SCIENCE REVIEWER - Uppermost and thinnest layer of Earth

Lesson 1: Internal Structure of the Earth - The average thickness of the crust is 35 km
 Earth is the only planet to be named in English  Continental Crust (SIAL Layer)
 The word Earth is an old English word meaning “land” - Composed of granitic and andesitic rocks.
 Belongs to the Milky way Galaxy, Local group cluster and - Rich in Feldspar Minerals
Virgo Supercluster - Its density is 2.6gm
 Earth is believed to be exists for 450 million years & - Its average thickness is 40km
evidences are from 225 million years  Oceanic Crust (SIMA Layer)
 Earth is the only planet to sustain life - The oceanic crust is made up of Basalt
 The distance of the Earth from the sun is 150 million km - Rich in Ferro-magnesia
 The diameter of the sun is 109 times the diameter of the - Its density is about 3gm
Earth Mantle
 The mass of the Earth is 5.97 x 1024 kg - Extends from the base of the crust at a depth of
 The Surface area of the Earth is 510.1 million km² 2900km
Aristotle and Pythagoras - Comprises about 80% of Earths Volume
- Proved that the earth isn’t flat but spherical - Contain Iron, Magnesium and Calcium
Isaac Newton Geothermal Gradient
- Said that the Earth is not a perfect sphere but compressed - The steady increase in temperature, which is believed
spheroid or oblate spheroid. to be the reason for different rock behaviors in the
Oblate spheroid mantle
- a type of ellipsoid solid formed when an ellipse is rotated Type of Mantle:
about its minor axis. 1. Upper Mantle
Geodesy - comprises of Peridotite and Gabbro and Plagioclase
- The study of the shape and size of the Earth minerals.
Earth’s Diameter - The average density of the upper mantle is about 4.5 g
- At the poles is 12,714 km (minor axis). The diameter of the - The thickness of the uppermost part of this stratum is
Earth at the equator is 12,756 km (major axis). about 80-100 km
Rheology - The average temperature is 1000C
- The study of matter primarily in liquid state under conditions 2. Lower Mantle
at which they respond with the plastic flow - The lower mantle extends at a depth of 670 km to
Mechanical Layers of Earth 2900km
1. Lithosphere - It is composed of Olivine, Plagioclase, and Orthoclase
2. Asthenosphere minerals.
3. Mesospheric Mantle - The average density of this region is about 6.5g
4. Outer Core Core
5. Inner Core - Because of its metallic composition, its density is
Chemical Layers of Earth nearly twice of the mantle.
1. Crust - It comprises 15% to 16% of the total volume of the
2. Upper Mantle Earth
3. Lower Mantle - Depth of 2900 km to 6371 km
4. Outer Core Two types of Cores:
5. Inner Core 1. Outer Core
- The density of the outer core is about 10g
Lithosphere - It mainly consists of Iron and Nickle
- The outermost part of the planet including the Earth’s crust as - Is always in molten state
well as the underlying cool, dense, rigid part of the upper 2. Inner Core
mantle. - The inner core extends between 5150 km to 6371 km
- Extends from the surface of earth to a depth of 70-100 km. - The average density of the inner core is about
Asthenosphere 13g/cm3
- Part of the layer of Earth under the lithosphere - Despite the high temperature, the inner core is always
- This region is partially molten in state in a solid state due to very high pressure
- Also called as Low-Velocity region, it is also rich in Peridotite - The temperature of the inner core is about 6000C
- More popularly known as Magma Chamber
Crust Discontinuities:
1. Conrad Discontinuity - Continental Crust
- Divides the continental to the oceanic crust - Solid ground where you stand upon on
2. Mohorovicic Discontinuity - Formed during volcanic eruptions
- Separates the crust and the mantle Oceanic Lithosphere
- Discovered by a Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic - Oceanic Crust
in 1909 - Heavier Basalt and Gabro rocks
- inferred that the velocity of seismic waves is related to the - Younger than continental crust
density of the material that is moving through. - Oceanic crust measures only 7km thick
3. Repetti Discontinuity Plate Tectonic Theory
- Separates the upper from the lower mantle - It was developed from earlier hypotheses and data
- There’s a sharp increase in the velocity of the seismic waves collected about the rocks of the ocean floor.
4. Guttenberg Discontinuity - the earth’s outermost layer is fragmented into a dozen
- Separates the lower mantle to the upper core or more large and small solid plates, or slabs called
5. Lehmann Discontinuity lithospheric plates or tectonic plates, which are
- Separates the Outer and Inner Core constantly in motion relative to one another as they
Interior of the Earth ride at the top hotter, more mobile material known as
asthenosphere.
- "Theatrum Orbis Terrarum" - first world atlas, one
of the foundational works that gave rise to this theory,
was developed and published by Abraham Ortelius
on May 20, 1570.
Continental Drift Theory
- Was proposed by Alfred Wegener on 1912.
Pangea
- Supercontinent, One big landmass
Panthalassa
- One big Ocean

Lesson 3: Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics

Lesson 2: Plate Tectonics
Raisin Theory Volcano
- Known as the Geosynclinical Theory or the Geosyncline - A mountain that opens downward to a reservoir of a
Hypothesis. molten rock called magma.
- Implied that the mountain rages was forced up by the - They differ from most mountains because it has bents
“wrinkling process” where molten rock escape to the Earth’s surface
- Proposed by James Hall and James Dana during volcanic eruptions.
Theory of Isostasy Volcanism
- Proposed by Clarence Edward Dutton, an American - Refers to the process and phenomena associated with
seismologist and geologist the surficial discharge of molten rock and other
- States that wherever equilibrium exists on Earth’s surface, materials into the surface of earth.
equal mass must underlie equal surface areas, meaning, a great Stages of Volcanism
continental mass must be formed of lighter materials that that 1. Invasion of Magma
supposed to constitute the ocean floor. - Molten rock migrates upward; small pods of magma
- Equal force of Gravitational and Buoyancy Force form and rise upward.
Tectonic - Molten rock or magma at a temperature of more than
- Derived from the Greek word “tekton” which means 1650 F (900 ֯C), rises through weak spots in the
carpenter or builder Earth’s crust where tectonic plates meet.
Tectonic Plates 2. Building Pressure
- Used to describe the physical plates - The magma pools in a chamber. Gas and water
- Lithospheric plates dissolved in the molten rock are released, causing
- Massive, irregular slabs of solid rock that envelop the surface pressure in the chamber to rise.
of the Earth.

Continental Lithosphere Eruption

- The volcano erupts explosively when the magma and hot gas -They are thought to spread out laterally at the base of
can no longer be contained below the Earth’s surface. the continent that allowed an increase in pressure
Active volcanism occurs in 4 principal settings: that stretches the crust, resulting to an uplift, a
1. Along divergent plate boundaries such as oceanic ridges or fracture or a rift.
spreading centers. Lesson 4: Earthquake
2. In areas of continental extension that may become divergent Earthquake
plate boundaries in the future - is a natural phenomenon that is characterized by a
3. Along converging plate boundaries where subduction occurs. sudden, violent shifting of massive plates
Approximately 75% of the worlds active volcanoes can be underneath Earth’s surface.
found along the Pacific Ring of Fire. - This movement of plates releases stress that generates
4. In areas called “Hotspots” that are usually located in the along geologic faults.
interior of plates, away from the plate margins. Parts of Epicenter
Volcanoes are formed by 1. Focus – point within Earth where the earthquakes
Subduction – Rifting – Hotspots start.
Volcanoes can be formed in three ways: 2. Epicenter – location on the surface directly above
1. Via subduction. The subducting slab dehydrates to form new the focus
melt that will rise through the crust to be erupted at the surface. 3. Fault – associated with earthquakes activity where
2. Via rifting. When two plates pull apart magma rises, producing movement has occurred.
volcanic eruptions at the surface. 4. Fault Plane – The area where the faults occur,
3. At “Hotspots” hotspot do not necessarily occur along a plate maybe sloping or vertical
boundary, so hotspot volcanoes can form in the middle of 5. Fault Trace - is a line that may be visible or not,
tectonic plates which occurs on Earth’s surface.
Subduction 6. Hanging Wall – refers to the block of crust above
- The most volcanically active belt on Earth is known as the the fault
Pacific Ring of Fire, a region of subduction zone volcanism 7. Footwall – is the block of the crust below the fault.
surrounding the Pacific Ocean. Types of Faults
Subduction zone volcanism 1. Normal Fault
- occurs where two plates are converging on one another. One -A fault in which the hanging wall moves down
plate containing oceanic lithosphere descends beneath the relative to the footwall as a result of extension.
adjacent plate, thus consuming the oceanic lithosphere into the This is the most common type of fault.
earth's mantle. This on-going process is called subduction. 2. Reverse Fault
- As the descending plate bends downward at the surface, it -Also called as thrust fault. A fault in which the
creates a large linear depression called an oceanic trench. hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall as a
These trenches are the deepest topographic features on the result of compression.
earth's surface. 3. Strike-Strip Fault
Rifting -A fault in which two blocks of crust slide past each
- Rift volcanoes form when magma rises into the gap between other on the same plane. The motion experienced
diverging plates. They thus occur at or near actual plate is right or left lateral instead of up and down
boundaries. Types of Seismic Waves
Hotspot Volcanoes 1. Surface Waves – travel along the surface
- Hot mantle plumes breaching the surface in the middle of a  Love Waves - move transverse to the
tectonic plate. direction of the propagation but with
Hotspot no vertical motion
- is a location on the Earth's surface that has experienced active  Rayleigh Waves/ Ground Roll - cause
volcanism for a long period of time. rock particles to move upward, up,
- Hotspots are thought to be caused by the convection of hot backward, and down
mantle at the mantle plumes. 2. Body Waves – travel below the surface of Earth
- This region is fed by the underlying mantle from which heat  Compressional or P-waves (4-8 km/s,
rises as thermal plume inside the Earth. moves in all states of matter))
Mantle Plumes  Shear or Secondary S-waves (2.5-4
- Mantle plumes are areas or columns where heat or rocks in the km/s, solid only)
mantle are rising toward Earth’s surface.
-They can be located underneath continental or oceanic
Compressional or P-Waves
crust or along plate boundaries.
- travel the fastest at a speed between 4-8 km/s at Earth crust; explosions, which when bottled within, increases a
hence, they are the first to arrive at a location. Can move thousand times more than the atmospheric pressure,
through all state of matter. in intensity.
Shear or Secondary S-Waves Mercalli Scale
- A type of seismic body wave in which rock particles vibrate at - Was invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902.
right angles to the direction of wave travel. Secondary - people who experienced the earthquakes to
waves cause the rocks they pass through to change in shape. estimate the intensity. However, this was not
These waves are the second fastest traveling seismic waves considered scientific.
(after primary waves) and can travel through solids but not Richter Scale
through liquids or gases. - invented by Charles F. Richter in 1934 where the
Types of Earthquakes magnitude of earthquake where scientifically
1. Tectonic Earthquake calculated.
2. Volcanic Earthquake - He used the distance between the earthquake and the
3. Collapse Earthquake seismograph and the amplitude of the largest
4. Explosion Earthquake recorded seismic wave.
Classification of Earthquakes - The magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale
1. Tele seismic Earthquake = less than 1000 km (based 10), which means each additional unit of
2. Regional Earthquake = less than 500 km magnitude denotes a tenfold increase in power of the
3. Local Earthquake = earthquake.
Tectonic Earthquake - At present, most stations determine the size of quake
- Happens when the shifting of Earth’s plates is driven by the using the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS), which
sudden release of energy within some limited region of the was introduced by Thomas C. Hanks and Hiroo
rocks of Earth. Kanamori in 1997. Here, the total energy content of
- Elastic Rebound Theory, Harry Fielding Reid the seismic waves is determined by computer
- The roughness or harshness along the faults are called analysis and corrected for distance between the
asperities while the places where the rupture slows, or stops earthquake and the seismograph.
are termed as fault barriers
Volcanic Earthquake
- Often occurs in volcanic regions and can serve as an early
warning of volcanic eruptions.
- Caused by either the injection or withdrawal of magma in
response to the changes in pressure in the rock where the
magma has experienced stress.
- Volcano tectonic earthquake, occur after a volcanic activity
has taken place and the
- long-period volcanic earthquake that occurs after a volcanic -
eruption.
Collapse Earthquake
- are small earthquakes occurring in regions of underground
caverns and mines.
- The immediate cause of ground shaking is the collapse of the
roof of the mine or cavern.
- An often- observed variation of this phenomenon is the so
called "mine burst". This happens when the induced stress
around the mine working cause large masses of rock to fly off
the mine face explosively, producing seismic waves.
- Collapse earthquakes are also produced by massive land
sliding.
Explosion Earthquake
- An Explosion Earthquake is an earthquake which results
of nuclear and chemical devices.

- This occurs when enormous energy nuclear energy

Cases and Effects of Earthquakes:
is released during underground nuclear
- Generally, earthquakes are caused by the release of a massive Block-faulting
amount of energy at Earth’s crust that allows seismic wave to - When the weight decreases, the continental crust
propagate along its surface. makes an isostatic adjustment, causing it to float
- Earthquakes pose great danger and destruction because they do higher in the mantle.
not happen at once. Oftentimes, they are felt in series. Types of Tectonic Converges
Foreshock, are small earthquakes that are commonly 1. Arc-Continental
preceding major earthquake. - When an island arc collides with the edge of a
- After the major earthquake, smaller earthquake called continental plate
aftershocks occur. These tremors are felt in the same region of - An example is the Sierra Nevada in California
the main shock. They are formed as the crust adjusts to the -
effects of the main shock. 2. Oceanic-Continental
Tsunami - When ocean and continental plates allow the accretion
- a Japanese word for “Big wave in the port”. of marine sedimentary deposits to the edge of the
- Tsunamis generated when the ocean floor abruptly deforms continent.
and vertically displaces the overlaying water. - An example is the Andes Mountains in the South
- Tsunamis can rise up to 100 km or more and can be frequent America boundary and a small part of Pacific
as 5 minutes to an hour. Ocean’s boundary.
Seiche 3. Continental-Continental
- refers to large waves up and down instead of forward. - When an ocean basin closes and two continental
- It oscillates in a closed space such as lake, reservoir or plates collides
swimming pool. - Continental collision is a variation on the
Ground Motion fundamental process of subduction, whereby the
- ground shaking will vary over an area, depending on some subduction zone is destroyed, mountains produced,
factors such as topography, bedrock type, location and and two continents sutured together.
orientation of the fault fracture. - An example of this are the mountain system of the
- This process is called “pancaking”, because the resulting Appalachians, Himalayas and Ural.
debris resembles a stack of pancakes. Mountain Rages
Land or Soil Erosion - A succession of many closely spaced mountains
- aside from damage to artificial structures, earthquakes can covering a particular portion of Earth is called
wreak havoc on Earth itself. mountain range.
- Landslides, for instances, post a major geologic hazard that - Several mountain ranges that run roughly parallel to
may include large-scale ground movements such as rock falls, each other are collectively termed as mountain belts.
deep failure of slopes and shallow debris falls. - Most mountain ranges are usually located either in the
Soil Liquefaction Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide belt
- is responsible for tremendous amount of damage by - The Pacific Ring of Fire or the Circum-Pacific
earthquakes in many parts of the world. Seismic Belt is a horseshoe-shaped region in the
- Liquefied soil will force open ground cracks to escape to the Pacific Ocean basin that is characterized by a large
surface and the injected materials often results in flooding and number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
cavities in the structure. - The Alpide Belt is a mountain range that is being
Lesson 5: Mountain Rages created by the ongoing collision of plate tectonics
Orogeny between the northward-moving African, Arabian and
- Forces and events leading to a large structural deformation of Indian plates, Eurasian plate, Indonesia and
Earth’s crust Southeast Asia through the Himalaya and ends in the
Stages of Mountain Building Alps.
1. Accumulation of Sediments Himalaya
2. Orogenic period of deformation and crust lift - The highest and youngest mountain system in the
3. Period of crustal uplift caused by isostatic rebound and world.
block-faulting - Its origin dates back to the Jurassic Era, which is
Isostatic Rebound about 80 million years ago.
- Exhibit when a crust bends the lithosphere into the The name “Himalaya” comes from the Sanskrit
asthenosphere, causing the lower layer to flow out of the way. language that means “House of Snow,” or “Snowy
- The crust will then sink until it reaches its buoyancy point Range”.
-Surface materials from the mountains are removed
(erosional forces)
- The Himalaya Range forms a barrier which separates northern - Alpine Orogeny was an episodic process that started
India from the plateau of Tibet. Parts of the range are as about 300 million years ago.
much as 200 miles wide. - During the Paleozoic Era, the Pangaea is the only
- The Himalaya Range records an elevation of about 1,000 ft. continent on Earth. It separated into two continents,
(305 m) above sea level, giving greater heights over the Laurasia and Gondwanaland during the Mesozoic
plains of northern India. Era. The two continents were separated by the
- Because of the great difference in various parts of range, Tethys Sea.
almost every kind of climate can be found in the Himalaya. - However, the sea was squeezed between colliding
- Many peaks of the Himalaya are regarded sacred in Hinduism plates that formed the mountain ranges called the
and Buddhism. Alpide belt. This belt covers Gibraltar, the
Andes Himalayas, to Indonesia.
- the longest mountain range in the world, which stretch Rocky Mountains
extend along the entire west coast of South America from Cape - also known as Rockies, are a group of jagged, snow-
Horn to Panama, a distance of 4500 miles. capped peaks that run through the western part of
Divided into three sections: Northern America.
- Central Andes, having the Chilean and Peruvian mountain - It includes all uplands and mountains of New Mexico,
systems and part of Bolivia British Columbia, and North Alberta in Canada and
- Southern Andes, in Argentina and Chile United States of America.
- Northern Andes, in Columbia, Ecuador, and Venezuela - The approximate length of this range is 6035 km.
- Andes is a Mesozoic-Tertiary Orogenic Belt of mountain - The mountains were formed from 80 million to 55
along the Pacific Ring of Fire. million years ago during the Laramide Orogeny,
- They were created due to plate tectonic processes caused by the period when several plates began to slide
compression of the western rim of the South American Plate. underneath the North American plate.
Appalachians - The mountains are also known for their minerals such
- The primary mountain system of the eastern Northern America as gold, silver, lead, and copper as well as coal, oil
are the Appalachians. shale, and phosphate rock.
- It is known to be the oldest mountains in the United States, - The highest peak is Mount Elbert, which stands
the Appalachian stretches southwestward for about 1,500 4401m.
miles from Quebec in Canada to central Alabama. The Great Diving Range
- The Appalachians formed during the Ordovician Period, - The Great Dividing Range or Eastern Highlands is
approximately 480 million years ago. Australia’s most substantial mountain range and
- The range is composed of more than 40 peaks that reach over the third longest land-based range in the world.
6,000 feet. - It stretches more than 3,500 km from Dauan
- Mount Mitchell in Northern Carolina is the highest peak of the Island off the northeastern tip of Queensland,
Appalachians, standing 6,684 feet. running the entire length of the eastern coastline
- During its original orogenesis, the continents of Earth were in through New South Wales
different locations as what has been explained by plate - In southern New South Wales and eastern Victoria, the
tectonics. continent’s tallest mountains can be found, including
- The Appalachians were once an extension of the Caledonian Australia’s highest peak, Mount Kosciuszko that
mountain chain, a chain that is today located in Scotland and rises to a height of 2,230 km above sea level.
Scandinavia. - The name Great Dividing Range was given because
Alps the mountain range forms a watershed
- the largest mountain system in Europe.
- They extend from the southeastern France and northern
Italy, most of Switzerland, part of southern Germany, and
some portion of Austria and Yugoslavia.
- The towering peaks of the Alps, which is approximately Lesson 6: Plate boundaries
8000 ft and covered with ice and snow, are considered as Seafloor Spreading Theory
the most magnificent natural sight in the continent. Proposed by an American geologist Harry Hess in the 1960s
- Towering at 15,782 ft above sea level, Mount BlancThe term seafloor spreading is first coined by Robert S. Dietz.
in Peninne Alps, France is the highest mountainTypes of Plate Boundaries
in this mountain range. Convergent Boundary
- Alpinism or Mountaineering is believed to have Boundary where plates come together
originated in the Alps. Divergent Boundary
- Where plates move apart - It focuses in understanding landforms history and
3. Transform Boundary dynamics and predicting future changes through
- Where two plates slide alongside each other observations, experiments and modeling
Convergent Boundary Topography
- Forms when two tectonic plates come towards each other. - is the study of the current terrain features of a region
- There are three types of convergent boundaries: and the graphic representation of a characteristics of a
a. continent-continent particular landform in a map.
- Mountain form and earthquakes occur when continental plates Landforms
run into each other and fold upwards. - are defined as the natural physical features on the
- A continental plate colliding with another continental plate has surface of Earth. They are formed by various forces of
Collision Zones: nature.
- A place where folded and thrust faulted Types of Landforms:
mountains form. 1. Aeolian Landform
b. ocean-ocean - Aeolian landforms are shaped by the wind (named
- Volcanic island arcs, trenches & earthquakes occur when older for the Greek God of wind, Aeolus).
ocean plate subducts under a younger ocean plate. - Aeolian processes are responsible for the emission
- The less dense plate slides under the denser plate creating a and/or mobilization of dust and the formation of areas
subduction zone called a TRENCH of sand dunes. They largely depend on other geologic
c. continent-ocean agents, such as rivers, glaciers, and waves, to supply
- Mountains, volcanoes and earthquakes occur as an ocean plate sediment for transport.
subducts under a continental plate. The Oceanic plate melts; a. Dunes
less dense-magma rises to form volcanoes. -Small hills made up of sand
- Subduction Zone: The process by which oceanic crust sinks -Most common is Barchan and is formed in the
beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the mantle at a direction opposite that of the wind.
convergent plate boundary. b. Loess
-Predominantly silt-sized sediment formed by the
 Boundaries colliding between two plates has a stress called accumulation of windblown dust
COMPRESSION -Appears yellowish or brownish
Convergent Boundary c. Mushroom Rocks
- Connecting boundaries -Rock Pedestal
Divergent Boundaries -Formed by earthquakes or glacial action
- When two plates move apart 2. Erosional Landforms
- Rock gets THIN in the middle as it is pulled apart. This stress -Created from exclusively erosional and weathering
is called Tension. activities
What happen next at Divergent Boundary? a. Mesas
a. May form rift valleys -Table Mountains
b. Sea-floor spreading -Elevated areas of land with a flat top and sides that
are usually steep cliffs
Divergent Boundary -Surrounded by a resistant rock known as a cap rock
- Dissecting or dividing b. Buttes
-Have flat-topped hills and steep sides and are formed
Strike-slip Transform Boundary in arid to semi-arid desert conditions
- occur where two plates slide alongside each other. -French word means ‘’hillock or small hill’’
Earthquakes occur in these areas. c. Canyons
- Rock is pushed in two opposite directions (or sideways, but no -Is a deep ravine between cliffs that is often carved
rock is lost) this stress is called shearing from the landscape by a river, wind or glacier
Shearing
- Means cutting. Like trains passing at each other
Lesson 7: Landforms along Plate Boundaries
Geomorphology Mountain and Glacial Forms
- is the scientific landforms and the processes that those that rise higher than the rest of their surroundings
shape them they exhibit slopes, summit areas and local reliefs
can be created by different tectonic activities
Volcanoes
- controlled by geological processes that form them and - Abyssal plain – found at the deepest part of the
continually act on them after their formation ocean.
- opening at the top called vent f. Plateaus
b. Hills - Table lands or flat-topped mountains
- elevated portions of land that are formed by geological - Portions of land elevated thousands of feet above their
activities such as faulting surroundings
- covered with grass, used as grazing lands - Results of geologic uplifts or the slow movement of
- smaller than mountains, 300 m high large parts of stable areas of Earth’s crust
- originates from mountains due to extensive erosion - Volcanic eruptions and weathering
c. Valleys - Covers 45% of Earth’s land surface
- Low-lying areas of land situated between hills or mountains Lesson 8: Mechanism of Plate Tectonic
- Formed by the actions of rivers and glaciers, determines the Why do Plates Move?
shape of valley 1. Mantle Convection
- V-shaped when carved out by flowing water, U-shaped - Proposed by Arthur Holmes in 1929
glaciers - Suggested that as the mantle becomes heated, its
d. Glacial Landforms density decreases and eventually rises up and when
- Results of the actions of the glaciers the material cooled, it would sink, exhibiting a
- Huge slow-moving bodies of ice circling behavior like a conveyor belt.
- 2 main types: alpine (high mountains) and continental (cold - As presented in conveyor belt model, tectonic plates
polar regions) are moved passively by convection currents in Earth’s
4. Fluvial and Coastal lands mantle
- those that underwent sedimentation, erosion or deposition on a 2. Slab Pull
riverbed Slab Pull Theory
- Glaciofluvial or fluvioglacial - States that the gravity and the plates themselves
- Wave refraction - shorelines were carved out by the force of are the ones responsible for the plate tectonics
the sea through the subduction process.
a. Delta - Subduction zones exist at the outer edge of the
- typically, low-lying triangular area located at the mouth of plates, where in rocks are older. The old rocks or
rivers where it meets an ocean, a sea or an estuary slabs subduct or sink into the mantle below it due
- Alluvium refers to the sediment that has accumulated due to to gravitation force. As the slab pull down into the
interaction with a delta and bodies of water mantle, it drags the rest of the plates along with it,
b. Peninsula causing tectonic plate movement.
- Byland or biland - This theory believes that mantle convection is not
- Is a piece of land that projects into a body of water and relates the cause of plate tectonic but rather, it is a
to the mainland by an isthmus product of subduction.
- Latin word paeninsula (paene ‘’almost’’ and insula 3. Ridge Push
‘’island’’) Landmass is bordered by water on three sides - The lithosphere thickens because it cools as it moves
c. Meander away from the ridge.
- Bend in a sinuous watercourse of a river - The boundary between the solid lithosphere and the
- Formed when moving water in a stream erodes the out banks slightly molten asthenosphere becomes deeper.
then widens its valley - At result, this boundary slopes away from the ridge.
- Concave bank (inner bank), convex bank (outer bank) -
d. Sea Cliffs Seismic Tomography
- High rocky coasts that plunge down to the edge of the sea - is a technique of inverting seismological data to
- Erosional actions of water and wind retrieve a three-dimensional image of the anomalies in
- Exposed to the battering of waves, wind and sea spray seismic wave velocity within the media they cross.
- It is anchored on the fundamental principle that
velocities of seismic waves are expected to change as
they cross the regions of Earth’s mantle with different
e. Plains elastic properties and densities.
- Flat and broad land areas that have no great changes
Lesson 9: Evidence that support plate movement
in elevation when measured with reference to the Paleontological Evidence
mean sea level Paleontology - the study of the history of life on Earth as
based on fossils
  There is a striking similarity of certain fossils found on the
continents of both sides of the Atlantic, which is difficult
to explain if the continents were not once connected as one

 French scientist Antonio Snider-Pellegrini used identical

plant fossils found in coal beds of Europe and US to
support his idea that all continents were once connected
during the Pennsylvanian Period (314-280 Ma.). He
attributed the supercontinent breakup to the great flood
during the time of Noah.
 Edward Suess, an Austrian scientist described how plants
in Late Paleozoic Period coal beds of India, Australia,
South Africa and South America were all similar.
Evidence from Glaciation
- Considering the present positions of the continents, the glacial
till deposits indicate erratic glaciers motion, but when they
fitted together like a jigsaw puzzle, continents reveal a much
more streamlined motion, of the glacier from Southern
America and Northern Australia outward
- Glaciation or glacial period is an interval of time within the
ice age that is marked colder temperature and glaciers
advances. Interglacial on other hand is the period
characterized by warmer climates within an ice age.
Evidence from Structure and Rock Type
- Along with the development of reliable world maps in the
early 20th century, geographers noticed that the coastlines of
several of the present-day continents would perfectly fit
together, particularly Africa and South America. They also
noticed the presence of various geologic features which
sharply terminate at the coast of one continent across the
Atlantic.
Evidence from Paleoclimates
 Paleoclimatology - is the study of the extended climatic
conditions of past geologic ages
 Paleomagnetism - is the study of ancient magnetic fields.
- To prove the apparent shifting of climatic belts overtime.
Wegener reconstructed old climatic zones. He used the
distribution of specific rock types to determine the distribution
of climates in ancient times.
- Using a sensitive instrument called magnetometer, scientists
are able to determine the direction of the magnetic poles and
the magnetic latitude at the time the rock was formed.