings and deliver pictures.

The fifth generation will depend on major advances of integration of Artificial Intelligence and
expert systems.

The striking feature about this generation is that computers will be able to deal with symbols, be
able to analyze problems and give judgment.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE AND SPEED

(i) SUPER COMPUTERS

Super computers are the most powerful computers. They are used for problems requiring complex
calculations. Because of their size and expense, these computers are relatively rare.

Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for special applications that require immerse
amounts of mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting. Other uses of
supercomputers include animated graphics, nuclear energy research and petroleum exploration.
E.g. the IBM’s Blue Gene/L Supercomputer can perform 70.7 calculations per second making it
the fastest machine known so far.

(ii) MAINFRAME COMPUTERS

Mainframe computers are used in large organizations where many users need to access to shared
data and programs. They can support hundreds of thousands of users handling massive amounts
of input, output and storage. They are mainly used as e-commerce servers, handling transactions
over the internet.

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The main difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels
all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power
to execute many programs simultaneously.

(iii) MINICOMPUTERS

Minicomputers are smaller than mainframe s but large than microcomputers. They have multiple
terminals and are used as network servers and internet servers. Currently, Minicomputers are
normally referred to as mid-range servers. Characteristics include: smaller than mainframe, can
do several jobs at once, can be used by many people at one time and are used by small companies.

(iv) WORKSTATIONS

Workstations are powerful single-user computers

Workstations are used for tasks that require a great deal of number crunching power, such as
product design and animation.

(v) MICROCOMPUTERS OR PERSONAL COMPUTERS

The term microcomputer, also known as personal computer (PC), or a computer that depends on a
microprocessor. A microcomputer contains a central processing unit (CPU) on a microchip (the
microprocessor), a memory system (read-only memory-ROM and random access memory –
RAM), placed on a motherboard. Example: desktop computer, notebook laptop, handheld devices
etc. They were developed in 1980; designed for single user; not very powerful or expensive; and
are found in homes. Handheld PCs such PDAs lacks the power of a desktop or notebook or
notebook PC, but offers features for users who need limited functions and size.

Further classification of micro-computers:

 Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) – small hand-held devices computer used for
surfing the Web and perform simple tasks such as note taking, calendaring,
appointment scheduling, and maintenance of address book. PDAs screen is touch
sensitive.
 Tablet PCs – a pen-based computer that provides the screen capabilities of a PDA
with the functional capabilities of a notebook or desktop computer.
 Notebook computers – small, portable, fully-functional, battery-powered computer.
Commonly referred to as “laptop” computers.
 Desktop computers – the most popular choice for personal computing needs.

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2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ON THE BASIS OF HOW THEY FUNCTION

 Analog computers: operate on continuous data, like measuring temperature changes. They
are faster compared to their digital counterpart. Their accuracy is restricted to the accuracy
of which physical quantities can be sensed and displayed. They are special purpose
computers.
 Digital computers: work on discrete data. A digital computer can process data with greater
accuracy. Are generally used for business and scientific data processing.
 Hybrid computers: comprise features of analog computers and digital computers. The
digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical operations, while
the analog component normally serves as a solver of differential equations.

2.4 PURPOSE BASED CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

 General purpose computers: perform a wide range of tasks

 Special purpose computer: are dedicated computers that perform specific tasks. For
example, controlling the temperature and humidity; monitoring your heart rate; monitoring
your house security system among others.

2.6 Chapter Summary:

2.7 Further Reading

2.8 Self-Assessment Questions:

(i). List the five common types of computer systems.

(ii). Identify two unique features of supercomputers.
(iii). Describe a typical use for mainframe computers.
(iv). Differentiate workstations from personal computers.
(v). Identify four types of personal computers.
(vi). Discuss the classification of computers based on generations, speed and their
functionality.
(vii). Why computers are considered good tools for information management?
(viii). Under what circumstances do we find computers difficult to use.
(ix). What makes the fifth generation of computers superior than the previous
generations?

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3. 0 PARTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

This section introduces the learner to the following concepts:

i) The physical layout of a computer system.

ii) The various major hardware peripheral devices that make up a computer system and a
description of how they are used.

A desktop computer, consist of many pars which forms the "computer." A computer is really a
system of many parts working together. The physical parts, which you can see and touch, are
collectively called hardware. (Software, on the other hand, refers to the instructions, or programs,
that tell the hardware what to do.)

The following illustration shows the most common hardware in a desktop computer system. Your
system might look a little different, but it probably has most of these parts. A laptop computer has
similar parts but combines them into a single, notebook-sized package.

Fig 3: Desktop computer system

Let's take a look at each of these parts.

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3.1 SYSTEM UNIT

The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or
underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process information.
The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor,
which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM),
which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information
stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.

Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables
plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not
part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device.

Fig 5: System unit

3.2 STORAGE

A computer has one or more disk drives—devices that store information on a metal or plastic disk.
The disk preserves the information even when your computer is turned off.

(i) Hard disk drive

Your computer's hard disk drive stores information on a hard disk—a rigid platter or stack of
platters with a magnetic surface. Because hard disks can hold massive amounts of information,
they usually serve as your computer's primary means of storage, holding almost all of your
programs and files. The hard disk drive is normally located inside the system unit.

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Fig 7: Hard disk drive

(ii) CD and DVD drives

Nearly all computers today come equipped with a CD or DVD drive, usually located on the front
of the system unit. CD drives use lasers to read (retrieve) data from a CD; many CD drives can
also write (record) data onto CDs. If you have a recordable disk drive, you can store copies of your
files on blank CDs. You can also use a CD drive to play music CDs on your computer.

CD – Compact Disc or DVD – Digital Video Disc

DVD drives can do everything that CD drives can, plus read DVDs. If you have a DVD drive, you
can watch movies on your computer. Many DVD drives can record data onto blank DVDs.

Tip

If you have a recordable CD or DVD drive, periodically back up (copy) your important files to
CDs or DVDs. That way, if your hard disk ever fails, you won't lose your data.

(iii) Floppy disk drive

Floppy disk drives store information on floppy disks, also called floppies or diskettes. Compared
to CDs and DVDs, floppy disks can store only a small amount of data. They also retrieve

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information more slowly and are more prone to damage. For these reasons, floppy disk drives are
less popular than they used to be, although some computers still include them.

Floppy disk

Why these disks are called "floppy" disks? The outside is made of hard plastic, but that's just the
sleeve. The disk inside is made of a thin, flexible vinyl material.

3.3 Mouse

A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although
mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small,
oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail. Some newer mice
are wireless.

Mouse

A mouse usually has two buttons: A primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button
(the right button). Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to
scroll smoothly through screens of information.

Mouse pointers

When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same direction.
(The pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's positioned on your screen.) When
you want to select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release) the primary
button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer.

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Using your mouse

Just as you might use your hands to interact with objects in the physical world, you can use your
mouse to interact with items on your computer screen. You can move objects, open them, change
them, throw them away, and perform other actions, all by pointing and clicking with your mouse.

Basic parts

A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary
button (usually the right button). You will use the primary button most often. Most mice also
include a scroll wheel between the buttons to help you scroll through documents and webpages
more easily. On some mice, the scroll wheel can be pressed to act as a third button. Advanced mice
might have additional buttons that can perform other functions.

Parts of a mouse

Holding and moving the mouse

Mouse pointers

Place your mouse beside your keyboard on a clean, smooth surface, such as a mouse pad. Hold the
mouse gently, with your index finger resting on the primary button and your thumb resting on the
side. To move the mouse, slide it slowly in any direction. Don't twist it—keep the front of the
mouse aimed away from you. As you move the mouse, a pointer (see picture) on your screen
moves in the same direction. If you run out of room to move your mouse on your desk or mouse
pad, just pick up the mouse and bring it back closer to you.

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Hold the mouse lightly, keeping your wrist straight.

Pointing, clicking, and dragging

Pointing to an item on the screen means moving your mouse so the pointer appears to be touching
the item. When you point to something, a small box often appears that describes the item. For
example, when you point to the Recycle Bin on the desktop, a box appears with this information:
"Contains the files and folders that you have deleted."

Pointing to an object often reveals a descriptive message about it.

The pointer can change depending on what you're pointing to. For example, when you point to a
link in your web browser, the pointer changes from an arrow to a hand with a pointing finger .

Most mouse actions combine pointing with pressing one of the mouse buttons. There are four basic
ways to use your mouse buttons: clicking, double-clicking, right-clicking, and dragging.

Clicking (single-clicking)

To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the primary button
(usually the left button).

Clicking is most often used to select (mark) an item or open a menu. This is sometimes called
single-clicking or left-clicking.

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Double-clicking

To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then click twice
quickly. If the two clicks are spaced too far apart, they might be interpreted as two
individual clicks rather than as one double-click.

Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example, you can start a
program or open a folder by double-clicking its icon on the desktop.

Tip

If you have trouble double-clicking, you can adjust the double-click speed (the amount of time
acceptable between clicks). Follow these steps:

Open Mouse Properties by clicking the Start button , and then clicking Control Panel. In the
search box, type mouse, and then click Mouse.

Click the Buttons tab, and then, under Double-click speed, move the slider to increase or decrease
the speed.

Right-clicking

To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the secondary
button (usually the right button).

Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things you can do with the item. For example,
when you right-click the Recycle Bin on your desktop, you'll see a menu with options to open it,
empty it, delete it, or see its properties. If you're ever unsure of what to do with something, right-
click it.

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Right-clicking the Recycle Bin opens a menu of related commands.

Dragging

You can move items around your screen by dragging them. To drag an object, point to the object
on the screen, press and hold the primary button, move the object to a new location, and then
release the primary button.

Dragging (sometimes called dragging and dropping) is most often used to move files and folders
to a different location and to move windows and icons around on your screen.

Using the scroll wheel

If your mouse has a scroll wheel, you can use it to scroll through documents and webpages. To
scroll down, roll the wheel backward (toward you). To scroll up, roll the wheel forward (away
from you).

Customizing the mouse

You can change your mouse settings to suit your personal preferences. For example, you can
change how fast your mouse pointer moves around the screen, or change the pointer's appearance.
If you're left-handed, you can switch the primary button to be the right button. Research on
“changing mouse settings”.

Tips for using your mouse safely

Holding and moving your mouse properly can help you avoid soreness or injury to your wrists,
hands, and arms, particularly if you use your computer for long periods of time. Here are some
tips to help you avoid problems:

Place your mouse at elbow level. Your upper arms should fall relaxed at your sides.

Don't squeeze or grip your mouse tightly. Hold it lightly.

Move the mouse by pivoting your arm at your elbow. Avoid bending your wrist up, down, or to
the sides.

Use a light touch when clicking a mouse button.

Keep your fingers relaxed. Don't allow them to hover above the buttons.

When you don't need to use the mouse, don't hold it.

Take short breaks from computer use every 15 to 20 minutes.

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3.4 KEYBOARD

A keyboard is used mainly for typing text into your computer. Like the keyboard on a typewriter,
it has keys for letters and numbers, but it also has special keys:

The function keys, found on the top row, perform different functions depending on where they are
used.

The numeric keypad, located on the right side of most keyboards, allows you to enter numbers
quickly.

The navigation keys, such as the arrow keys, allow you to move your position within a document
or webpage.

Keyboard

You can also use your keyboard to perform many of the same tasks you can perform with a mouse.

Using your keyboard

Whether you're writing a letter or calculating numerical data, your keyboard is the main way to
enter information into your computer. But did you know you can also use your keyboard to control
your computer? Learning just a few simple keyboard commands (instructions to your computer)
can help you work more efficiently. This article covers the basics of keyboard operation and gets
you started with keyboard commands.

How the keys are organized

The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:

Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation, and symbol
keys found on a traditional typewriter.

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Control keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform certain

actions. The most frequently used control keys are Ctrl, Alt, the Windows logo key , and Esc.

Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labeled as F1, F2,
F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program to program.

Navigation keys: These keys are used for moving around in documents or webpages and editing
text. They include the arrow keys, Home, End, Page Up, Page Down, Delete, and Insert.

Numeric keypad: The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are
grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding machine.

The following illustration shows how these keys are arranged on a typical keyboard. Your
keyboard layout might be different.

How the keys are arranged on a keyboard

Typing text

Whenever you need to type something in a program, e-mail message, or text box, you'll see a
blinking vertical line ( ). That's the cursor, also called the insertion point. It shows where the text
that you type will begin. You can move the cursor by clicking in the desired location with the
mouse, or by using the navigation keys (see the "Using navigation keys" section of this article).

In addition to letters, numerals, punctuation marks, and symbols, the typing keys also include Shift,
Caps Lock, Tab, Enter, the Spacebar, and Backspace.

Key name How to use it

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Press Shift in combination with a letter to type an uppercase letter. Press Shift in
Shift
combination with another key to type the symbol shown on the upper part of that key.

Press Caps Lock once to type all letters as uppercase. Press Caps Lock again to turn
Caps Lock this function off. Your keyboard might have a light indicating whether Caps Lock is
on.

Press Tab to move the cursor several spaces forward. You can also press Tab to move
Tab
to the next text box on a form.

Press Enter to move the cursor to the beginning of the next line. In a dialog box, press
Enter
Enter to select the highlighted button.

Spacebar Press the Spacebar to move the cursor one space forward.

Backspace Press Backspace to delete the character before the cursor, or the selected text.

Using keyboard shortcuts

Keyboard shortcuts are ways to perform actions by using your keyboard. They're called shortcuts
because they help you work faster. In fact, almost any action or command you can perform with a
mouse can be performed faster using one or more keys on your keyboard.

In Help topics, a plus sign (+) between two or more keys indicates that those keys should be pressed
in combination. For example, Ctrl+A means to press and hold Ctrl and then press A. Ctrl+Shift+A
means to press and hold Ctrl and Shift and then press A.

Find program shortcuts

You can do things in most programs by using the keyboard. To see which commands have
keyboard shortcuts, open a menu. The shortcuts (if available) are shown next to the menu items.

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Keyboard shortcuts appear next to menu items.

Choose menus, commands, and options

You can open menus and choose commands and other options using your keyboard. In a program
that has menus with underlined letters, press Alt and an underlined letter to open the corresponding
menu. Press the underlined letter in a menu item to choose that command. For programs that use
the ribbon, such as Paint and WordPad, pressing Alt overlays (rather than underlines) a letter that
can be pressed.

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Press Alt+F to open the File menu, then press P to choose the Print command.

This trick works in dialog boxes too. Whenever you see an underlined letter attached to an option
in a dialog box, it means you can press Alt plus that letter to choose that option.

Useful shortcuts

The following table lists some of the most useful keyboard shortcuts. Find out more detailed list
of keyboard shortcuts.

Press this To do this

Windows logo key

Open the Start menu

Alt+Tab Switch between open programs or windows

Alt+F4 Close the active item, or exit the active program

Ctrl+S Save the current file or document (works in most programs)

Ctrl+C Copy the selected item

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Ctrl+X Cut the selected item

Ctrl+V Paste the selected item

Ctrl+Z Undo an action

Ctrl+A Select all items in a document or window

F1 Display Help for a program or Windows

Windows logo key

Display Windows Help and Support
+F1

Esc Cancel the current task

Open a menu of commands related to a selection in a program. Equivalent

Application key
to right-clicking the selection.

Using navigation keys

The navigation keys allow you to move the cursor, move around in documents and webpages, and
edit text. The following table lists some common functions of these keys.

Press this To do this

Left Arrow, Right Arrow, Move the cursor or selection one space or line in the direction of the
Up Arrow, or Down Arrow arrow, or scroll a webpage in the direction of the arrow

Move the cursor to the beginning of a line or move to the top of a

Home
webpage

Move the cursor to the end of a line or move to the bottom of a

End
webpage

Ctrl+Home Move to the top of a document

Ctrl+End Move to the bottom of a document

Page Up Move the cursor or page up one screen

Page Down Move the cursor or page down one screen

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Delete the character after the cursor, or the selected text; in Windows,
Delete
delete the selected item and move it to the Recycle Bin

Turn Insert mode off or on. When Insert mode is on, text that you
Insert type is inserted at the cursor. When Insert mode is off, text that you
type replaces existing characters.

Using the numeric keypad

The numeric keypad arranges the numerals 0 through 9, the arithmetic operators + (addition), -
(subtraction), * (multiplication), and / (division), and the decimal point as they would appear on a
calculator or adding machine. These characters are duplicated elsewhere on the keyboard, of
course, but the keypad arrangement allows you to rapidly enter numerical data or mathematical
operations with one hand.

Numeric keypad

To use the numeric keypad to enter numbers, press Num Lock. Most keyboards have a light that
indicates whether Num Lock is on or off. When Num Lock is off, the numeric keypad functions
as a second set of navigation keys (these functions are printed on the keys next to the numerals or
symbols).

You can use your numeric keypad to perform simple calculations with Calculator.

Three odd keys

So far, we've discussed almost every key you're likely to use. But for the truly inquisitive, let's
explore the three most mysterious keys on the keyboard: PrtScn, Scroll Lock, and Pause/Break.

PrtScn (or Print Screen)

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A long time ago, this key actually did what it says—it sent the current screen of text to your printer.
Nowadays, pressing PrtScn captures an image of your entire screen (a "screen shot") and copies it
to the Clipboard in your computer's memory. From there you can paste it (Ctrl+V) into Microsoft
Paint or another program and, if you want, print it from that program.

More obscure is SYS RQ, which shares the key with PrtScn on some keyboards. Historically, SYS
RQ was designed to be a "system request," but this command is not enabled in Windows.

Tip

Press Alt+PrtScn to capture an image of just the active window, instead of the entire screen.

ScrLk (or Scroll Lock)

In most programs, pressing Scroll Lock has no effect. In a few programs, pressing Scroll Lock
changes the behavior of the arrow keys and the Page Up and Page Down keys; pressing these keys
causes the document to scroll without changing the position of the cursor or selection. Your
keyboard might have a light indicating whether Scroll Lock is on.

Pause/Break

This key is rarely used. In some older programs, pressing this key pauses the program or, in
combination with Ctrl, stops it from running.

3.5 Monitor

A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The portion of the monitor
that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer screen can
show still or moving pictures.

There are two basic types of monitors: CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors and the newer LCD (liquid
crystal display) monitors. Both types produce sharp images, but LCD monitors have the advantage
of being much thinner and lighter.

TFT monitor CRT monitor (right)

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3.6 PRINTERS

A printer transfers data from a computer onto paper. You don't need a printer to use your computer,
but having one allows you to print e-mail, cards, invitations, announcements, and other material.
Many people also like being able to print their own photos at home.

The two main types of printers are inkjet printers and laser printers. Inkjet printers are the most
popular printers for the home. They can print in black and white or in full color and can produce
high-quality photographs when used with special paper. Laser printers are faster and generally
better able to handle heavy use.

Inkjet printer laser printer (right)

3.7 SPEAKERS

Speakers are used to play sound. They can be built into the system unit or connected with cables.
Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects from your computer.

Computer speakers

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3.8 MODEM

To connect your computer to the Internet, you need a modem. A modem is a device that sends and
receives computer information over a telephone line or high-speed cable. Modems are sometimes
built into the system unit, but higher-speed modems are usually separate components.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Describe the various hardware devices that make up a computer system.

2. What is a modem?
3. Explain the various functions of a modem.
4. Explain the various types of printers.
5. Explain the lists some of the most useful keyboard shortcuts.

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4.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the physical devices that make up the computer system. E.g. CPU,
Memory, I/O devices such as Printer, Mouse, Keyboard, Screen/Monitor, etc.

After studying this section the learner should be able to categorize computer hardware into the
following:

(i). Input devices for capturing information

(ii). Output devices for presenting information
(iii). CPU and RAM for creating new information
(iv). Storage devices for storing information
(v). Telecommunications devices for communicating information
(vi). Connecting Devices for moving information to and from various hardware devices.

4.1 Functional Components of a Computer System

Computer systems ranging from a controller in a microwave oven to a large supercomputer contain
components providing five functions. A typical personal computer has hard disks, floppy and
CD/DVD-ROM drives for storage, memory and CPU chips inside the system unit, a keyboard and
mouse for input, and a display unit, printer and speakers for output. The arrows represent the
direction information flows between the functional units.

Processor (CPU)

Control Unit
(CU)

ALU

Main Memory –
Input Output
RAM

Auxiliary Storage
(Backing/Secondary Storage)

Data / Interconnection

Command / signal

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4.2 Input Devices

Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. Therefore we need
to input the data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one or more input
devices.

4.3 Storage Unit (Main Memory + storage devices)

the storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the input
unit, before they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are
sent to the output devices. It also saves the data for the later use. Recall our discussion on
computer storage.

4.4 Memory Size

Digital computers use the binary system, i.e. 0’s and 1’s. Each character or a number is
represented by an 8 bit code.
The set of 8 bits is called a byte.
A character occupies 1 byte space.
A numeric occupies 2 byte space.
Byte is the space occupied in the memory.

The size of the primary storage is specified in KB (Kilobytes) or MB (Megabytes). One KB is

equal to 1024 bytes and one MB is equal to 1024 KB; 1 GB = 1024 MB; 1 TB = 1024 GB.

4.5 Output Devices

The output devices of a computer provides the information and results of a computation to
outside world. Printers, Visual Display Unit (VDU) are the commonly used output devices.
Other commonly used output devices are LCD Projector etc.

4.6 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It also does
comparison and takes decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, etc. and does logic operations such as, greater than (>), less
than (<), equal to (=), ‘etc. Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data
from storage unit to ALU once the computations are done, the results are transferred to the
storage unit by the control unit and then it is send to the output unit for displaying results.

4.7 Control Unit

Controls all other units in the computer. The control unit instructs the input unit, where to store
the data after receiving it from the user. It controls the flow of data and instructions from the
storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results from the ALU to the storage unit. The
control unit is generally referred as the central nervous system of the computer that control and
synchronizes it’s working.

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4.8 Central Processing Unit

The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central Processing Unit
(CPU). The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:

• It performs all calculations.

• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all units of the computer.

The CPU is the most complex component in the computer system. It has the following parts:

Control unit – controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer.

Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) – performs the computer’s data processing functions.

Registers – provides storage internal to the CPU.

CPU interconnections – some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit,
ALU, and registers.

NB: The speed of CPUs is measured in hertzs. A hertz is on cycle per second.

4.9 Other Hardware components on the Computer system

(i). Motherboard - The motherboard is the main circuit board of a microcomputer. It is also
known as the main board or system board.
(ii). Bus - A bus is an electronic line that allows 1s and 0s to move from one place to another.
(iii). Expansion Slots - Expansions slots appear on the motherboard. They are sockets into which
adapters are connected.

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(iv). Ports and Connectors - A port is a connector located on the motherboard or on a separate
adapter.
(v). Power Supply - A power supply changes normal household electricity into electricity that
a computer can use.
(vi). Sound Components - A sound card lets a computer play and record high quality sound.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

4.10 COMPUTER STORAGE

How does your computer work?

Computers work only with 1s and 0s in terms bits and bytes. Normally your information in the
form of characters – (A-Z, a-z, symbols), and numbers 0-9 is converted into binary form. A binary
digit (bit) is the smallest unit of information processed by a computer. A bit can either be a 1 (on)
or a 0 (off). A byte is a group of eight (8) bits used to represent one natural language character in
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) coding system. A coding system is
an agreed-upon standard for representing natural language characters, special symbols, and
numbers in binary form.

It may help to first review how quantities of memory/storage are measured. A bit (which is
contraction for “binary digit”) is the smallest unit of data, a single 0 or 1. Recall that computers
represent data (of all kinds, including numbers, characters, images, and audio) using 0’s and 1’s.
A byte is a unit of eight bits. A kilobyte (KB) is 210 (1024) bytes, a megabyte (MB) is 220 (1024
KB) bytes, a gigabyte (GB) is 230 (1024MB) bytes, and a terabyte (TB) is 240 (1024GB) bytes.

One could reasonably ask the question

Where are programs (i.e., software) and data stored?

The premise of the question is that the programs that a computer executes, and the data that those
programs manipulate, must have some physical manifestation on some kind of storage medium
that is part of the computer system (or accessible by it, at least). This gives rise to the next question:

What kinds of storage devices are found in computer systems?

The answer may be a bit more involved than you would expect, because there are a perhaps
surprisingly large number of different kinds of storage devices. The outline below seeks to identify
these and to provide a logical way of organizing them.

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4.11 Primary (or Main) Memory

Primary memory is used directly by the CPU.

Registers: These are memory cells (typically four or eight bytes in size) that are part of the
processor itself, so that operations (e.g. addition, comparison, etc.) can be performed directly upon
data stored therein (and usually within a single clock cycle, which is less than a billionth of a
second!). Indeed, only data items (including instructions) that are being held in a register can be
operated upon by the processor. Hence, any data item in RAM that is to be used for some purpose
first must be transferred into a register.

In order to keep the electronic circuitry of the processor at a reasonable level of complexity, the
number of registers is quite small, typically no more than a few dozen.

Cache: This is a block of very high-speed (and expensive) memory cells (typically four bytes in
length) used for storing copies of data items also being held in RAM (see below) that have been
accessed very recently or are anticipated to be accessed in the very near future. Due to its high
cost, cache capacity is typically limited to the neighboured of 512KB (one-half MB) to 4MB.

Some processors have multiple levels of cache (usually referred to as L1 and L2, for example),
with L1 being faster (access within a few clock cycles) but having lower capacity (e.g., tens of
KB) than L2 (access to which requires tens of cycles).

Random Access Memory (RAM): This is a block of fairly high-speed memory cells that are used
for storing (portions of) currently-executing programs and data that those programs are using.

The term “random” is meant to suggest that the time required to access any particular memory
location in RAM is independent of which memory location was accessed most recently.

RAM usually stores data and instructions that are used by the CPU to perform some task. These
instructions are usually loaded into RAM from a secondary storage device.

RAM is also used to store instructions that tell the CPU how to work with its parts. These
instructions are usually called drivers.

The instructions in RAM are constantly changing, depending on the needs of the CPU.

When the computer is turned off the information/instructions in RAM is erased; hence RAM is
volatile.

The information in RAM needs to be saved to secondary storage before the computer is turned off.

Read-only Memory (ROM): A small block of (non-volatile) memory having as one of its purposes
to store instructions that are executed whenever the computer is turned on, commencing the so-
called “boot-strapping” process by which (crucial components of) the operating system is loaded

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into RAM, thereby allowing the computer to begin functioning. (From this description, it should
be fairly clear why it is vital for ROM to be non-volatile.)

ROM can also hold programs that are directly accessed by the CPU. One such program is the self-
test program that executes when the computer is first turned on. The self-test instructions tests to
see if all the parts on the main circuit board (mother board) are working correctly.

The instructions are built into the electronic circuits of the chips

These instructions in ROM are called firmware

To change the instructions in ROM you need to usually change the chips or do some other special
process that is normally not available to an average user.

The instructions in ROM are non-volatile. They stay in ROM even when the computer is turned
off.

4.11 SECONDARY STORAGE

The purpose of secondary storage is to store data and programs on a long-term basis. (Hence, all
forms of secondary storage are non-volatile, meaning that they retain the data stored on them (for
a long period of time) without the need for electrical power.) As data (or a program) is needed in
RAM (e.g., when a program is called upon to be executed, such as when the user double clicks
upon an icon representing that program), it is copied from secondary storage into RAM, where it
can be accessed quickly.

Among the types of secondary storage media are these:

(i). Solid-State: For example, flash memory sticks; these usually are attached to a computer
via a USB port and have a capacity in the hundreds of MB or a few GB’s. They are highly
mobile and have largely supplanted floppy disks in recent times. This kind of storage is
widely used in devices such as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) and digital cameras.
(ii). Magnetic Disk: These are disks on which data is recorded on a set of concentric rings (or
“tracks”) using properties of magnetism.
(iii). Hard disk: high storage capacity (typically in the range of 80 to 500GB) and much cheaper
than RAM.
(iv). Removable/portable disk: zip disk, disk cartridge, floppy disk
(v). Optical Disc: These are discs on which data is represented by a spiraling track of “pits and
lands” (or valleys and bumps, if you prefer). A laser beam is used to “read” the data on the
surface.
(vi). CD-ROM: Compact Disc – Read Only Memory (used for distribution of commercial
software, for example) Standard storage capacity is 700 MB. Information cannot be
changed.
(vii). CD-R (or CD-WORM): Compact Disc – Recordable. “Write Once, Read Many” times

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(viii). CD-RW: Compact Disc – Rewritable. You can save, change, and delete files as often as
you like. Rewritable multiple times (but you can’t really delete a file without deleting all
of them!)
(ix). DVD: Similar to CD, but with significantly larger storage capacity. There are several
categories of DVD just as in the case of CD. That is, we have DVD-ROM, DVD-R, and
DVD-RW. (There is no agreement as to what DVD stands for. Some argue it stands for
Digital Versatile Disc. Others, say its Digital Video Disc.)

NB: Magnetic disk ends in “k” whereas Optical disc ends in “c”. Putting information onto a
disc is known as “burning” the CD or DVD. A CD burner is a drive that helps read and write
information to a CD. Similarly, a DVD burner helps read and write information to a DVD.

Magnetic Tape: usually used for making backup copies of disk (so that if the disk fails, a recent
copy of its contents can be recovered and written onto a new replacement disk) or for archival
storage. Tapes that are kept offline (meaning that they sit on a shelf and are “mounted” onto a tape
drive (by a human or a robotic device) only when needed) are sometimes put into the category of
tertiary, as opposed to secondary, storage. Tape drives are what you see spinning in the background
in numerous scenes in movies and TV shows depicting a large computer.

As for why there are so many varieties of storage devices, it boils down mostly to considerations
of cost, mobility (removability), and advances in technology.

As a general rule of thumb (and not surprisingly), the cost of memory/storage (in dollars per unit
of storage) varies with the “speed” of the storage device: the faster the device, the higher the cost
(per MB). For example, main memory costs much more than an equal quantity of space in
secondary storage, by a factor in the hundreds. Hence, even if RAM were designed to be non-
volatile (and hence suitable for storing data on a long-term basis) it would be prohibitively
expensive to replace hundreds of gigabytes of hard disk storage space with an equal quantity of
RAM. (Do the calculation: 100GB of RAM would cost about $2500 compared to $15 for 100GB
of hard disk space. Hence, substituting non-volatile RAM for hard disk would increase the cost of
a PC substantially!).

What is the difference between Data and Information?

We have seen that a computer processes data with regard to the desires of the user. Is there a
difference between data and information? Data: refers to raw facts e.g. numbers like 4, 3 or
characters (Kenya, World). Information: refers to meaningful and arranged form of data or simply
processed data.

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5.0 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

After studying this section the learner should be able to do the following:

i) Describe what a software is.

ii) Be able to differentiate between application software and system software.
iii) Identify the various categories of computer software.
iv) Identify the role played by system software in the boot process
v) Identify the various system software vulnerabilities and how to mitigate them.

5.1 What is Software?

Computer software or simply Software1 refers to a set of instructions that tell a computer what to
do and how to do it. Your computer hardware without the software component is just a useless
metal. This definition implies that computer software is the most important part of a computer.
Also, users have access to the computer resources through the computer software. Currently, the
cost of buying computer hardware is increasingly going down. The cost of software on the other
hand exceeds the cost of hardware. Software is what makes a computer relevant.

We have two major categories of computer software: (1) application software and (2) system
software. Application software refers to software enables you to solve specific problems or
perform specific tasks. Microsoft PowerPoint, for example, can help you create slides for a
presentation; hence it’s application software. Name other types of application software: payroll
software, inventory management software …

System software refers to software that controls and supports the operations of a computer system
as it performs various information processing tasks. Examples of system software include:
operating system, and utility software.

Application Software
System Software

Hardware

1
Software is a set of instructions executed by the computer’s processor to perform a task.

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Other categories of computer software include:

Middleware, programming languages, programming tools, firmware, device drivers, productivity

software, multimedia software, entertainment software, educational and reference software,
among others

Firmware – is like prewritten program that is permanently stored in Read-Only Memory (ROM).
The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) instructions are an example of firmware.

5.2 APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software consists of those programs that solve specific problems for the users and
execute under control of the operating system. The application programs are developed by
individuals and organizations for solving specific problems. In general, application software is a
set of instructions that perform specific tasks. They include:

(i). specific/customized application software such as payroll software, inventory management

software among others
(ii). Generalized application software that can perform many different tasks. Examples: word
processors, spreadsheets (Excel), presentation software (PowerPoint) etc.
(iii). Other categories of application software: productivity software, entertainment software,
educational and reference software

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(iv). Productivity software:

Productivity software includes programs that enable you to perform various tasks required at
home, school, and in business. This category includes word processing, spreadsheet, presentation,
database, and personal information manager programs.

Common features in productivity software:

 Wizard which is a systematic guide that walks you through the steps necessary to complete
a complicated task. At each step, the wizard asks you questions. Based on your responses,
the wizard helps you complete that portion of the task.
 Template which is a predesigned form. Templates provide the basic structure for a
particular kind of document, spreadsheet, or presentation. They can include specific page
layout designs, formatting and styles relevant to that particular document, and automated
tasks (macros).

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 Macro which is a small program that groups a series of commands so they will run as a
single command. Macros are best used to automate a routine task or a complex series of
commands that must be run frequently. For example, a teacher may write a macro to sort
the grades in her grade book automatically in descending order and to highlight those
grades that add up to less than a C average. Every time she adds the results of an assignment
or test, she can set up the macro to run through that series of steps automatically.

Integrated software applications versus software suites

(v). Integrated software is a single application that incorporates the most commonly used tools
of many productivity software programs into a single integrated stand-alone program. They
don’t include many of the more complex features of the stand-alone productivity software
applications and cost less than individual programs.
 Microsoft Works is an example of an integrated software application that includes word
processing, spreadsheet, and database functionality.
 Integrated software applications are perfect if you do not need the more advanced features
found in the individual full versions of each program. An integrated software program is
also less expensive than its individual, fully featured alternatives.

A software suite is a group of software programs bundled together as a package. Because the
programs come from the same developer, they work well together and share common features such
as menus and toolbars. They also integrate well.

Microsoft Office is one example of the many types of software suites on the market today. You
can also buy different versions of the same suite, the difference among them being the combination
of software applications included in each version. Other Examples OpenOffice among others.

Other developers of software suites: Corel and Lotus

(vi). Freeware and Shareware

Freeware is any copyrighted software that you can use for free. Plenty of freeware exists in the
Web, ranging from games and screensavers business, educational, graphics, etc.

Examples: Adobe reader software for reading PDF documents.

Shareware software is distributed free, but with certain conditions. One way is to release software
free of charge but only for a limited time after which the software expires if not purchased within
the set timeframe.

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5.3 CATEGORIES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software refers to software that controls and supports the operations of a computer system
as it performs various information processing tasks. Examples of system software include:
operating system, and utility software. System software therefore handles tasks specific to
technology management and coordinates interaction of technology devices.

5.3.1 Operating Systems

Operating system software controls application software and manages how various hardware
devices work together. As such, there are operating systems for just about every type of technology
configuration, even for sewing machines. An operating system is an integrated system of programs
that supervises the operation of the CPU, controls the input/output storage functions of the
computer system, and provides various support services. The operating system acts as an
intermediary between the user and the computer system.

Functions of an operating system

One of the challenges facing developers is keeping their operating systems flexible enough to run
hardware from the thousands of vendors manufacturing computer equipment. Today's systems can
accommodate thousands of different printers, disk drives and special peripherals in any possible
combination.

However, the main functions of Operating systems are:

(i). Provides a user interface

The OS provides a way for the user to interact with the computer. Most operating systems
provide a graphical user interface or GUI that displays graphics and use the point-and-
click technology of the mouse and cursor, making them much user friendly.

User interface provides a link between the user and the computer, which is one of the main
functions of an OS. This can be from providing user with the convenience of giving text
commands or else giving the comfort of playing something with the graphics that are built
in the operating system to get the desired results. Keeping in mind, a User who doesn't
want to be a professional to be able to operate a computer, graphic user interfaced
Operating systems is more popular in the market and even the free source Linux is also
being available in graphic user interfaced version.

(ii). Processor management

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The operating system arranges the execution of all activities in a systematic way, creating
the appearance that everything is happening simultaneously. To do so, the operating
system assigns a slice of time to each activity that requires the processor’s attention.

(iii). Memory and storage management

As the operating system coordinates the activities of the processor, it uses RAM as a
temporary storage area for instructions and data the processor needs. The processor then
accesses these instructions and data from the RAM when it is ready to process them. The
OS is therefore responsible for coordinating the space allocations in RAM to ensure that
there is enough space for all of the pending instructions and data.

(iv). Hardware and Peripheral Device management

Each device attached to your computer comes with a special program called a device driver
that facilitates communication between the hardware device and the operating system. The
device driver translates the device’s specialized commands into commands that the
operating system can understand, and vice versa.

(v). Software Application coordination (Application Programming Interface)

The OS provides a consistent means for software applications to work with the CPU.
Application programming interface is that where the operating system creates link
between the application and system providing an active link between the program and
hardware of the computer.

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5.3.2 The Boot Process

Many things happen quickly between the time you turn on the computer and the time when it is
ready for you to start using it. The boot process (start-up process) loads the operating system into
RAM.

What are the steps involved in the boot process?

The Basic input/output system (BIOS) is activated by powering on the CPU. The BIOS is a
program that manages the exchange of data between the operating system and all the input and
output devices attached to the computer system, hence its name. BIO is also responsible for loading
the OS into RAM from its permanent location on the hard drive.

BIOS itself is stored on a special read-only memory (ROM) chip on the motherboard. Unlike in
RAM, data stored in ROM is permanent and is not erased when power is turned off.

Performing the Power-On Self-Test (POST)

The BIOS checks that all attached devices are in place and are operational. The POST consists of
a test on the video card and video memory, a BIOS identification process, and a memory test to
ensure that memory chips are working properly.

Loading the Operating System

The operating system is loaded into RAM. When the previous steps are successfully completed,
BIOS goes through a preconfigured list of devices in its search for the drive that contains the
system files, which are the main files of the operating system. When it is located, the operating
system loads into RAM from its permanent storage location on the hard drive.

Checking Further Configurations and Customizations

The operating system checks the registry for the configuration of other system components. The
registry contains all of the different configurations (settings) used by the OS and by other
applications. It contains customized settings such as mouse speed and the display settings.

Types of Operating System Software

Microsoft Windows – developed by Microsoft

Earliest Versions MS-DOS  Windows 95  Windows 98  Windows NT  Windows 2000

 Windows XP  Windows 7  Windows 8

Mostly used OS in PCs (about 65 % of the market share)

Linux - generic name for a UNIX-like OS

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Used in supercomputers --- to wristwatches

Considered to be very secure; not easily broken into by “hackers”

UNIX – developed by Ken Thompson

Like Linux, considered to be very secure; not easily broken into by hackers

Macintosh currently Mac OS X

Developed, marketed and sold by Apple Inc.

Others: Google Chrome OS

Organizing your Computer: File Management

An additional function of the operating system is to enable file management, which entails
providing organizational structure to the computer’s contents. The OS allows you to organize the
contents of your computer in a hierarchical directory structure that includes files, folders, libraries,
and drives.

Organizing your files

Technically, a file is a collection of related pieces of information stored together for easy reference.
A file in an operating system is a collection of program instructions or data that is stored and
treated as a single unit. Files can be generated from an application such as a Word document or an
Excel workbook.

Files are stored on the hard drive, a flash drive, or another permanent storage medium. A folder is
a collection of files. Windows 7 introduces the concept of libraries. A library is a collection that
gathers files from different locations and displays them as if they were all saved in a single folder,
regardless of where they are actually physically stored.

The operating system organizes the contents of your computer in hierarchical structure comprising
drives, folders, subfolders, and files. The hard drive is where you permanently store your files.

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5.3.3 Utility Software

Utility software is software that provides additional functionality to the operating system software.
Examples of utility software:

File compression utilities – these are programs that takes out redundancies in a file to reduce the
file size. File compression is helpful because it makes a large file more compact, making it easier
and faster to send over the Internet, upload to a Web site, or save onto a disc.

System maintenance utilities – an example is Disk cleanup a Windows utility that cleans, or
removes unnecessary files from your hard drive. These include files that have accumulated in the
Recycle Bin as well as temporary files, which are files created by Windows to store data
temporarily when the program is running.

 anti-virus software e.g., Norton, McAfee, Kaspersky, Avast,

 screen savers,
 disk optimization software,
 uninstaller software,

5.4 SYSTEM SECURITY AND COMPUTER VIRUSES

What are the symptoms of a virus infected computer?

It’s not always easy to tell if your computer has been compromised. More than ever before, the
authors of viruses, worms, Trojans and spyware are going to great lengths to hide their code and
conceal what their programs are doing on an infected computer. That’s why it’s essential to follow
the advice given in this guide: in particular, install Internet security software, make sure you apply
security patches to your operating system and applications and backup your data regularly.

It’s very difficult to provide a list of characteristic symptoms of a compromised computer because
the same symptoms can also be caused by hardware and/or software problems. Here are just a few
examples:

 Your computer behaves strangely, i.e. in a way that you haven’t seen before.
 You see unexpected messages or images.
 You hear unexpected sounds, played at random.
 Programs start unexpectedly.
 Your personal firewall tells you that an application has tried to connect to the Internet (and
it’s not a program that you ran).
 Your friends tell you that they have received e-mail messages from your address and you
haven’t sent them anything.
 Your computer ‘freezes’ frequently, or programs start running slowly.

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 You get lots of system error messages.

 The operating system will not load when you start your computer.
 You notice that files or folders have been deleted or changed.
 You notice hard disk access (shown by one of the small flashing lights) when you’re not
aware of any programs running.
 Your web browser behaves erratically, e.g. you can’t close a browser window.

And what can be done about it?

Don’t panic if you experience any of the above. You may have a hardware or software problem,
rather than a virus, worm or Trojan. Here’s what you should do:

Disconnect your computer from the Internet.

If your operating system will not load, start the computer in Safe Mode (when you switch on the
computer, press and hold F8 as soon it begins, then choose 'Safe Mode' from the menu that will
appear), or boot from a rescue CD.

Make sure your anti-virus signatures are up-to-date. If possible, don't download updates using the
computer you think is compromised, but use another computer (e.g. a friend’s computer). This is
important: if your computer is infected and you connect to the Internet, a malicious program may
send important information to a remote hacker, or send itself to people whose e-mail addresses are
stored on your computer.

If you have any problems removing malicious programs, check your Internet security vendor’s
web site for information on any dedicated utilities that may be needed to remove a particular
malicious program.

If your computer is connected to a local area network, disconnect it from the network.

Scan the whole computer.

If a malicious program is found, follow the guidelines provided by your Internet security vendor.
Good security programs provide the option to disinfect infected objects, quarantine objects that
may be infected, and delete worms and Trojans. They also create a report file that lists the names
of infected files and the malicious programs found on the computer.

If your Internet security software doesn't find anything, your machine is probably not infected.
Check the hardware and software installed on your computer (remove any unlicensed software and
any junk files) and make sure you have the latest operating system and application patches
installed.

If necessary, contact your Internet security vendor’s technical support department for further
advice. You can also ask them how to submit a sample file for analysis by a virus researcher.

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Who is a hacker?

The term hacker was once used to describe a clever programmer. Today, it’s applied to those who
exploit security vulnerabilities to break into a computer system. You can think of it as electronic
burglary. Hackers regularly break into both individual computers and large networks. Once they
have access, they may install malicious programs, steal confidential data, or perhaps use
compromised computers to distribute spam.

What is vulnerability?

Today’s computer software is very complex, comprised of thousands of lines of code. Since
software is written by humans, it’s hardly surprising that they contain programming mistakes,
known as vulnerabilities. These loopholes are used by hackers to break into systems; they are also
used by authors of malicious code to launch their programs automatically on your computer.

How do I protect myself from hackers?

Hackers are like electronic burglars, who use loopholes in your programs - vulnerabilities - to
break into your computer system. You can protect yourself from hackers by using a firewall. A
firewall program, which often comes as part of an anti-virus software package, protects a PC by
detecting potential intruders and making the PC invisible to hackers.

What is spam?

Spam is anonymous, unsolicited bulk email – it is effectively the email equivalent of physical junk
mail delivered through the post. It is sent out in mass quantities by spammers who make money
from the small percentage of recipients that actually respond. Spam is also used for phishing and
to spread malicious code.

Over the last decade, the use of and delivery of spam has evolved. While spam was initially sent
directly to computer users and easily blocked, in the coming years, high-speed Internet connections
allowed spammers to send out mass mailings inexpensively and quickly, as did the discovery that
individual users' modems could be accessed by anyone from anywhere in the world since they had
no protection at all. In other words, unsuspecting internet users' connections could be used to send
their spam in much higher volume.

That was until hardware manufacturers began securing their equipment, and filters became more
proficient at blocking spam. Yet, spammer techniques have always evolved, not only in the way
they send spam, but also in response to filters. The result is an ongoing battle between spammers
and those working to prevent them, constantly trying to stay one step ahead in the fight to keep
spam from clogging the information superhighway.

How can I protect myself from spam?

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Maintain at least two email addresses. Use your private address only for personal correspondence,
and another address for registering on public forums, in chat rooms, to subscribe to mailing lists
etc.

Your private address should be difficult to guess. Spammers use combinations of obvious names,
words and numbers to build lists of possible addresses. Your private address should not simply be
your first and last name. Be creative and personalize your email address.

Treat your public address as a temporary one. The chances are high that spammers will get hold
of your public address fairly quickly if it is frequently being used on the internet. Don't be afraid
to change it often.

Never respond to spam. Most spammers verify receipt and log responses. The more you respond,
the more spam you will receive.

Do not click on 'unsubscribe' links in emails from questionable sources. Spammers send fake
unsubscribe letters in an attempt to collect active email addresses. If you click 'unsubscribe' in one
of these letters, it will simply increase the amount of spam you receive.

Never publish your private address on publicly accessible resources.

If you must publish your private address electronically, mask it to avoid having it picked up by
spammers. ‘[Link]@[Link]’ is easy to find, as is ‘[Link]@[Link]’. Try writing
‘[Link]’ instead. If you need to publish your private address on a website,
do this as a graphics file rather than as a link.

Consider using a number of public addresses in order to trace which services are selling your
address to spammers.

Make sure that you use the latest version of your web browser and that any security patches have
been applied.

Use an anti-spam solution and only open email accounts with providers who provide spam
filtering.

If your private address is discovered by spammers - change it. This can be inconvenient, but
changing your email address does help you avoid spam - at least for a while!

How can I help my children stay safe online?

First think about the possible dangers they face. These include the following:

So-called ‘drive-by downloads’ (i.e. malicious programs that install on your computer
automatically when you view a web page);

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The risk of infection through peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing programs that give others access to
your computer;

Unwanted advertising, including pop-ups and adware programs: these are sometimes installed
automatically with freeware programs that are available for download on the Internet;

Sexually explicit (or other inappropriate) content;

Being tricked into disclosing personal information (about them or you);

Downloading pirated material (e.g. music or video files);

Being targeted by online bullies;

Being approached (in Internet chat rooms, for example) by paedophiles.

What steps can I take to protect my children?

Children can be just as vulnerable online as they are in the real world and it’s important that you
understand the potential dangers. There are things you can do to minimize the chance of them
being exposed to these dangers.

Talk to your children about the potential dangers they face online.

If possible, locate your computer in a family room and try to make the computer a shared family
experience.

Encourage your children to talk to you about anything they experience online that upsets them or
makes them feel uncomfortable.

Restrict the content that can be accessed from your computer. Many Internet security solutions let
you do this. In addition, Internet Explorer includes a Content Advisor that can help you do this
(this can be found under Tools | Internet Options | Content).

Follow the guidelines above for protecting your computer from malicious programs and hackers
and explain to your children how this helps protect them.

Provide guidelines for them on what they may, or may not, do. Here are some of the things you
should think about:

Are you happy to let your children...

 Register on social networking or other web sites?

 Make online purchases?
 Download music, video or program files?
 Use instant messaging programs?

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 Visit Internet chat rooms?

(If the answer is 'yes' to the last two, make sure your children understand they should not chat to
users that they do not know)

Remember that the answers may change as your children get older.

 To protect your children online:

 Talk to them about the potential dangers;
 Keep the computer in a family room;
 Encourage your children to talk to you about their online experience;
 Provide them with guidelines for online activity;
 Use your programs' settings to restrict content that your children can access online;
 Follow the advice above on how to protect from malicious code and hacker attacks;
 Why are passwords important?

We now use the Internet for a wide range of activities, including online banking, online shopping
and online research. Increasingly, we’re also using the Internet to socialize. In the last few years
there's been a massive growth in the number of social networking sites such as Facebook, Myspace,
etc. We share all kinds of personal details as well as music, pictures, and videos.

Unfortunately, the more personal details we make available, the more exposed we are to online
identify theft. Identity theft is when a criminal steals confidential personal data that lets them
fraudulently obtain goods and services in your name. A cybercriminal could, for example, open a
bank account, obtain a credit card or apply for a driving license or passport. Or they could simply
steal money directly from your bank account.

Given that passwords protect such valuable data, they're clearly very important. You should protect
all your online accounts with passwords - but you must be careful when choosing them.

Passwords help safeguard you against identity theft. They make it harder for cybercriminals to
profile you, access your bank account (or other online accounts) and steal your money.

Choosing a good password is an important part of lowering the risk of becoming a victim of
cybercrime. The following guidelines should help you when choosing passwords for your online
accounts.

How to choose secure passwords

Make your passwords memorable, so that you don’t have to write them down or store them in a
file on your computer (remember, this file could be stolen by cybercriminals).

Don’t use real words that a hacker or cybercriminal can find in a dictionary.

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Use a mixture of uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers and non-alphanumeric characters such
as punctuation marks (although the latter are not always allowed).

Don’t recycle passwords, e.g. don’t use 'password1', 'password2', 'password3', etc. for different
accounts.

If possible, use a passphrase, rather than a single word.

Don’t use the same password for multiple accounts. If a cybercriminal finds the password to one
account, they can use to access other accounts.

How to keep your passwords safe

Don’t use obvious passwords that can be easily guessed, such as your spouse’s name, your child’s
name, pet's name, car registration, postcode etc.

Don’t tell anyone your password. If an organization contacts you and asks for your password, even
by phone, don't give them any of your personal details. Remember, you don’t know who’s at the
other end of the telephone line.

If an online store, or any web site, sends you an email confirmation that contains a new password,
login again and change your password immediately.

Check that your Internet security software blocks attempts by cybercriminals to intercept or steal
passwords.

When choosing passwords:

 Make them memorable;

 Keep them secret;
 Don’t be fooled into disclosing them to seemingly legitimate organizations;
 Mix uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers and non-alphanumeric characters;
 Don’t use the same password for multiple accounts;
 Don’t recycle passwords ('password1', 'password2', etc.).
 Choosing an Antivirus Solution

There are a lot of factors to take into account when you’re trying to select the best antivirus
solution for your needs. With the security of your data, digital identity and financial transactions
at stake, it’s worthwhile investing some time in assessing each antivirus product.

Furthermore, if you make extensive use of the Internet, email, messaging and other web services,
it’s important to consider a solution that includes Internet security software and technologies that
can make your online activities much safer.

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Criteria to help you get the best virus protection

Unfortunately, not all antivirus products provide a reliable, usable solution that delivers
an adequate level of protection against malware. When measured against the following criteria,
even the market’s top 10 antivirus solutions may achieve very different scores:

Reliability
Even the most thorough antivirus solution can prove to be absolutely useless if it conflicts with
other software that’s running in your computer. If these conflicts lead to a malfunction
or temporary suspension in the antivirus protection processes, that could leave you vulnerable.

Usability
If the day-to-day operation of an antivirus solution requires special skills, it may be impractical for
many users. Any antivirus product that is awkward to use, asks the user complex questions
or needs the user to make difficult decisions, is likely to increase the chances of ‘operator errors’.
In some cases, if the antivirus software is too difficult to run, the user may simply disable it.

Comprehensive protection

An antivirus solution should deliver constant protection for all computer domains, all types of files
and all network elements that could be subject to attack by a computer virus or other malware. The
program should be able to detect malicious code and also protect all channels or entry points to the
computer — including email, the Internet, FTP and more.

Quality of protection

Antivirus solutions need to be able to operate in an aggressive environment that is constantly

changing — with new computer viruses, worms and Trojan viruses that can be much more
complex than previously known malware, and may include new ways of avoiding the actions
of antivirus programs. Quality of protection partly depends on the following:

Effectiveness of malware detection processes

Frequency and regularity of updates

Ability to remove infections from the computer

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Efficiency in delivering computer protection – without significant impact on the computer’s

performance-COMPUTER VIRUSES AND COMPUTER HOUSE-KEEPING

Top 10 Computer Virus Symptoms Checklist

Computer virus symptoms are a moving target. Just like with the human conditions, they evolve
through generations – which in computer technology terms may mean weeks or even days. Some
symptoms may not necessarily mean an infection – for example, if you are sneezing, you do not
necessarily have a flu. Same with computers – if your computer seems to be slow, it may be a
symptom of a virus, but it may also be a symptom of “program overload” – when you have too
many programs running at once, and it brings your system’s performance to a dragging halt…

With that in mind, let’s go over some of the most common symptoms that can alert you to the
potential virus within your computer system, or even your computer network, presented here in no
particular order.

1. Hardware Troubles – It’s Alive!

If sudden sounds of the CD-ROM tray opening completely out if its own will give you the heebie
jeebies, I don’t blame you! If your hardware – computer, printer, etc. – started acting up on its
own, without you requesting any action by means of keyboard or mouse, you are likely having a
virus in your computer system. When you work on the computer, especially if you are performing
some actions by using programs, your hard drive is expected to be making some noises.

If you are not doing anything, and your computer seems to be putting in extra effort and looks like
it is communicating with 8th dimension completely by itself, consider an emergency antivirus
scan.

2. No Response – Is Anyone Home?

We’ve all been there: working away, and then BAM – nothing happens! You can’t move your
mouse, the keyboard does zilch, you go into panic mode “ouch, did I save that document I was
writing for the past 2 hours?”…. (Now, in the voice of “desperate housewives narrator: “Yes. We
all had the frozen iceberg for a computer before”). Lockup alone may not necessarily mean you
have a virus – it could also be a symptom of a desperate need for a cleanup (we will be going over
it in another article) – but if it presents itself in array of other symptoms, be on a lookout for a
virus.

Check out our Computer Keeps Freezing section for more info

3. Slow Performance – Are We There yet?

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If you notice that certain actions take much longer than usual, you should be concerned. As in the
previous paragraphs – you must account for specifics of certain files and programs when making
a judgment of the slow performance: one PDF document may take much longer time to open
simply because it is of a much larger size, and it will not be indicative of the computer virus.
However, keep in mind that some viruses can reproduce and multiply your files and overcrowd
disk space, overloading disk usage. In another example, when you are browsing your documents
folders and you notice that it takes – unusually – longer to browse from one folder to another, or
if it takes more and more time to open the same program, you should be on a lookout for other
computer virus symptoms.

Computer Running Too Slow? Top 11 Reasons Why and Tips on How to Fix It

4. Slow Startup – Easy doesn’t.

Another important symptom of a computer virus is a slow startup. Do not confuse it with wishful
thinking. As a collective, we are impatient beings. Did you ever catch yourself pushing an elevator
button, mumbling to yourself, “It must be the slowest elevator ever”? My point exactly! When
considering the startup process – think of the typical (however slow you may feel it is) to the actual
startup time. Does it seem to be much slower than usual? Does it seem to just sit there, and not
even a blink or a squeak happens?

If it takes way too long, then it may be a symptom of a viral infection in your computer.

5. Crashing – Crash and Burn, Baby!

When your computer crashes spontaneously, be careful. After computer restarts, you may notice
it does not seem to run normally. If it self-restarts frequently, every few minutes – beware of a
virus. This symptom alone may indicate that your system is infected. If your computer crashed,
best course of action – Do Not Resuscitate and call your IT support company.

6. Missing files – Gone With the Wind…

When you notice that applications on your computer do not work correctly, you may also notice
some of your files are missing. That includes different types of files. Some may be the files that
you created, such as images or documents you had saved on your drive. You may physically notice
absence of those when you actually look for them and can’t seem to find them anywhere. As a
result of computer virus infection your computer may also be missing system files. As a user, you
may not know what they are and may not notice they are gone, however, if you are trying to use
certain applications (browser, email client, document editor, etc.) sometimes those application will
refuse to run properly and pop up a warning for you that “critical file is missing” – usually
accompanied by the name of the file that is MIA – alerting you to a loss of some files.

7. Disks or Disk Drives Are Not Accessible – Who Ate My Porridge?

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If you are losing the network connection – or worse yet cannot connect to the USB drive you just
plugged in, or you go to My Computer and only see one drive instead of your usual X number of
drives, you may be in trouble. If you cannot connect to all, some of the drives or cannot access
your CD-ROM, it may be one of the symptoms indicating your computer is infected.

8. Extra Files – Who Sat In My Chair?

You may visually notice extra pop ups and extra programs that seem to be running on your
computer, especially on startup. You may notice (if you check for it) that your disk space suddenly
quadrupled in size without you making 200 copies of your vacation photos folder on your C: drive.

9. Printer Issues – Is This Thing On?

If you cannot get your documents to print correctly, or cannot print at all, you may be dealing with
a virus. First, rule out your printer not being turned on. Next, ensure it is connected to your network
and is not offline. If it turned on and it is online (connected to your network), and you still have
problems with printer, your computer system may have a virus and may affect not just your drive,
but you network, as well.

10. Unusual Error Messages – Did You See That?

This may include gibberish messages, messages you hadn’t seen before, undesired ad messages
and such. Special attention must be paid to messages that disguise themselves as anti-virus warning
messages. They are designed to trick you into thinking that you are at risk, and must take action to
protect your computer system. Sometimes that is how the virus introduces itself into the system,
and sometimes it may already be in your system, and that is how it takes over it, making your more
and more vulnerable, and doing further damage to your computer. Again, when you are in doubt,
it is best to call professional computer Support Company.

In Conclusion

Remember, when your computer demonstrates symptoms of the computer virus, it is usually too
late: you can just hope that damage that was done to your computer or the whole network is not
irreversible.

So, here is what you can do to keep your computer system safe from viruses:

Have a legitimate antivirus program installed on your system.

Remember to renew your antivirus software on time – if it isn’t renewed, its not active.

Make sure you are always up-to-date with latest virus definitions – if it is not up-to-date, it is
useless.

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Ensure that your antivirus updates are running automatically – or as a minimum, make sure you
install antivirus program updates as frequently as you can to make sure that your system has a
defense line against most recent viruses, too.

Computer software, including antivirus programs, comes in such various shapes and forms, and
are sized to fit different needs in terms of size and budget. If you are not sure about what you need
or if you feel your network system has been compromised and your organization needs help with
computer virus issues – consult with your trusted IT support adviser first.

Revision Questions

1. What is a computer virus

2. What are the various ways of protecting your computer against malicious wares?
3. Explain the measures you can take to protect your system against viruses.
4. Differentiate between warm booting and cold booting.
5. Describe the computer system boot process.
6. Differentiate between tailor/custom made software and off-the-shelve software.
7. What are the advantages of using custom made software over off-the-shelve software?

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6.0 WORD PROCESSORS

The main objective of this section is to enlighten the learners on the following:

i) Have knowledge of what a word processor is about.

ii) Identify the various types of word processors.
iii) Be able to locate, open, type, save and edit text on a word processor.

6.1 What is a word processor?

Word processing is the creation of documents using a word processor. It can also refer to advanced
shorthand techniques, sometimes used in specialized contexts with a specially modified typewriter.
Word processors are descended from early text formatting tools (sometimes called text
justification tools, from their only real capability). Word processing was one of the earliest
applications for the personal computer in office productivity.

We have several types of applications that are used for word processing. A word processor is the
basic application used for creating and editing documents such as books. In our discussion we will
use Microsoft Word 2003 to learn more concepts of word processing. After a successfully finishing
our discussion, you will be comfortable to use any newer versions of Microsoft word and other
types of word processor such as “Open Office Word”.

Generally, in word processing, we will cover the following concepts: creating documents, editing
and formatting, and printing.

6.2 Types of word processors

Microsoft office word, open office word, lotus word, etc.

3.3 Microsoft Office 2003 Word Introduction

Introduction:

Microsoft Word is an essential tool for the creation of documents. Its ease of use has made Word
one of the most widely used word processing applications currently on the market. Therefore, it's
important to become familiar with the various facets of this software, since it allows for
compatibility across multiple computers as well as collaborative features. Word is a fairly simple
program to use for completing simple tasks. However, it may be more difficult to learn how to
explore the more advanced possibilities of Word.

Opening Microsoft Word:

To run Word on your computer: “Start” >> “Programs” >> “Microsoft Office” >>

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“Microsoft Office Word 2003.” If there is an icon of Microsoft Word available on your desktop
(shaped like a square with a "W" in the middle), you can open up the program by double-clicking
it, as well.

Making a New Blank Document:

When Word is opened, a new blank document should automatically open. If not, then you can
begin a new blank document in a variety of ways.

First, find the "New Blank Document" icon, which looks like a blank sheet of paper, located
underneath the menu bar in Word in what is called the "standard toolbar."

Click on the icon to bring up a new blank document.

Also, you can go to the menu bar and select File >> New… (Shortcut: Ctrl+N).
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To begin typing, just click the cursor anywhere within the new blank document.

Opening a Document:

To open to view, edit, or print a document, you must first open up that file in Word.

You can open a file by clicking on the "Open" folder icon (with a picture of a folder) located in
the standard toolbar. Or, you can use the menu bar and navigate to File

>> Open… (Shortcut: Ctrl+O).

Saving a Document:

When you are working with any sort of media in any software, you should be sure to save your
work often. In Word, there are numerous options for saving documents in a variety of file types.

To save a new, unsaved document, you can click on the Save icon, shaped like a disk located on
the standard toolbar. Or, you can go to the menu bar and select File >>

Save… (Shortcut: Ctrl+S).

A dialogue box should appear, offering you a number of options. To save the document in the
desired location on your computer, locate and select the folder on your computer. Give your
document a name in the file name text box. While you can give your document long names, make
sure you save it with a name you can remember.

Please note that it's good practice not to use spaces or special characters in file names. For example,
a long file name may look like this:

expos_sample_paper1.doc
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To save a completely new document using previously existing (and opened) text, you use the Save
As option.

Open the document that you wish to save as an entirely new file, go to the menu bar, and click on
File >> Save As. In the file name text box, give your document a new name. Using this option
allows you to save multiple versions (with different file names) of a document based on one
original file.

Formatting Text/Paragraphs Using Toolbars:

In a word processing program such as Word, there are numerous options available for presenting
your text. This part of the tutorial will guide you through several of the important features in Word
that will allow you to edit, modify, and display text (and non-text) components.

The Standard Toolbar:

Word allows all toolbars to be customized, so you may not find all options listed here. There are
several buttons that may or may not appear immediately in your version of Word. Use the
following graphic as a guide to the Standard Toolbar.

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1. New Blank Document:

To begin a new document, click on the New Blank Document icon, shaped like a blank sheet of
paper.

2. Open:

Clicking on this icon opens up a previously saved document on your computer

3. Save:

Clicking on the Save icon saves the document you are currently working on. If you are saving a
document for the first time, you can click on this button. However, if you want to save a new file
from a preexisting document, then you must go to the menu bar and select “File” >> “Save As”
and give the file a new name. When working on any document, you should be sure to save
frequently, so that you don't lose any work.

4. Permission:

Microsoft has enabled Information Rights Management (IRM) within the new version of Word,
which can help protect sensitive documents from being copied or forwarded. Click this for more
information and options.

5. Print:

Clicking on the Print icon automatically prints the document currently active in Word. If you wish
to explore more print options, then go to the menu bar and select “File” >> “Print.”

6. Print Preview:

To get an idea of the appearance of your document in print before you actually print it out, you
can click on this icon to view your document from a zoom-out distance

7. Spelling and Grammar:

Clicking begins a review of your document in search of spelling and grammatical errors that may
need to be corrected.

8. Copy:

Copy the current selection to the clipboard, which can then be pasted elsewhere in the document,
or into a completely separate program/document.

9. Paste:

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Clicking on the Paste button inserts the text that has been most recently added to the Clipboard
(the text would have been added there by Cutting or Copying). With Paste, you can either insert
the copied text into a document or replace selected text.

10. Undo Typing:

The Undo Typing button goes back and removes the last addition or change made to your
document.

11. Insert Hyperlink:

You may find that you want to make links to a particular web site, web page, or some other kind
of online file in your Word document. Using the Insert Hyperlink button, you can turn selected
text into hyperlinks. When the icon is clicked, a window will appear that will allow you to insert
the URL (web address) of the web page you want to link to. You can type in the URL yourself or
insert a preexisting bookmark. Once the link is inserted, the link in your Word document can be
clicked and the web page will open up in a web browser

12. Insert Table:

When this icon is clicked, a small window will appear in the form of a grid of squares. Use this
window as a guide to indicate how many rows and columns you would like your table to contain.
Once selected, a table will automatically appear in Word. Clicking the Tables and Borders button
will allow you to modify the table. To modify an aspect of the table, select, or place the cursor in,
the area and apply changes such as borders and colors.

The Formatting Toolbar:

Word allows all toolbars to be customized, so you may not find all options listed here. There are
several buttons that may or may not appear immediately in your version of Word. Use the
following graphic as a guide to the Formatting Toolbar.

1. Style:

Styles in Word are used to quickly format portions of text. For example, you could use the
"Normal" or "Default Paragraph Font" for the body text in a document. There are also three preset
styles made for headings.

2. Font:

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Font is a simple but important factor in Word documents. The choice of font (the style of the text
itself) can influence the way others view documents, either on the screen or in print. For example,
Arial font looks better on screen, while Times New Roman is clearer in print. To apply a font to
text, select desired text with your cursor, and choose a font from the font drop down menu.

3. Font Size:

You may encounter times in which you need to display some text larger or smaller than other text.
Selecting desired text with the cursor and choosing a font size from the drop down menu changes
the size of text.

4. Bold:

Places the text in bold.

5. Italic:

Places the text in italics.

6. Underline:

Underlines the text.

7. Align Left:

Aligns the selection to the left of the screen/paper.

8. Center:

Aligns the selection to the center of the screen/paper.

9. Align Right:

Aligns the selection to the right of the screen/paper.

10. Justify:

Aligns the selection to both the left and right of the screen/paper.

11. Line Spacing:

Adjust the line spacing (single-spaced, double-spaced, etc.)

12. Numbering:

Create a numbered list.

13. Bullets:

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Create an unordered, bulleted list.

14. Decrease Indent:

Decreases the indentation of the current selection (to the left).

15. Increase Indent:

Increases the indentation of the current selection (to the right).

16. Outside Border:

Places a border around the current selection; click the drop-down for a wide selection of bordering
options.

17. Highlight:

Highlight the current selection; default color is yellow.

18. Font Color:

Change the font color; the default/automatic color is black.

More Formatting:

Besides the toolbars, Word provides a great deal of ways to customize and format your text and
documents.

Paragraph Spacing:

To access the Paragraph formatting options, navigate to the menu bar, and select “Format” >>
“Paragraph,” or right-click within a paragraph. A window will appear with options for modifying
spacing and indenting. Here, you can choose to make the text in your document single or double
spaced, as well as edit the margins for the document.

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Headers/Footers:

Headers and footers are important aspects of a Word document if you wish to include information
such as page numbers and headings on every page. To access the header and footer options, go to
the menu bar and select “View” >> “Header and Footer.”

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A dotted-line box called "Header" will automatically appear, as well as a sub-menu for formatting
header and footer properties. The cursor will already be placed in the

Header box. If you scroll down on your current page opened in Word, you will see a dotted-line
box called "Footer." To add text in the Header or the Footer, simply click the cursor inside either
one of the boxes, and type the text you want.

To add page numbers to your document, click your cursor inside of the footer box.

Then, click on the icon shaped like a sheet of paper with a "#" inside. The page number will then
be inserted and applied to all of the pages in your document.

Inserting an Image:

In Word, it's possible to add clipart or other images to a document. Click the cursor in your
document where you wish to place an image. Then go to the menu bar and select “Insert” >>
“Picture.”

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From there, you will find a number of options to choose from. "Clipart" searches through your
computer's Clipart library. "From File" will allow you to insert an image saved elsewhere on your
computer. Other options include "AutoShapes" and

"WordArt."

Inserting a Page Break

If you want to start a new page in Microsoft Word, and you already have 1 or more pages created,
you can simply keep pressing the Enter key on your keyboard. The cursor will then move down
the page. When it goes past the bottom, a new page will be created.

However, there is an easier way - the Page Break. This is quite simple.

If you've been working on the Table of Contents page in the last section, then tap your enter key a
few times after "Story Five". If you haven't been working on the Table of Contents page, make
sure your cursor is flashing on a new line (though it doesn't have to be). Then do the following:

Click Insert from the menu bar

From the drop down list, click Break (right at the top)

The following dialogue box appears

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What this is telling you is that you can force a break. There are different types of break that you
can force. We want to force a Page Break. This is already selected, so just click OK.

Inserting Reference footnotes

Example: Software2

2
Set of programs that tells the computer what to do and how to do it.

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Write down the steps of inserting a foot note like the one above.

Document layouts in MS Word

Check the available layouts in an open word document on the left hand corner just above the status
bar. Also, can be seen in the View menu on the Menu bar

You can view your document in a number of different ways called views. You can invoke a
particular view by clicking a button in the Document Views section. These views can also be
invoked using the hot buttons found in the status bar.

Print Layout - View the document as it would appear on paper.

Reading Layout- View the document for comfortable reading on your monitor.

Web Layout - View the document as it would appear on an internet browser.

Outline Layout- View the document as an outline using symbols and indentations that show
Subordinate levels of text that are collapsible. You can reorganize your text quickly with this view.

Draft/Normal Layout - View the document for quick editing.

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Mail merging – check on 3-mail merging document.

Pagination – check on 3-How to insert page numbers.

Revision Questions

1. Explain the various types of word processors.

2. Explain the procedure of opening a word document.
3. Explain the procedure you will follow to open, type and save a word document.
4. Classify Microsoft word as either system software or application software.

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7.0 PRESENTATION GRAPHICS SOFTWARE

The main objective of this section is to enlighten the learners on the following:

i) Have knowledge of what a presentation software is about.

ii) Identify the various features of presentation software.
iii) Be able to locate, open, type, save and edit text on a presentation software.
iv) Create various animations on the presentation software.

Used to create slide shows

Features include:

Templates and layouts

Animation

Transitions

You use presentation software to create presentations, such as the one shown below.

Basic features include a variety of slide layouts and design templates.

You can use animation effects to control how and when text and other objects enter and exit each
slide. Similarly, slide transitions add different effects as you move from one slide to the next during
the presentation.

Examples

Microsoft PowerPoint

OpenOffice Impress

Zoho Show

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Revision Questions

1. Explain the procedure of opening a Microsoft PowerPoint.

2. Explain the procedure you will follow to open, type and save a Microsoft PowerPoint.
Classify Computer graphics software as either system software or application software.
3. Create a presentation of not more than 10 slides in Microsoft PowerPoint.

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8.0 SPREADSHEETS
The main objective of this section is to enlighten the learners on the following:

i) Have knowledge of what a spreadsheet software is about.

ii) Identify the various features of spreadsheet software.
iii) Be able to locate, open, type, save and edit data on a spreadsheet software.
iv) Create various graphs, charts etc. using spreadsheet software.
v) Be able to differentiate between a formula and a function.

8.1 Overview of Spreadsheet software

Spreadsheet is a piece of software for handling and manipulating numbers.

Spreadsheet software enables you to do calculations and numerical analyses easily. You can use
spreadsheet software to create a budget and to evaluate different scenarios such as planning a loan
payment strategy.

The basic element in a spreadsheet program is the worksheet, columns and rows of which form
boxes called cells. There are several types of data you can enter into a cell:

Text is letters, numbers, and symbols used as labels to identify the contents of the worksheet.

Values are numeric data entered either directly or as a result of a calculation.

Formula is equations that you build yourself.

Functions are formulas that are preprogrammed into the spreadsheet software.

The primary benefit of spreadsheet software is what-if analysis—the ability to test different
assumptions.

You can display numbers in a graphical format.

Examples of spreadsheet software: MS Excel, OpenOffice Calc, Lotus 1-2-3

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Excel Formula and Functions

8.2 Functions

A function is a predefined formula that operates on one or more values and returns one or more
values. You have seen how using the SUM function can save you a lot of typing.

For example, the formula

=SUM (A1:A15) is considerably shorter than

=A1+A2+A3+A4+A5+A6+A7+A8+A9+A10+A11+A12+A13+A14+A15

All functions consist of a function name (such as SUM) followed by a set of arguments (separated
by commas) in brackets. The arguments specify the values or cells to be used by the function.

The maximum number of arguments allowed in a function is 30. In the example above, there is
just one argument, namely, A1:A15. A few functions have no arguments but the brackets are still
needed, as in the following examples:

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=2*PI () - which calculates the value of 2π

=RAND () - which returns a random number that is greater than or equal to 0, and less than 1.

If you enter a space between the name of a function and the opening bracket, Excel will warn you
that it has found an error. Excel has more than 300 built-in functions. Some of them perform
complex calculations but the examples that follow are of the more straightforward kind.

8.2.1 Entering functions

You can enter a function into a worksheet by typing it in clicking the Insert Function (fx) button
(to the left of the formula bar) selecting Insert | Function

If you type in the name of the function, use lower case letters. Then, when you either press the
Enter key or select another cell, Excel will change the name to uppercase providing it has been
typed correctly. So, if lowercase letters remain, you will be alerted to the fact that you have typed
the name incorrectly and you can correct it. When you click the Insert Function button or select
Insert | Function, the Insert Function dialog box will be displayed.

If you know the name of the function you want to use but cannot remember which category it is
in, in the Insert Function dialog box, either, type the name in the Search for a function: box and
click Go or, select All in the Or select a category: box (this gives a complete alphabetical list of
available functions).

If you feel that you might need extra help in creating your function, click on the Help on this
function button in the bottom left corner of the Insert Function dialog box. The Microsoft Excel
Help window will then be displayed (as in the picture that follows).

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8.2.2 ROUND Function

=ROUND (cell, number of digits to round) i.e. cell D2 = 45.256 =round (d2, 1) would return 45.3
=round (d2, 2) would return 45.26; =round (d2,-1) would return 50; =round (d2,-2) would return
0.

NB: Using the format of a number to round only changes it for display and printing it does not
change it for calculations.

To round a number for calculations, use the round function.

8.2.3 COUNT Function

The count function will count how many cells within a range.

=COUNT (cellA: cellK). Returns the number of cells.

8.24.4 COUNTIF Function

The countif function will count how many cells within a range meet the criteria or test. COUNTIF
(range, criteria)

Range = range to check

Criteria = test

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8.2.4 AVERAGE Function

Returns the average (arithmetic mean) of the arguments. For example, if the range A1:A20
contains numbers, the formula =AVERAGE (A1:A20) returns the average of those numbers.

8.2.5 IF Function

A simple IF function will allow a cell to change depending on a conditional test. =IF (logical_test,
value_if_true, [value_if_false])

NB: Put quotes around any text to be displayed.

IF (logical_test, value_if_true, [value_if_false])

The IF function syntax has the following arguments:

Logical_test Required. Any value or expression that can be evaluated to TRUE or FALSE. For
example, A10=100 is a logical expression; if the value in cell A10 is equal to 100, the expression
evaluates to TRUE. Otherwise, the expression evaluates to FALSE. This argument can use any
comparison calculation operator.

Value_if_true Required. The value that you want to be returned if the logical_test argument
evaluates to TRUE. For example, if the value of this argument is the text string "Within budget"
and the logical_test argument evaluates to TRUE, the IF function returns the text "Within budget."
If logical_test evaluates to TRUE and the value_if_true argument is omitted (that is, there is only
a comma following the logical_test argument), the IF function returns 0 (zero). To display the
word TRUE, use the logical value TRUE for the value_if_true argument.

Value_if_false Optional. The value that you want to be returned if the logical_test argument
evaluates to FALSE. For example, if the value of this argument is the text string "Over budget"
and the logical_test argument evaluates to FALSE, the IF function returns the text "Over budget."
If logical_test evaluates to FALSE and the value_if_false argument is omitted, (that is, there is no
comma following the value_if_true argument), the IF function returns the logical value FALSE. If
logical_test evaluates to FALSE and the value of the value_if_false argument is omitted (that is,
in the IF function, there is no comma following the value_if_true argument), the IF function returns
the value 0 (zero).

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8.2.6 Embedded/Nested IF Function

An embedded if function will allow a cell to change depending on multiple conditional tests. =IF
(test, what to do if it is true, IF (test, what to do if it is true, what to do if it is false))

Example: =IF (B1<40,"F", IF (B1<50,"D", IF (B1<60,"C", IF (B1<70,"B","A"))))

8.2.7 IS Functions

IS functions test the value of a cell.

Function Returns TRUE if

ISBLANK(value) Value refers to an empty cell.

ISERR(value) Value refers to any error value except #N/A.

ISERROR(value) Value refers to any error value (#N/A, #VALUE!,

#REF!, #DIV/0!, #NUM!, #NAME?, or #NULL!).

ISLOGICAL(value) Value refers to a logical value.

ISNA(value) Value refers to the #N/A (value not available) error

value.

ISNONTEXT(value) Value refers to any item that is not text. (Note that
this function returns TRUE if value refers to a blank
cell.)

ISNUMBER(value) Value refers to a number.

ISREF(value) Value refers to a reference.

ISTEXT(value) Value refers to text.

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8.5 Errors

Error Description
#DIV/0! You have tried to divide a number by zero (probably because the cell referred to
as divisor is a blank cell).
#N/A No information is available for the calculation you wish to do. This may be
deliberate — see below.
#NAME? A text string has not been enclosed in double quotes, or, you entered a name in a
formula that is not in the Define Name dialog box list.
#NULL! You included a space between two ranges in a formula to indicate an intersection,
but the ranges have no common cells.
#NUM! You supplied an invalid argument to a worksheet function, or, the result of a
formula is too large or too small to be represented in the worksheet.
#REF! You deleted a range of cells whose references are included in a formula.

#VALUE! You entered a mathematical formula that refers to a text entry.

If you apply the Text format to a cell that contains a formula, that formula will be thought of as
text and displayed as such in the cell. If there is a formula in another cell which refers to this text-
formatted cell, the result in that cell will be either the text value itself (for a formula that is just a
direct reference and does not involve calculations) or the error value #VALUE!.

Tip: The procedure described above can be a useful way of seeing the effect of removing a formula
without actually deleting it.

Apply the text format to the cell containing the formula.

Click the formula bar and press Enter (to recalculate the worksheet and display the text value).

Look for any resulting #VALUE! errors.

To restore the formula

Apply a numeric format to the cell.

Click the formula bar and press Enter.

Note: You can use the Edit | Find command to locate error values.

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8.6 Charts

A chart is a graphical representation of the data in your worksheet. You can create an embedded
chart, which appears on the worksheet beside the data, or, you can create a chart sheet as a separate
sheet in the workbook so that it can be displayed apart from its associated data.

Whichever method you choose your chart data is automatically linked to the worksheet from which
it was created. If you change the data on the worksheet, the chart will change accordingly.

Charts are used in the analysis of information. Types of charts include:

See Help for more information on chart types: column chart, line chart, bar chart, pie chart, area
charts, scatter chart…

Investigate the use of each chart and when each chart is best used.

NB: For more information on charts, refer to the excel help. Ask your facilitator how to access
excel help. Then type charts. Make notes on the basic description on the types, and uses, and when
to use these charts. Also, you will find virtually anything in your excel help from what is a cell,
different formula definitions, to how to draw charts. Please make extensive use of the help menu.

List of Excel Functions

On your help menu, type

List of worksheet functions (by category)

You will find the list. Please learn how they are used on your own. We cannot exhaust them.

Revision Questions

(a) Explain the advantages of Microsoft Excel.

(b) Describe the procedure of opening a Microsoft excel document.
(c) Use the MS Excel sheet shown below to answer the questions that follow:

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i. Explain the possible causes of errors in the cells G4, E9, and F3.
ii. Write a function to round the average score in cell F4 to 2 digits.
iii. Using the grading system provided above, explain whether to get the average grade of
student you will use a simple IF function or an embedded IF function.
iv. Write a formula to calculate the total score of Bob.

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9.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS AND THE INTERNET

The main objective of this section is to introduce the learners to the following concepts:

i) Definition of a network.
ii) The various types of networks.
iii) Advantages and disadvantages of computer networks
iv) Introduction to Networking concepts and tools
v) Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) concepts.

9.1 What is a computer network?

A computer network, often referred to as network, is a collection of computers and devices

interconnected by communicating channels that facilitate communications and allows sharing of
resources and information among interconnected devices. The resources shared include:
information, software, and hardware devices.

All networks have certain common characteristics: network cards, connecting devices,
communications media, and network operating system software.

Each computer in a network must have a network interface card. A network interface card (NIC)
is an expansion card or a PC card (for notebook computers) that connects your computer to a
network and provides a doorway for information to flow in and out. Connecting devices connects
computers so that information can flow between them. Types of connecting devices include hub –
that ties computers together and broadcasts messages between them; switch – that ties computers
together and passes messages to their specific destinations (computers that asked for the message);
router – that connects your local network to your ISP network. Communications media are
pathways through which information flows between the computers and the connecting devices.
This can be either wired or wireless. In a wired network, information is converted into electrical
signals or light pulses that run along the corresponding type of cable. In a wireless network,
information in the form of waves is sent out through air by one wireless device and captured by
another. The Network Operating system software (network OS or NOS) runs a network, steering
information between computers, managing security and users, and enabling many people to work
together across the network. Example: of NOS Windows server 2003.

9.1.1 Types of Networks

Local Area Network (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned
group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node.

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Campus Network

It’s a computer network made up of an interconnection of local area networks (LANs) within a
limited geographical area.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a
large campus.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a
city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications channel that
combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often uses
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.

Wireless LAN

It’s a type of a Local Area Network where computers are interconnected by a wireless technology
without the use of cables.

NB: To get wireless access to your wired network, you’ll need a device called wireless network
access point. A wireless network access point or wireless access point (WAP) is a device that
allows computers to access a network using radio waves. It has a transmitter and a receiver for
bi-directional flow of information. It also has an antenna that radiates outgoing radio waves
through the air and captures incoming waves.

9.1.2 Importance of Computer Networks

Computer networks can be used for a variety of purposes:

Facilitating communications

Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat
rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.

Sharing hardware

In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use hardware resources
on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer.

Sharing files, data, and information

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In a network environment, authorized user may access data and information stored on other
computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and information on shared
storage devices is an important feature of many networks.

Sharing software

Users connected to a network may run application programs on remote computers.

9.1.3 Communications media

Communications media refers to the pathways, or physical channels, in a network over which
information travels. All communications between computers are either wired or wireless. Wired
communications media transmit information over a closed, connected path. Wireless
communications media transmit information through the air.

Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and associated software
technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network. A well-known family
of communication media is collectively known as Ethernet. It is defined by IEEE 802 and utilizes
various standards and media that enable communication between devices. Wireless LAN
technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use radio waves or
infrared signals as a transmission medium.

Information is sent over the network inform of packets. In this regard, different communications
media have varying bandwidth. Bandwidth of a communications medium refers to the amount of
information a communications medium can transfer in a given amount of time. It’s measured in
bits per second (bps), thousands of bits per second (Kbps), or millions of bits per second (Mbps).
Communication media can be classified as follows:

1 Wired technologies

Twisted-pair cable is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair cabling
consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone wires consist of two
insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer networking cabling consists of 4 pairs of
copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The transmission speed
ranges from 2 million bits per second to 10 billion bits per second. Twisted pair cabling comes in
two forms which are Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded twisted-pair (STP) which are
rated in categories which are manufactured in different increments for various scenarios.
Examples: Cat 5 or category 5.

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Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites
for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating
layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by
a conductive layer. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion.
Transmission speed range from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second.

Optical fiber cable is the fastest and most efficient medium for wired communication, using a very
thin glass or plastic fiber cable. It consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in
protective layers that carries data by means of pulses of light. It transmits light which can travel
over extended distances. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation.
Transmission speed may reach trillions of bits per second. The transmission speed of fiber optics
is hundreds of times faster than for coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than a twisted-pair
wire. This capacity may be further increased by the use of colored light, i.e., light of multiple
wavelengths. Instead of carrying one message in a stream of monochromatic light impulses, this
technology can carry multiple signals in a single fiber.

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2 Wireless technologies

Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and receiver. The
equipment looks similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-gigahertz range, which
limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path between relay stations spaced approx, 48 km (30
miles) apart. Repeaters are used for sending information over these distances. A repeater is a
device that receives a radio signal, strengthens it, and sends it on. Microwave antennas are usually
placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks.

Communications satellites – The satellites use microwave radio as their telecommunications

medium which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space,
typically 35,400 km (22,200 miles) (for geosynchronous satellites) above the equator. These Earth-
orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

Cellular and PCS systems – Use several radio communications technologies. The systems are
divided to different geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna
device to relay calls from one area to the next area.

Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to
digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum
technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. An example of
open-standards wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE.

Bluetooth - Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology standard for exchanging data over
short distances (using short wavelength radio transmissions in the ISM band from 2400-
2480 MHz) from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks (PANs) with high
levels of security. Created by telecoms vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was originally conceived as a
wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems
of synchronization.

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9.2 The Internet

The Internet is vast network of networked computers that connects millions of computer users all
over the world. Also, the Internet can be referred to us a global system of interconnected
governmental, academic, corporate, public, and private computer networks. It’s a world-wide
interconnection of computers and networks. Unlike other types of networks, the Internet is not
owned by anyone.

The concept of the Internet was developed while the United States was in the midst of Cold War
with the Soviet Union. At that time, the U.S. armed forces were becoming increasingly dependent
on computers to coordinate and plan their activities. They needed a computer system that would
operate efficiently and that was located in various parts of the country so that it could not be
interrupted easily in the event of attack. The existing computer network had one major problem:
no common communications method that all computers could use -there was no reliable way to
connect computers from different manufacturers because they used different proprietary designs
and methods of communication. The Internet was therefore created respond to these two concerns:
(1) establishing a secure form of military communications; (2) creating a means by which all
computers could communicate (regardless of the design and manufacturer).

9.2.1 The Structure of the Internet

The Internet is a collection of hardware and software in the form of worldwide network. A network
is simply a collection of computers that support the sharing of information, software, and hardware
devices. The Internet backbone is the major set of connections for computers on the Internet. A
network access point (NAP) is a point on the Internet where several connections converge. At each
NAP is at least one computer one computer that simply routes Internet traffic from one place to
the next. At any given NAP, an Internet Service Provider (ISP) may connect its computers to the
Internet. An ISP is a company that provides individuals, organizations, and businesses access to
the Internet.

9.2.2 Computers on the Internet

There are two basic types of computers on the Internet – servers and clients. An Internet server
computer (also known as an Internet host computer) is a computer on the Internet that provides
information and services to other computers and Internet users such as you. These Internet server
computers are often minicomputers or mid-range computers but can also be high-end workstations
or even mainframe computers. A Web client is essentially the computer you use to move around
the Internet and access the information and services on a server computer. So, a client computer
can be your desktop or notebook, your smart phone, your PDA, or even your tablet PC.

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There are many types of server computers on the Internet: Web server, Mail server, FTP servers,
and IRC servers. A Web server provides information and services to Web surfers. So when you
access [Link], to read news, you’re accessing a Web server with your Web
client. A Mail server provides e-mail services and accounts. An FTP (File Transfer Protocol) server
maintains a collection of files you can download. These files can include software, music files,
documents, and games. An IRC (Internet Relay Chat) server supports your use of discussion
groups and chat rooms.

9.2.3 Information on the Internet

As information moves around the Internet, bouncing among network access points until it finally
reaches you, it does so according to various communications protocol. A communications protocol
is a set of rules that computers follow to transfer information. It enhances effective communication
of the various types of computers in the networked environment.

TCP/IP (Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

It’s the basic communications protocol that makes the Internet work. It defines the rules that allow
various computers to communicate across the Internet.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http)

HTTP refers to the communications protocol that supports the movement of information over the
Web essentially from a Web server to you. That’s why Web site addresses starts with [Link]
However, [Link] is the same thing as [Link]
because most Web browser software today assume that you want to access a Web site on the
Internet.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is the communications protocol that allows you to transfer files of information from one
computer to another.

What do I need to get connected to the Internet?

An Internet Service Provider (ISP), a modem (telephone modem, cable modem, DSL modem or
Satellite modem), software for Web surfing (Web browser software, and connectivity software –
allows you to use your computer to connect to another computer or a network

9.2.4 Communication through the Internet

Email -> Electronic Mail

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Email is shorthand term meaning Electronic Mail. It is a written message that is sent and received
over the Internet. The messages can be formatted and enhanced with graphics and may also include
other files as attachments. E-mail became the primary method of electronic communication
worldwide because it’s fast and convenient.

Email much the same as a letter, only that it is exchanged in a different way. Computers use the
TCP/IP protocol suite to send email messages in the form of packets. The first thing you need to
send and receive emails is an email address. When you create an account with an Internet Service
Provider you are usually given an email address to send from and to receive emails. If this isn't the
case you can create an email address / account at web sites such as yahoo, hotmail and Gmail.

Anatomy of an E-Mail Message

The header of an email includes the From:, To:, Cc: and Subject: fields. So you enter the name and
address of the recipient in the Fom: field, the name and address of anyone who is being copied to
in the Cc: field, and the subject of the message obviously in the Subject: field.

The part below the header of the email is called the body, and contains the message itself.

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Spelling the correct address is critical with an email. Like with a normal postal letter, if you get
the address wrong it won't go the correct receiver. If you send an email to an address which doesn’t
exist the message will come back to you as an Address Unknown error routine.

Email Addresses

An e-mail address typically has two main parts:

editor@[Link]

The first field is the user name (editor) which refers to the recipient's mailbox. Then there is the
sign (@) which is the same in every email address. Then comes the host name (internet-guide),
which can also be called the domain name. This refers to the mail server address, most usually
having an individual IP address. The final part of an email address includes the top-level domain
(TLD). For the above address this is '[Link]', which is for academic site based in the Kenya.

Ensuring tight security when responding to emails

Do not respond to emails whose origin cannot be verified

Any email message asking you to surrender your private information such as bank card number,
your email account number or password or both, among others.

Avoid clicking on links on email messages that might direct you to some unfamiliar sites. In any
unfamiliar site, surf with a lot of caution.

Avoid following links that ask you to click on a link and follow steps provided to change your
password, especially if you did not anticipate such a step.

Do not respond to any email message asking you to send money to any unfamiliar bank account.
Many people have fallen victims of this cyber-attack.

Instant Messaging

Instant messaging (IM) services are programs that enable you to communicate in real time with
others who are online. Although IM is most often used for casual conversations between friends,
many businesses use IM as a means of quick and instant communication between co-workers.
Some popular instant messaging services include: Facebook chat, ICQ, Yahoo!, Google, and
Windows Live Messenger. Most of these services are proprietary, meaning you can chat only with
those who share the same IM service. However, there are universal chat services such as Trillian,
Pidgin, and Digsby that allow users of all popular sites regardless of the chat service they use.
Meebo is a new web-based universal chat service.

Read and make notes on social networking, Weblogs (Blogs) and Video Logs (Vlogs), Wikis,
Podcasts and Webcasts.

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9.2.5 Intranet and Extranet

Regardless of how a business network is physically constructed, the objective is to allow people
to have access to information and devices to communicate. A business organization may provide
a locally accessible information resource for members of the organization, called an intranet.
Intranets and Extranets are parts or extensions of a computer network, usually a local area network.

An Intranet3 is a set of networks that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That
administrative entity closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users. This network is not
available to the world outside of the Intranet. If the Intranet network is connected to the Internet,
the Intranet will reside behind a firewall and, if it allows access from the Internet, will be an
Extranet. The firewall helps to control access between the Intranet and Internet to permit access to
the Intranet only to people who are members of the same company or organization.

An Extranet4 is actually an Intranet that is partially accessible to authorized outsiders. The actual
server (the computer that serves up the web pages) will reside behind a firewall. The firewall helps
to control access between the Intranet and Internet permitting access to the Intranet only to people
who are suitably authorized. The level of access can be set to different levels for individuals or
groups of outside users. The access can be based on a username and password or an IP address (a
unique set of numbers such as [Link] that defines the computer that the user is on).

9.3 World Wide Web (WWW) and Types of Web Browsers

World Wide Web (WWW or W3) – is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the
Internet. It’s commonly known as the Web. Also referred to us a multimedia-based collection of
information, services, and Web sites supported by the Internet. Therefore, the Internet is the
technology infrastructure that makes the Web possible and the Web is what you use to have fun,
and to work.

Web Browser – refers to application software that enables you to surf the Web. The most popular
are Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, and Netscape Communicator.

Internet Explorer
This is the of the most widely-used web browser by people around the world. It was developed
by Microsoft in 1994 and released in 1995 as a supportive package to Microsoft Windows line of
operating systems. It is presently known as Windows Internet Explorer, was formerly called
Microsoft Internet Explorer (MSIE), and more is commonly known as IE. People have a
misconception that browsing the Internet is possible only through Internet Explorer. They are

3
An internal organizational Internet that is guarded against outside access by special security hardware and /or
software known as a firewall.
4
An extension of an intranet that allows other organizations and people access to information application
software on an internal intranet.

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unaware of various web browsers that are available. This simply proves that Internet Explorer is
used by the majority.

Mozilla Firefox
It is owned by Mozilla Corporation and was the result of experimentation. This browser has gone
through many name changes due to name clashes with other products. 'Mozilla Firefox' was
officially announced in February 2004. It was earlier named Phoenix, Firebird, and eventually
Firefox. It is the second-most famous browser after Internet Explorer, as there were around 100
million downloads within a year of its release.

Other Web browser software include: Safari, Opera, Netscape communicator/Netscape, and
Google Chrome.

Important Terms

Web site – a specific location on the Web that you can visit electronically to gather information
and perhaps order products and request services.

Web page – a specific portion of a Web site that deals with a certain topic.

Web site address – a unique name for an entire Web site. The technical term for a Web site address
is a domain name.

Web page address – a unique name for a Web page within a Web site. The technical term for a
Web page address is a URL (uniform resource locator).

Search Engine – a facility on the Web that allows you to find Web sites by providing key words
or questions. There are many types of search engines: directory search engine – organizes listings
of Web sites into hierarchical lists. E.g. Yahoo! ([Link]). True search engine – organizes
Web sites in such a way as that it can provide you with a list of Web sites based on a question you
ask. E.g. Ask Jeeves ([Link]). Other examples of search engines: Google,

Global Positioning System (GPS) – it’s a navigational system that uses satellites to tell you where
you’re, how fast you’re going, and what direction you’re headed in. GPS is funded by the U.S
Department of Defense (DOD). GPS consists of three major parts: satellites, receivers, and ground
control stations.

For example, the Standard is a Web site, and its Web site address (domain name) is
[Link] Note the extensions “.[Link]”, this extension can take on many forms
such as .com, .edu, .[Link], .[Link], .org. The extension tells use some info about the site you are
visiting; .com – commercial organization or profit making organization, .edu or .[Link] or .[Link] –
an educational institution. Also the country of the organization; .[Link] – Kenya, .[Link] – United
Kingdom, .[Link] – Australia The extensions are known as top-level domain.

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Revision Questions

1. What is a Computer Network?

2. Explain the various advantages and disadvantages of using computer network in
an organization.
3. Explain the various communication media used in computer networks.
4. Using examples differentiate between URL and Domain name.
5. Explain the major types of computer networks.
6. Differentiate between the Internet and the World Wide Web and who is bigger.
7. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using the Internet.

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10.0 NUMBER SYSTEMS

At some point during the middle of the sixteenth century, Europe embraced the decimal (or base
10) numbering system that the Arabs and Hindus had been using for nearly a millennium. Today,
we take for granted that the number 243 means two hundreds, plus four tens, plus three units.
Notwithstanding the fact that zero means “nothing,” virtually everyone knows that there is a
substantial difference between having 1 of something and having 10 of something.

The general idea behind positional numbering systems is that a numeric value is represented
through increasing powers of a radix (or base). This is often referred to as a weighted numbering
system because each position is weighted by a power of the radix.

The set of valid numerals for a positional numbering system is equal in size to the radix of that
system. For example, there are 10 digits in the decimal system, 0 through 9, and 3 digits for the
ternary (base 3) system, 0, 1, and 2. The largest valid number in a radix system is one smaller than
the radix, so 8 is not a valid numeral in any radix system smaller than 9. To distinguish among
numbers in different radices, we use the radix as a subscript, such as in 3310 to represent the decimal
number 33. (In our discussions, numbers written without a subscript should be assumed to be
decimal.) Any decimal integer can be expressed exactly in any other integral base system (see
Example 2.1).

Example 2.1:

Three numbers represented as powers of a radix.

243.5110 = 2 x 102 + 4 x 101 + 3 x 100 + 5 x 10-1 + 1 x 10-2

2123 = 2 x 32 + 1 x 31 + 2 x 30 = 2310

101102 = 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 = 2210

The two most important radices in computer science are binary (base two), and hexadecimal (base
16). Another radix of interest is octal (base 8). The binary system uses only the digits 0 and 1; the
octal system, 0 through 7. The hexadecimal system allows the digits 0 through 9 with A, B, C, D,
E, and F being used to represent the numbers 10 through 15. Figure 2.1 shows some of the radices.

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Figure 2.1

10.1 Converting any number system to decimal system

It is simple to convert a number from binary, ternary, octal, or hexadecimal system to decimal
system. All that is required is to multiply each digit by the appropriate power and add the results.

Example 2.2:

1001012 = 1x25 + 0x24 + 0x23 + 1x22 + 0x21 + 1x20 = 3710

1111.112 = 1x23 + 1x22 + 1x21 + 1x20 + 1x2-1 + 1x2-2 = 15.7510

121203 = 1x34 + 2x33 + 1x32 + 2x31 + 0x30=

121.123 = 1x32 + 2x31 + 1x30 + 1x3-1 + 1x2-2 =

245678 = 2x84 + 4x83 + 5x82 + 6x81 + 7x80 =

84AEF16 = 8x164 + 4x163 + 10x162 +14x161 + 15x160 =

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10.2 Converting Unsigned Whole Numbers

Conversion between base systems can be done by using either repeated subtraction or a division-
remainder method. The subtraction method is cumbersome and requires a familiarity with the
powers of the radix being used. In our discussions, we look at division-remainder method.

Using division-reminder method

The division-remainder method is faster and easier than the repeated subtraction method. It
employs the idea that successive divisions by the base are in fact successive subtractions by powers
of the base. The remainders that we get when we sequentially divide by the base end up being the
digits of the result, which are read from bottom to top. This method works with any base, and
because of the simplicity of the calculations, it is particularly useful in converting from decimal to
binary. It’s illustrated in Example 2.3.

Example 2.3

Convert 10410 to base 2 using division-reminder method

2 104 0 2 divides 104 52 times with a reminder of 0

2 52 0 2 divides 52 26 times with a reminder of 0

2 26 0 2 divides 26 13 times with a reminder of 0

2 13 1 2 divides 13 6 times with a reminder of 1

2 6 0 2 divides 6 3 times with a reminder of 0

2 3 1 2 divides 3 once with a reminder of 1

2 1 1 2 divides 1 0 times with a reminder of 1

Reading the reminders from bottom to up 10410 = 11010002

Question: Convert 14710 to base 3 and to base 2 using both repeated subtraction and division-
reminder.

14710 to base 2

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A binary number with N bits can represent unsigned integers from 0 to 2 N-1. For example, 4 bits
can represent the decimal values 0 through 15, while 8 bits can represent the values 0 through 255.
The range of values that can be represented by a given number of bits is extremely important when
doing arithmetic operations on binary numbers. Consider a situation in which binary numbers are
4 bits in length, and we wish to add 11112 (1510) to 11112. We know that 15 plus 15 is 30, but 30
cannot be represented using only 4 bits. This is an example of a condition known as overflow,
which occurs in unsigned binary representation when the result of an arithmetic operation is
outside the range of allowable precision for the given number of bits.

10.2.1 Converting Fractions

Fractions in any base system can be approximated in any other base system using negative powers
of a radix. Radix points separate the integer part of a number from its fractional part. In the decimal
system, the radix point is called a decimal point. Binary fractions have a binary point.

Fractions that contain repeating strings of digits to the right of the radix point in one base may not
necessarily have a repeating sequence of digits in another base. For instance, 2/3 is a repeating
decimal fraction, but in the ternary system it terminates as 0.23 (2 x 3-1 = 2 x 1/3). We can convert
fractions between different bases using methods analogous to the repeated subtraction and
division-remainder methods for converting integers.

Example 2.5: Convert 0.430410 to base 5 using division-reminder method

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Reading from top to bottom, we find 0.430410 = 0.20345.

This example was contrived so that the process would stop after a few steps. Often things don’t
work out quite so evenly, and we end up with repeating fractions. Most computer systems
implement specialized rounding algorithms to provide a predictable degree of accuracy. For the
sake of clarity, however, we will simply discard (or truncate) our answer when the desired accuracy
has been achieved, as shown in Example 2.6.

Example 2.6

Convert 0.3437510 to binary with 4 bits to the right of the binary point.

.34375

X 2

0.68750 (Another placeholder)

X 2

1.37500

.37500

X 2

0.75000

.75000

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X 2

1.50000 (This is our fourth bit. We will stop here.)

Reading from top to bottom, 0.3437510 = 0.01012 to four binary places

NB: The methods just described can be used to directly convert any number in any base to any
other base, say from base 4 to base 3. However, in most cases, it is faster and more accurate to first
convert to base 10 and then to the desired base. One exception to this rule is when you are working
between bases that are powers of two, as you’ll see in the next section.

Cable modem

Revision Questions

1. Perform the following operations (show your working)

i) Convert 14710 to binary.

10010011
ii) Convert 10508 to decimal.
. 55210
2. Convert the following numbers as advised:
(i) 24310 to binary (base 2)
(ii) 8FEA216 to binary (base 2)

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REFERENCES
1. Evans A. et al (2012), Technology in Action Complete 8th ed., Pearson
2. Haag S. et al (2004), Computing Concepts: Introductory edition 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
3. Onunga J. (1999), Introduction to Microcomputers and Programming, Mariwa Publishers
-Nairobi.
4. Microsoft Office Series (for word, excel, access, and PowerPoint)

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