IBM SPSS STATISTICS

EXCELLENT GUIDE

Peter James Kpolovie

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Copyright © 2020 by Peter James Kpolovie.

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 Table of Contents

PREFACE
Pedagogical features
Final benefit

Chapter 1 - WELCOME TO IBM SPSS STATISTICS

Overview
FORMS OF IBM SPSS
LAUNCHING IBM SPSS STATISTICS
IBM SPSS STATISTICS DATA EDITOR
MENU BAR
TOOLBAR
DATA VIEW
DATA ENTRY
VARIABLE VIEW
IBM SPSS STATISTICS VIEWER
Output 1.1 Descriptive statistics as displayed in the Viewer
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 1.1 AS ILLUSTRATION OF SPSS
VIEWER
IBM SPSS STATISTICS SYNTAX EDITOR
Activation of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor
Syntax 1.1 Chapter 1 Syntax 1.sps
Output 1.2 Descriptive statistics with SPSS Syntax
RULES FOR IBM SPSS STATISTICS SYNTAX ENTRY
Source of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax
SAVING OF FILES
Data File Saving
Syntax File Saving
Output File Saving
PRINTING OF FILES
Output File Printing

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Printing of Data File
Printing of Syntax File
RETRIEVAL OF FILES
Retrieval of Data File
Retrieving Syntax File
Retrieval of Output File
EXITING IBM SPSS STATISTICS

Chapter 2 - DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Overview
EXPLORE VIA SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND CLICK
Output 2.1 Chapter 2 Output 1.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 2.1: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
EXPLORE
EXPLORE VIA SPSS SYNTAX DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS METHOD
Syntax 2.1 Chapter 2 Syntax 1.sps
Output 2.2 Chapter 2 Output 2.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 2.2
MEANS METHOD VIA DIALOG BOXES SELECTION FOR
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Output 2.3 Chapter 2 Output 3.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 2.3
MEANS SPSS SYNTAX METHOD FOR DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Syntax 2.2 Chapter 2 Syntax 2.sps
Output 2.4 Chapter 2 Output 4.spv
DESCRIPTIVES DIALOG BOXES SELECTION FOR DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS
Output 2.5 Chapter 2 Output 5.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 2.5
DESCRIPTIVES SPSS SYNTAX FOR DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Syntax 2.3 Chapter 2 Syntax 3.sps
Output 2.6 Chapter 2 Output 6.spv
FREQUENCIES DIALOG BOXES SELECTION FOR DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS
Output 2.7 Chapter 2 Output 7.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 2.7

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FREQUENCIES SPSS SYNTAX FOR DESCRIPYIVE STATISTICS
Syntax 2.4 Chapter 2 Syntax 4.sps
Output 2.8 Chapter 2 Output 8.spv

Chapter 3 - INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t TEST

Overview
ASSUMPTIONS THAT UNDERLIE COMPARISON OF MEANS
Normal distribution of the population
Independence of observations
Homoscedasticity of variance
INFLUENCE OF GENDER ON K-6 STUDENTS’ BASIC SCIENCE
CONCEPT
Research question, Alternate hypothesis and Null hypothesis
EXECUTION OF THE INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t TEST ON BSCS
Output 3.1 Chapter 3 Output 1.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 3.1: GENDER DIFFERENCE IN BSCS
EFFECT SIZE: COHEN’S d FOR t TEST
EFFECT SIZE, d FOR INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t TEST
SPSS SYNTAX FOR INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t TEST ON
STUDENTS’ BSCS
Syntax 3.1 Chapter 3 Syntax 1.sps
Output 3.2 Chapter 3 Output 2.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 3.2
DIALOG BOXES SELECTION FOR INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t TEST
ON EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING
Research question
Alternate hypothesis
Null hypothesis
Output 3.3 Chapter 3 Output 3.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 3.3: EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING
ATTITUDE
EFFECT SIZE: d FOR INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t TEST ON
EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING
SPSS SYNTAX FOR INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t TEST ON
EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING
Syntax 3.2 Chapter 3 Syntax 2.sps

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Output 3.4 Chapter 3 Output 4.spv

Chapter 4 - ONE-SAMPLE t TEST EXECUTION

Overview
LIFE EXPECTANCY IN EUROPE AND IN THE WORLD
Research question, Alternate hypothesis and Null hypothesis
SPSS DIALOG BOXES SELECTION FOR ONE-SAMPLE t TEST
Output 4.1 Chapter 4 Output 1
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 4.1: LIFE EXPECTANCY IN EUROPE
EFFECT SIZE – COHEN’S d FOR ONE-SAMPLE t Test
SPSS SYNTAX EXECUTION OF ONE-SAMPLE t TEST
Syntax 4.1 Chapter 4 Syntax 1.sps
Output 4.2 Chapter 4 Output 2.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 4.2
ONE-SAMPLE t TEST FOR IQ DIFFERENCE IN WJ III
Research question
Alternate hypothesis
Null hypothesis
SPSS DIALOG SELECTION FOR ONE-SAMPLE t TEST
Output 4.3 Chapter 4 Output 3.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 4.3: STUDENTS’ WJ III IQ
EFFECT SIZE – COHEN’S d
ONE-SAMPLE t TEST WITH SYNTAX FOR IQ_WJIII DIFFERENCE
Syntax 4.2 Chapter 4 Syntax 2.sps
Output 4.4 Chapter 4 Output 4.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 4.4

Chapter 5 - PAIRED-SAMPLES t TEST EXECUTION

Overview
SPOUSES’ EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT IN CALIFORNIA
Research Question and Hypothesis
SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND CLICK FOR PAIRED-SAMPLES t
TEST
Output 5.1 Chapter 5 Output 1.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 5.1: COUPLES’ EDUCATIONAL
ATTAINMENT

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EFFECT SIZE, d, IN PAIRED-SAMPLES t TEST
SPSS SYNTAX FOR PAIRED-SAMPLES t TEST ON SPOUSES’ SEA
Syntax 5.1 Chapter 5 Syntax 1.sps
Output 5.2 Chapter 5 Output 2.spv
SELF-ACTUALIZATION IN 3-YEAR UNDERGRADUATE
PROGRAMMES
Research question
Alternate hypothesis
Null hypothesis
SPSS DIALOG BOXES SELECTION FOR PAIRED-SAMPLES t TEST
CASE 2
Output 5.3 Chapter 5 Output 3.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 5.3: SELF-ACTUALIZATION
EFFECT SIZE, d
SPSS SYNTAX FOR PAIRED-SAMPLES t TEST ON SELF-
ACTUALIZATION
Syntax 5.2 Chapter 5 Syntax 2.sps
Output 5.4 Chapter 5 Output 4.spv

Chapter 6 - ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Overview
EFFICIENCY OF THREE TYPES OF LIGHT BULB
Research question
Alternate hypothesis
Null hypothesis
SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND CLICK METHOD OF ANOVA
Output 6.1 Chapter 6 Output 1.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 6.1: BULB TYPES EFFECT ON
LUMINOUS EFFICACY
Descriptives
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
ANOVA Luminous Efficacy
Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons
Homogeneous Subsets Luminous Efficacy
Means Plots
EFFECT SIZE AS ETA-SQUARED IN ANOVA

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EFFECT SIZE IN POST HOC MULTIPLE COMPARISONS
Effect Size, d, for 8W LED versus 9W CFL Bulbs
Effect Size, d, for 9W LED versus 40W Incandescent Bulbs
Effect Size, d, for 8W LED versus 40W Incandescent Bulbs
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS
SPSS SYNTAX METHOD OF ANOVA
Syntax 6.1 Chapter 6 Syntax 1.sps
Output 6.2 Chapter 6 Output 2.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 6.2: ONE-WAY ANOVA LUMINOUS
EFFICACY
UNIVARIATE SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND CLICK APPROACH
TO ANOVA
Output 6.3 Chapter 6 Output 3
Univariate Analysis of Variance
Estimated Marginal Means
Post Hoc Tests
Homogeneous Subsets
Profile Plots
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 6.3: UNIVARIATE ANOVA ON BULB
TYPES
Between-subjects Factors
Descriptive Statistics
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
EFFECT SIZE IN UNIVARIATE ANOVA
Partial Eta Squared, ɳp2
EFFECT SIZE AS R SQUARED IN UNIVARAITE ANOVA
EFFECT SIZE COMPUTION AS PARTIAL ETA SQUARED
Estimated Marginal Means for Types of Bulb
Pairwise Comparisons
Univariate Tests
Post Hoc Tests on Types of Bulb Multiple Comparisons
Homogeneous Subsets
EFFECT SIZE FOR EACH PAIRWISE MEAN DIFFERENCE
Profile Plots for the Estimated Marginal Means of Luminous Efficacy
SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS
UNIVARIATE SPSS SYNTAX APPROACH FOR ANOVA
Syntax 6.2 Chapter 6 Syntax 2.sps

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Output 6.4 Chapter 6 Output 4.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 6.4

Chapter 7 - TWO-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Overview
EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES AND PARTIAL
REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES ON META-MATHEMATICS
Research questions
Alternate hypotheses
Null hypotheses
SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND CLICK METHOD FOR TWO-WAY
ANOVA
Output 7.1 Chapter 7 Output 1.spv
Estimated Marginal Means
Post Hoc Tests
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 7.1 – METAMATHS ACHIEVEMENT
Univariate Analysis of Variance Between-Subjects Factors
Descriptive Statistics
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Estimated Marginal Means for Instructional Techniques Estimates
Pairwise Comparisons for Instructional Techniques
Univariate Tests
Estimated Marginal Means for Partial Reinforcement Schedules Estimates
Pairwise Comparisons
Univariate Tests
Instructional Techniques*Partial Reinforcement Schedules
Post Hoc Instructional Techniques Homogeneous Subsets
Partial Reinforcement Schedules Homogeneous Subsets in MetaMaths
Profile Plots
SPSS STATISTICS SYNTAX METHOD OF TWO-WAY ANOVA
Syntax 7.1 Chapter 7 Syntax 1.sps
Output 7.2 Chapter 7 Output 2.spv
Estimated Marginal Means
Post Hoc Tests
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 7.2

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Chapter 8 - ONE-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE
Overview
EFFECTS OF NURSING INTERVENTIONS ON PATIENTS’
COMPREHENSIVE HEALTH
Research question
Alternate hypothesis
Null hypothesis
ONE-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA WITH SPSS DIALOG
BOXES SELECTION
FURTHER FOLLOW-UP PAIRWISE COMPARISONS TESTS
Output 8.1 Chapter 8 Output 1.spv
Further Pairwise Tests using Paired-Samples t Test
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 8.1: EFFECTS OF NURSING
INTERVENTIONS
Within-Subjects Factors
Descriptive Statistics
Multivariate Tests
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Effect Size
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects and Tests of Within Subjects Contrast
Estimated Marginal Means for Interventions
Pairwise Comparisons
Multivariate Tests
Profile Plots
Paired Samples Statistics
Paired Samples Correlations
Paired Samples Test of Paired Differences
ONE-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA WITH SPSS SYNTAX
Syntax 8.1 Chapter 8 syntax 1.sps
Output 8.2 Chapter 8 Output 2.spv
Further Pairwise Tests with Paired-Samples t Test
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 8.2
SCHOLARLY PERFORMANCE IN 5-YEAR DIRECT Ph.D.
ENGINEERING PROGRAM
Research question

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Alternate Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
ONE-WAY WITHIN-SUBJECTS ANOVA WITH SPSS DIALOG BOXES
SELECTION
FOLLOW-UP PAIRWISE COMPARISONS TESTS
Output 8.3 Chapter 8 Output 3.spv – Years of study and scholarly
performance
Pairwise Tests as Follow-up
INTERPRETATION OF THE OUTPUT 8.3 – INFLUENCE OF YEARS
OF STUDY
Within-Subjects Factors
Descriptive Statistics
Multivariate Tests
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Effect Size
Test of Between-Subjects Effects and Test of Wuthin-Subjects Contrast
Estimated Marginal Means for Year
Pairwise Comparisons
Multivariate Tests
Profile Plots
Paired Samples Statistics
Paired Samples Correlations
Paired Samples Test of Paired Differences
ONE-WAY WITHIN-SUBJECTS ANOVA WITH SPSS SYNTAX
Syntax 8.2 Chapter 8 Syntax 2.sps
Output 8.4 Chapter 8 Output 4.spv – Years of study and scholarly
performance
Pairwise Follow-up Tests
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 8.4
COMPARISON OF THE TWO ONE-WAY REPEATED MEASURES
ANOVA SYNTAX

Chapter 9 - TWO-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA

Overview

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EFFECTS OF A NEW MEMORY DRUG AND LEARNING STRATEGY
ON LONG-TERM MEMORY
Research Questions
Alternate Hypotheses
Null Hypotheses
SPSS TWO-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA VIA DIALOG
BOXES POINT AND CLICK
Output 9.1 Chapter 9 Output 1.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 9.1 – MEMORY DRUG AND
LEARNING STRATEGY
Within-subjects Factors
Descriptive Statistics
Multivariate Tests
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Estimated Marginal Means for MemDrug Estimates
Estimated Marginal Means for MemDrug Pairwise Comparisons
Multivariate Tests
Estimated Marginal Means for LearnStrategy Estimates
Estimated Marginal Means for LearnStrategy Pairwise Comparisons
Multivariate Tests
Estimated Marginal Means for MemDrug*LearnStrategy
Profile Plots
SUMMARY OF THE TWO-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA
TWO-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA EXECUTION WITH
SPSS SYNTAX
Syntax 9.1 Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA Syntax
Output 9.2 Chapter 9 Output 2.spv – Memory Drug and Learning Strategy
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 9.2

Chapter 10 - TWO-WAY MIXED (BETWEEN-WITHIN) ANALYSIS

OF VARIANCE
Overview

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STAFF RECRUITMENT EXERCISE FOR A GIFTED CHILDREN’S
SCHOOL STEM PROGRAM
Research questions
Alternate Hypotheses
Null hypotheses
TWO-WAY MIXED (BETWEEN-WITHIN) ANOVA WITH SPSS
DIALOG BOXES SELECTION
MANOVA FOR FOLLOW-UP OF STEM * DISCIPLINE SIGNIFICANT
INTERACTION EFFECT ON SREP
Syntax 10.1 Chapter 10 Syntax 1.sps – MANOVA Syntax for follow-up
Output 10.1 Chapter 10 Output 1.spv
RESULTS OF MANOVA FOR INTERACTION FOLLOW-UP
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 10.1 – EFFECTS OF STEM AND
DISCIPLINE
Within-Subjects Factors
Between-Subjects Factors
Descriptive Statistics
Multivariate Tests
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Estimated Marginal Means for Discipline
Pairwise Comparisons
Univariate Tests
Estimated Marginal Means for Stem
Pairwise Comparisons
Multivariate Tests
Estimated Marginal Means for Discipline * Stem
Post Hoc Tests for Discipline
Homogeneous Subsets for Srep
Profile Plots
INTERPRETING THE MANOVA INTERACTION FOLLOW-UP TESTS
Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(1)’ Within-Subject Effect
Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(2)’ Within-Subject Effect
Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(3)’ Within-Subject Effect
Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(4)’ Within-Subject Effect

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Tests involving ‘STEM’ Within-Subject Effect
Tests involving ‘STEM’ Within-Subject Effect
Tests involving ‘STEM’ Within-Subject Effect
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Tests involving ‘STEM’ Within-Subject Effect
EFFECT .. MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(3) BY STEM
EFFECT .. MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(2) BY STEM
EFFECT .. MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(1) BY STEM
SUMMARY OF THE TWO-WAY MIXED (BETWEEN-WITHIN)
ANOVA OUTPUT
SPSS SYNTAX FOR TWO-WAY MIXED (BETWEEN-WITHIN)
ANOVA
Syntax 10.2 Chapter 10 Syntax 2.sps
Output 10.2 Chapter 10 Output 2.spv
RESULTS OF MANOVA FOR FOLLOW-UP TESTS
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 10.2 – EFFECTS OF STEM AND
DISCIPLINE

Chapter 11 - ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE

Overview
USES OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE
Determination of change
Elimination of nuisance variables effects
ANCOVA reduces the error term
ANCOVA adjusts the group means
ANCOVA uses randomization
ASSUMPTIONS THAT UNDERLIE ANCOVA
Valid and reliable measurement of the covariate
Linearity of the dependent variable and covariate relationship
Homogeneity of regression
EFFECT OF LUMOSITY TRAINING SCHEDULE ON RECALL OF
NONSENSE SYLLABLES
Research questions
Alternate Hypotheses
Null Hypotheses
EXECUTION OF ANCOVA WITH SPSS DIALOG BOXES SELECTION

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SECTION B – ANOVA FOR COMPARISON OF THE F WITH THAT OF
ANCOVA
Output 11.1 Chapter 11 Output 1.spv – Effect of LumosityTS on recall
SECTION B OF OUTPUT 11.1 One-Way ANOVA
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 11.1 – EFFECT OF LUMOSITY
TRAINING SCHEDULE
Univariate Analysis of Variance Between-Subjects Factors
Descriptive Statistics
Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
EFFECT SIZE IN THE ANCOVA ON NONSENSE SYLLABLES
RECALL
Estimated Marginal Means for LumosityTS NSPost-test
Pairwise Comparisons of NSPost-test
Univariate Tests
Profile Plots
SECTION B: ONE-WAY ANOVA AS A FOLLOW-UP TEST
Oneway Descriptives
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
ANOVA
Effect Size in the ANOVA
Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons with Bonferroni
Means Plots
SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS
ANCOVA EXECUTION WITH SPSS SYNTAX
Syntax 11.1 Chapter 11 Syntax 1.sps – Syntax for performing ANCOVA
Output 11.2 Chapter 11 Output 2.sps – Effect of Lumosity Training
schedule on recall
SECTION B OF OUTPUT 11.1 One-Way ANOVA
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 11.2
EFFECT OF LUMOSITY TRAINING SCHEDULE ON INTELLIGENCE
QUOTIENT (IQ)
Research questions
Alternate Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
ANCOVA WITH SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND CLICK
ONE-WAY ANOVA AS ANCOVA FOLLOW-UP

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Output 11.3 Chapter 11 Output 3.spv – ANCOVA for effect of Lumosity
training on IQ
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 11.3 – EFFECT OF LUMOSITY
TRAINING SCHEDULE ON IQ
Univariate Analysis of Variance Between-Subjects Factors
Descriptive Statistics
Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
EFFECT SIZE IN THE ANCOVA
Estimated Marginal Means for LumosityTS Post-test IQ
Pairwise Comparisons of Post-test IQ
Univariate Tests
Profile Plots
SECTION B: ONE-WAY ANOVA AS FOLLOW-UP TEST: Oneway
Descriptives
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
ANOVA
Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons with Bonferroni
Means Plots
SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS
ANCOVA WITH IBM SPSS SYNTAX FOR LUMOSITYTS ON IQPOST
Syntax 11.2 Chapter 11 Syntax 2.sps
Output 11.4 Chapter 11 Output 4.spv
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 11.4

Appendix A: Minimum suitable sample size from population

Appendix B: IBM SPSS SYNTAX Summary

Syntax 1.1 Chapter 1 Syntax 1.sps
Syntax 2.1 Chapter 2 Syntax 1.sps
Syntax 2.2 Chapter 2 Syntax 2.sps
Syntax 2.3 Chapter 2 Syntax 3.sps
Syntax 2.4 Chapter 2 Syntax 4.sps
Syntax 3.1 Chapter 3 Syntax 1.sps
Syntax 3.2 Chapter 3 Syntax 2.sps
Syntax 4.1 Chapter 4 Syntax 1.sps

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Syntax 4.2 Chapter 4 Syntax 2.sps
Syntax 5.1 Chapter 5 Syntax 1.sps
Syntax 5.2 Chapter 5 Syntax 2.sps
Syntax 6.1 Chapter 6 Syntax 1.sps
Syntax 6.2 Chapter 6 Syntax 2.sps
Syntax 7.1 Chapter 7 Syntax 1.sps
Syntax 8.1 Chapter 8 syntax 1.sps
Syntax 8.2 Chapter 8 Syntax 2.sps
Syntax 9.1 Chapter 9 Syntax 1.sps
Syntax 10.1 Chapter 10 Syntax 1.sps
Syntax 10.2 Chapter 10 Syntax 2.sps
Syntax 11.1 Chapter 11 Syntax 1.sps
Syntax 11.2 Chapter 11 Syntax 2.sps

REFERENCES

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 Preface

IBM SPSS Statistics Excellent Guide is an excellent illustrative point-by-

point easy to use guide that guarantees everyone mastery of the
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19
flawlessly and handing over the data to another person, often a technically
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20
the following among others:
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21
point-by-point excellent guide for SPSS Statistics application. It is written
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indispensable.

Pedagogical features
Each chapter begins with an overview that aptly summarises the chapter
contents and a list of keywords similar to the chapter objectives. In every
chapter, there is at least an exemplary material (case study) with title, data,
research question and hypothesis that are embedded in the text. There are
screenshots as figures that explicitly illustrate procedural step by step
execution of the analysis covered in each chapter.
The general approach of the book to ensure that every user attains the
needful data analysis expertise with the most exceptional ease is captured
with the four fundamental features or structures of each chapter as listed.
i. Explanation of the Statistical Test – A statistical test is thoroughly
discussed in each chapter, clearly specifying the type of research
scenario that it is best used for analysing the observed data. At least,
one example of a suitable researchable topic is presented,
accompanied by a dataset.
ii. SPSS Dialog Boxes Selection Method – SPSS Dialog Boxes Point-
and-Click method is adopted with total screenshot illustrations to get
the data analysed. These complete illustrations make the book to be
second to none and a timeless first preference for tutors and students
of the courses that the book is meant, and for researchers, scientists
and individuals who deal with quantitative data analysis. How the
data in question are entered is meticulously specified for every
statistical test. On completion of each analysis, the output is
displayed without distortion.
iii. Interpretation of the Output – Exhaustive explanation of each
output is presented. Such detailed interpretation provides the user
with a much better understanding of the statistical test. It ensures that
the user gets every information that he would need for presenting,

22
 interpreting and reporting his findings whenever he uses the
statistical test to analyse data from fieldwork.
iv. SPSS Syntax Methods – SPSS Statistics Syntax method is adopted
to analyse the same exemplary data. The requisite syntax is provided
with an illustrated simplified point-by-point guide to arrive at the
output. The SPSS syntax will enable users to become experts in
SPSS Statistics programming.

Final benefit
What if you could acquire the skills of data analysis with SPSS and
henceforth earn a meaningful living from it? Great. With this book, anyone
who wishes could independently acquire expert skills for data analysis,
using IBM SPSS Statistics; and gainfully earn a living from the new skills.
Take advantage of the rare golden opportunity straightaway.

Peter James Kpolovie

July 2020

23
 Chapter 1
WELCOME TO IBM SPSS STATISTICS

Overview
The information communication and technology-led world bombards us
daily with enormous data on phenomena that demand correct analysis to
elicit optimal meaningfulness. In this chapter, IBM SPSS Statistics, the
most powerful, precise and valuable statistical software, is introduced to
ensure that each user practically engages in applying it with most
exceptional ease to analyse different sorts of data for specific purposes.
Data analytics is undergoing a revolutionary paradigm-shift from use of a
hand-held calculator to automated applications of statistical software.
Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics introduces the new paradigm via the
process of actively learning the SPSS user interface by finger exercise that
the profession demands. Launching the software, contents and functions of
the SPSS Data Editor, Viewer window and Syntax Editor, as well as saving,
printing and retrieval of files are pragmatically demonstrated in a
pedagogically sound manner.

Keywords: SPSS Statistics, Data Editor, Syntax Editor, Viewer

window, Toolbar, Menu bar, Output, Saving of files, Printing of
files, Retrieval of files.

The world’s leading statistical software, IBM SPSS Statistics, is briefly

introduced in this chapter. Forms of IBM SPSS, launching IBM SPSS
Statistics, IBM SPSS Data Editor, Data View, and Variable View in addition
to entering of data, IBM SPSS Syntax Editor and IBM SPSS Viewer
window are described herein. Saving of files in the IBM SPSS Statistics
Data Editor, Syntax Editor and Viewer window are very clearly illustrated
in the chapter. Also treated is the retrieval of files from the three major
windows in IBM SPSS Statistics (Data Editor, Syntax Editor and Viewer).

24
Equally presented herein are printing of Data files, Syntax files and of the
Output of statistical analysis. Learning of the Welcome to IBM SPSS
Statistics information will greatly facilitate easy and quick mastery of how
SPSS is practically applied in the analysis of each of the several statistical
tests in subsequent chapters of the book.
SPSS software was first launched in 1968. The software, SPSS, stands
for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. In 2009, International
Business Machines Corporation (IBM) acquired SPSS and the software has
since then become popularly known as IBM SPSS Statistics officially.
Throughout this book, anywhere SPSS is seen, it refers to the IBM SPSS
Statistics. All types of data, irrespective of the source, can best be edited
and analysed with the SPSS Statistics. Data formats like plain text files (.txt
or .csv); relational databases; spreadsheets from Microsoft Excel or
OpenOffice; SAS; R, Python and Stata can all be opened and used easily
with SPSS.
The IBM SPSS Statistics is a landmark advancement in Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) that is radically changing the world
swiftly for better. IBM SPSS Statistics is indeed the most comprehensive
statistical software system for accurate analysis of all sorts of data, from the
least to the most complex in various fields (Kpolovie, 2018). With
application of SPSS, statistical analysis is most easily accessible for the
beginners and much more convenient for the experienced users in
comparison with some other statistical software. It is little wonder that
Kpolovie (2011; 2018) and Howitt and Cramer (2008) asserted that SPSS
statistics is by far the most widely employed computer package for data
analysis globally.
Learning how IBM SPSS Statistics is used is a highly transferable skill
that is usually a valuable asset in the labour market and in all spheres of
human endeavour. IBM SPSS Statistics is commonly used “at all levels
from students to specialist researchers, and in great many academic fields
and practical settings” Howitt and Cramer (2008, 4). SPSS statistics is an
incredible software for execution of advanced statistical analysis, text
analysis and a vast library of machine learning algorithms. It allows for
seamless integration with big data and deployment in practical applications.
The SPSS platform as presented in this book is extremely flexible, scalable
and most easy-to-use by everyone from all fields of life in the digital world

25
that we live. Acquiring the skills for use of IBM SPSS Statistics guarantees
the greatest possible analytical capability that is of inestimable value.
Unlike other statistical software that necessarily requires typing in
several lines of command syntax, SPSS allows for use of only simple menu
and dialog box selections to execute or perform analysis, even the most
complex ones. Entry of data and browsing are easily done in a simple and
efficient spreadsheet-like facility that IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor
provides (Kpolovie 2018).
IBM (2019) summarised what the software does thus: “IBM SPSS
statistics is the world’s leading statistical software. It enables you to quickly
dig deeper into your data, making it a much more effective tool than
spreadsheets, databases or standard multi-dimensional tools for analysts.
SPSS Statistics excels at making sense of complex patterns and associations
– enabling users to draw conclusions and make predictions. And it’s fast –
handling tasks like data manipulation and statistical procedures in a third of
the time of many non-statistical programs.”
To purchase and install the IBM SPSS Statistics software, you are please
requested to visit IBM SPSS Statistics Websites at
https://www.ibm.com/products/spss-statistics. At the IBM SPSS statistics
website, it is possible for you to very easily subscribe to use the software
instantly. The subscription guarantees you immediate total access to the
most current IBM SPSS Statistics version at each time. The subscription
could be monthly, quarterly or yearly, depending on your choice. At the
IBM SPSS Website, you will also be able to start practicing IBM SPSS
statistics with the available Free Trial Version even before you either
subscribe or buy the software. For buying or subscription, special offer for
students is as well available at the Site. Once you purchase the IBM SPSS
Statistics software, it can automatically be installed online for your instant
use. A CD as backup of the particular version you bought will also be
shipped freely or at unimaginably small cost to you within a few days.
The entire analysis procedures and illustrations with screenshots in this
book are done with IBM SPSS Statistics Grad Pack 26.0 Premium which
is the most current and highest version of the software for now. Confidently,
there will not be any difficulty at all in applying the instructions on how to
analyse data with IBM SPSS Statistics as definitively presented in this
book, SPSS Statistics Excellent Guide, by those who may be using most

26
previous versions of the software as well as those who will be using
subsequent versions of IBM SPSS Statistics.
For each statistical analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics, there are ten
simple steps, one leading to the other as shown in Figure 1.0. The steps are:
switching the computer on, launching (opening) IBM SPSS, entering the
data, saving the data input, analysing the data, viewing the output, saving
the output, printing the output and data, exiting SPSS, and shutting down
the computer. These steps are illustrated explicitly with each statistical test
in this book.

27
 All that is required to be done at each of the steps shall soon be
demonstrated for you to master. Apart from the fifth step, Analyze the
data, what the other steps require are about the same for different statistical
analysis execution. The fifth step varies because every statistical test has its
peculiar way of analysing the data, depending on the requisite menu or
dialog boxes selections that are most suitable for it. In all, the analysis
procedure will almost be like doing the same thing over and over for
various statistical approaches. Attainment of mastery knowledge in
personally applying IBM SPSS Statistics in data analysis is therefore
guaranteed. For each analysis, a thorough interpretation of the IBM SPSS
Statistics output is provided. There just could not be a better opportunity for
your becoming very skilful in data analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics than
as passionately presented in this book. Enjoy every bit of it.

FORMS OF IBM SPSS

Each version of IBM SPSS Statistics comes in four forms – Base, Standard,
Professional and Premium. The statistical analysis that each of these forms
could be used to execute are as tabulated in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Forms of IBM SPSS and their statistical capabilities

28
29
 The IBM SPSS Statistics, irrespective of the form, can be installed and
licensed in computers that run on different Operating Systems like
Windows, Mackintosh, Linux, HP-UX, Solaris and IBM AIX. Though the
presentations in this book are based on Windows OS, very little or no
additional efforts are needed to accurately and very easily apply them, using
computers that are based in other Operating Systems because IBM SPSS
Statistics is developed on Java programme.

30
LAUNCHING IBM SPSS STATISTICS
To start or launch IBM SPSS Statistics, simply switch on the computer that
has the software installed, allow it to completely boot up after which you

click the IBM SPSS Statistics 26 icon , click the IBM SPSS
Statistics icon, for whichever version of IBM SPSS Statistics that is
installed in your computer. If the computer does not yet have any version of
IBM SPSS Statistics installed, quickly visit the IBM SPSS Website at
https://www.ibm.com/products/spss-statistics to purchase it or subscribe
for it and get it installed in your computer, or use the Free Trial Version for
IBM SPSS Statistics that is available at the Website. A single click on the

IBM SPSS Statistics icon opens or starts IBM SPSS that displays the
IBM SPSS Statistics Version (Version 26.0 is used in this book) along
with its Copyright information as demonstrated in Figure 1.1. Shortly
afterwards, you will see Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics as presented in
Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.1 IBM SPSS Statistics Version 26 Copyright information

31
 Once the IBM SPSS Statistics software is opened, the very first page
that comes up and lasts for just a few minutes that enable you to very
carefully read it understandably, is the IMB SPSS Statistics Copyright and
registered trademarks information. The page alerts you that there is only
one company, the International Business Machines Corporation, which
owns the software and exclusively has the copyright of the software and
should therefore be properly referenced whenever SPSS Statistics is used. I
very strongly recommend that whenever you use SPSS Statistics software
for data analysis in an investigation, be it dissertation, thesis, supervised
research project, journal article, paper publication, professional research, or
book; you should accord IBM Corporation the glory of at least referencing
the Corporation that absolutely owns the copyright. Taking this book for
instance, the International Business Machines Corporation is duly
referenced under the Copyright section page that is strictly in line with the
express permission granted me by IBM Corporation to use the IBM SPSS®
Statistics screenshots and registered trademarks found throughout this book
(IBM SPSS Statistics Excellent Guide). The referencing of IBM could be
done as footnote at the very bottom of each page or at least of the first page
where any of IBM’s trademarks or copyrighted materials appeared and
again under the list of references of your work.
You may have read in the methodology and results sections of some
published research works that a particular version of SPSS was employed
for the data analysis, but no proper referencing or citation of the IBM SPSS
Statistics could be found on that page or in the list of references. Such use
of IBM Corporation’s materials without duly acknowledging and
appreciating the International Business Machines Corporation is not
scholarly. Ensure to do the needful at all time. In fact, the essence of the
IBM SPSS Statistics copyright appearing as the first page whenever you are
opening SPSS Statistics is to unconditionally remind you to always
acknowledge and properly reference IBM Corporation that owns the
copyright of the software whenever you use the SPSS Statistics to analyse
your data. At the first mention of IBM, SPSS or SPSS Statistics, you could
put an asterisk and explain it at the footnote that “IBM, SPSS or SPSS
Statistics is the property of IBM Corp. ® Copyright IBM Corporation and
its licensors 1989, 2017. IBM, IBM logo, ibm.com, and SPSS are

32
trademarks or registered trademarks of International Business Machines
Corp., registered in many jurisdictions worldwide” (IBM Corp., 2019).
As soon as the IBM SPSS Statistics copyright information in Figure 1.1
disappears, you must see the Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics window or
dialog box that is exemplified in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics

At the top left of the start-up dialog widow (Welcome to IBM SPSS
Statistics), there is a rectangle containing two New Files that are named
New Dataset and New Database Query… Selecting New Dataset opens
an empty IBM SPSS Data Editor window for data entry. Double clicking
on the Database Query… welcomes you to the Database Wizard that can
help you to obtain data from a non-SPSS Statistics data source. In its dialog

33
box, you can choose the data source, specify which cases are retrieved,
aggregate and sort the data before retrieving. You can also specify the
variable names and properties in the Database Wizard. However, it is only
when the data source is connected to SPSS Statistics Server that all of the
features will be available. In the rectangle that is named Recent Files,
various data files that have been created in SPSS and saved in the computer
are listed for easy retrieval by clicking the Open another file. If you have
previously typed and saved some data files in SPSS and you need to work
on a particular file, just double click (clicking the file name twice in close
succession, using the mouse) or click the name of the file once and click
Open, or simply press Enter for the file to be opened. To open the
numerous default data files in IBM SPSS, just click the Sample Files
beside Recent Files. You can use the data saved in these Sample Files to
practice analysis of different statistical tests.
At the right of the Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics window is a
rectangle that is named What’s New which allows for Smart Importing
and Exporting of data files from other sources into or out of IBM SPSS
Statistics. Below this box is another rectangle that allows you to see and use
a wide range of support resources by clicking Visit the Community.
The next box in Figure 1.2 is named Getting Started, which provides
two major functions of Get Help and Support and Get started with
tutorials. While clicking the first function enables you to get any type of
help that you want on how to apply SPSS, clicking the second (Get started
with tutorials) opens a special environment that provides you with tutorials
which practically show how data entry and analysis are done with IBM
SPSS Statistics for various statistical tests. You are encouraged to take the
special advantage that the Get started with tutorials offers, particularly if
this is your first time of using IBM SPSS Statistics.
Alternatively, you can simply proceed with your data entry and analysis
by clicking Close to close the Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics window.
This action will lead you automatically to the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor window. If you do not want the Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics
dialog box or window to show at all when you open or launch IBM SPSS
Statistics subsequently, select the small square that is at the bottom right
corner of Figure 1.2 that is termed Don’t show this dialog in the future.
After that, close the Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics window by either

34
clicking Close at the bottom right corner or the X mark at the extreme top
right corner of the window.

IBM SPSS STATISTICS DATA EDITOR

There are three major windows that IBM SPSS Statistics uses for all data
analysis. These windows are the:
1. IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor
2. IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer
3. IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor.
While all data entering and all statistical functions or operations are
done in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor window, all outputs or
results of statistical analysis are exhibited or displayed in the IBM SPSS
Statistics Viewer window. There is just no way that data entry and analysis
can be done in IBM SPSS Statistics without the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor; and the results of data analysed with IBM SPSS Statistics cannot
be seen or viewed without the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer. In addition to
these two major windows is the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor
window that can be activated and used for inputting SPSS statistical
programme commands, known as syntax. The IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor, IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer, and IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax
Editor windows are mainly used throughout this book. Ensure to master
how each of them is used as captivatingly presented in this IBM SPSS
Statistics Excellent Guide in a most simple and easy-to-understand and
apply step-by-step manner.
The IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor is the most special window that
contains the entire environment where data input is done and all statistical
operations or functions are executed. Without the IBM SPSS Statistics
Data Editor, data cannot be inputted in SPSS Statistics, and statistical
analysis cannot be performed with mere dialog boxes selections as in the
Data Editor Method, or with the Syntax Editor Method. The IBM SPSS
Statistics Data Editor is shown in Figure 1.3. The various statistical
functions that are executable in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor are
inexhaustible. A little time and attention are accorded to mentioning and
describing each of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor statistical
functions in the most apt manner in this introductory chapter.

35
 Figure 1.3 IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor

Though going through the statistical functions in the IBM SPSS

Statistics Data Editor is bound to be very tedious, try as much as possible
to learn what is done with the various statistical functions in IBM SPSS
Statistics Data Editor because no single data analysis can be performed in
the IBM SPSS Statistics without using some of the statistical functions. In
fact, mastery of data analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics as ultimately
presented in this timeless indispensable book depends on working fluently
with the statistical operations in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor. For
now, the statistical functions in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor are
merely mentioned so that they will not be strange to you when the functions
will from time-to-time be used to execute analysis of each statistical test
covered in the book. Be rest assured that after this introductory chapter
which may seem daunting to you, nothing will be as interesting, simple,
exciting and motivating as applying the statistical operations in IBM SPSS
Statistics Data Editor in practical data analysis for every statistical test
execution with the unblemished step-by-step guide presented in this book.
In synopsis, IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor has four distinct but
complementary components as follows:
1. Menu Bar

36
 2. Toolbar
3. Data View
4. Variable View.
Each of these components is very briefly described in this chapter.

MENU BAR
The row at the top of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor, shown in
Figure 1.3, where different names of statistical functions are written is
known as the Menu Bar. Each of the named features in the Menu Bar is
used for execution of several functions as very briefly presented in Figures
1.4 to 1.14. A menu in IBM SPSS Statistics is a list from which the user
may select an operation to be performed, and the selection is often done
with the mouse or other pointing device under graphical user interface, or
may be controlled via the keyboard. To see what each menu in the Menu
Bar does, move your mouse pointer, known as cursor, to the menu and
click. Clicking on a menu displays all the menu items that are within it; and
in turn, a click on each menu item reveals or activates its sub-menu items or
opens its dialog box. A dialog box is a window in IBM SPSS Statistics
that allows the user to perform some simple actions like selecting certain
information in it as part of the procedures for execution of a given statistical
analysis. There are 11 menus in the Menu Bar of the IBM SPSS Statistics
Data Editor in Figure 1.3. The 11 menus in the Menu Bar are: File, Edit,
View, Data, Transform, Analyze, Graphs, Utilities, Extensions,
Window, and Help. The various menus or features in the Menu Bar of the
IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor and the functions contained in each of
them are diagrammatically illustrated in Figures 1.4 to 1.14.
File

37
 Figure 1.4 IBM SPSS Data Editor File

Edit

38
 Figure 1.5 IBM SPSS Data Editor Edit

View

39
 Figure 1.6 IBM SPSS Data Editor View

Data

40
 Figure 1.7 IBM SPSS Data Editor Data

Transform

41
 Figure 1.8 IBM SPSS Data Editor Transform

Analyze

42
 Figure 1.9 IBM SPSS Data Editor Analyze

Graphs

43
 Figure 1.10 IBM SPSS Data Editor Graphs

Utilities

Figure 1.11 IBM SPSS Data Editor Utilities

Extensions

44
 Figure 1.12 IBM SPSS Data Editor Extensions

Window

Figure 1.13 IBM SPSS Data Editor Window

Help

Figure 1.14 IBM SPSS Data Editor Help

TOOLBAR

45
Immediately under the Menu Bar in the IBM SPSS Data Editor shown in
Figure 1.3, is the Toolbar button that consists of 16 icons for easy
performance of different statistical operations. These icons serve as
shortcuts to facilities and features that are very often utilized in the menus.
Each of the 16 tools in the Toolbar is represented with an icon. The names
of the icons and their specific functions are very briefly given as follows:
1. Open data document: is used for opening previously saved
data files (if you are in Data Editor) or output files (if you are in the
output Viewer).
2. Save this document: is employed for saving of the current file
that you are working with. Where the file has not been saved already
before at the point of creation, it opens the Save Data As dialog box,
prompting you to give it a name and click Save or press the Enter
key on the Keyboard to get it saved.
3. Print: is adopted for printing whichever file that you are
currently working on, be it data file or output file up to the desired
number of copies that you will instruct your printer to print. For an
output file, it will print the entire file unless you have selected
specific output tables alone for printing.
4. Recall recently used dialog: produces a list of 12 dialog boxes;
and activates or opens any particular one that you select. It enables
you to execute any analysis that you have done before, yet another
time, perhaps for correction of a suspected mistake; or for the crucial
sake of repeating the analysis to acquire mastery knowledge. Usually,
I tell my students that repetition is the key to mastery learning of
IBM SPSS Statistics.

5. Undo a user action: where the user has performed a wrong

action, clicking this icon will undo the action immediately as the
name implies.

6. Redo a user action: functions as the opposite of Undo a user

action by redoing the user action. Situations that the user changes his
mind after undoing an action, he will not need to retype or perform
the action again, but to simply click the Redo a user action icon.

46
 7. Go to case: a click on this icon produces a dialog box in which
you quickly type the case number (a serial number) and click Go of a
particular case or respondent that you want to see and confirm his
scores in a large data set. This saves you the time and the
inconvenience of doing a long scrolling down or up in search of the
respondent.

8. Go to variable: when working with a huge number of

variables and you want to reach a given variable swiftly without long
scrolling to look for it, just click Go to variable icon, it opens a Go
To dialog box where you type in the name of the variable that you are
looking for and simply click Go. This takes you to the variable
instantly.

9. Variables: displays all the variables in the IBM SPSS Data

Editor at the left side of a table and a complete summary information
on the variables at the right side of the table. The summary incudes
the name of a variable that you select, how the variable is labelled, its
measurement level (nominal, ordinal, or scale that is for data
collected at interval and or ratio scale of measurement), the value
labels of the variable (i.e., the various categories of the variable and
number codes as well as the labels given to the respective categories).

10. Run descriptive statistics: once the variable name in the

SPSS Data Editor is clicked, the entire data for that variable gets
highlighted; then a click on the Run descriptive statistics icon
automatically performs descriptive statistics for the variable and
displays the output in a tabular manner in the Viewer window. The
descriptive statistics information is usually required for answering of
the research question about the variable. It is also possible to
simultaneously run the descriptive statistics for two or more variables
at once. In this case, by holding down the Control key, Ctrl, and
clicking on the variables to highlight them after which the Run
descriptive statistics icon is clicked to have the output tabulated in
the Viewer window.

47
11. Find: enables the user to search for a given value or word in
the Data Edit or Viewer or window whenever the need arises to look
for it and perhaps correct it if it was entered wrongly or if its relative
location in data set was needed.

12. Split File: opens a dialog box for splitting data on a variable
into desired categories for separate or comparative analysis.

13. Select Case: where only some cases are needed to perform
specific analysis instead of using the entire cases, the Select Case
icon is clicked to produce a dialog box for the purpose. It allows for
selection of the specific cases out of the large data set for the
analysis.

14. Value Label: is adopted for either displaying or hiding value

labels of variables that are coded for different groups or categories in
the SPSS Data Editor, depending on what the user prefers. Taking
birth-order as a variable for instance, the first born, second born and
last born may have been coded 0, 1, and 2, respectively, during data
entry in the Variable View of the SPSS Data Editor under the
column, Value Label. After the entry, the labels for these categories
will not be appearing in the Data View by default, they will rather be
depicted as 0,1, and 2; but by clicking the Value Label icon when the
variable, birth order, is highlighted, makes the labels for the
categories to appear.

15. Use Variable Set: clicking this icon allows for selection of sets
of variables for analysis such that two or more sets of variables can
be compared or regressed at once.

16. Customized Toolbar: with clicking this icon, a dialog box

appears that enables the user to customize the Toolbar according to
his specific desire as against the ordering or arrangement that the
default provides.

48
DATA VIEW
At the extreme bottom left corner of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor,
are two possible views that are named Data View and Variable View,
which must be used respectively for entering the data and specifying
characteristics of the variables before the data analysis proper. The Data
View is a spreadsheet-style interface made up of numerous cells that are
formed with columns and rows for data entry. Each of the columns is by
default named Var (short form for Variable) because each column is meant
for entry of numerical information or data about a given variable. The rows
are by default serially numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on, to represent the
subjects, participants or respondents in a particular investigation and from
whom the data were observed. The numerous cells created by the columns
and rows are where data on the independent and dependent variables under
investigation are entered or typed-in. The very first major thing to do in
order to analyse data with IBM SPSS Statistics is the entering of the data
which is done in the Data View. In fact, the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor that you see once you launch or start SPSS Statistics and close the
superimposed dialog box is the Data View because the various versions of
SPSS for Windows have the Data View set as the default for inputting of
data.
Suppose that an investigator interested in finding out whether gender
difference exists in primary school students’ Basic Science Concepts,
administered a standardized test of 60 items on Basic Science Concepts to a
set of randomly sampled K-6 students, and they obtained the scores listed in
Table 1.2. The sample size that the investigator studied is 69 as will later be
seen in the first table of Chapter 3. Only scores of the first 20 participants
are used here in this Table 1.2 for illustration of the Data View.

Table 1.2 K-6 students’ Basic Science Concept by Gender

Students Gender Scores
1 Male 10
2 Female 20
3 Female 30
4 Female 10

49
 5 Male 40
6 Male 50
7 Female 10
8 Male 40
9 Male 20
10 Female 20
11 Female 30
12 Female 50
13 Male 40
14 Male 30
15 Male 10
16 Male 30
17 Female 50
18 Female 40
19 Female 40
20 Male 20

The very first step in analysing these data is entering the data in the IBM
SPSS Data View of the Data Editor. It must very quickly be noted here
that in data entry, the categorical or grouping variable, Gender in this case,
must be coded such that the males are assigned 1 each and the females are
assigned 2 each (or having the males coded 2 and females coded 1
consistently will not make any difference). Note that in this example, males
have code 1 and females have the code 2. This has to be done to ensure that
only numerical data are entered in the Data View.

DATA ENTRY

50
Note emphatically that data entry is done in the Data View of the IBM
SPSS Statistics Data Editor before specifying the variables in Variable
View that will be treated in the next section shortly afterwards. This is
partly because IBM SPSS Statistics has the Data View as the default for
data entry and partly because it is the Data View that is under consideration
at the moment. The entire data on the independent variable which is
Gender with males coded 1 and females coded 2 will be entered under the
first column. Once a value is entered in this column, SPSS will
automatically describe or name the column as Var00001. After very
carefully entering the data on Gender (the categorical variable with males
as 1 and females as 2), the Scores that constitute data on the dependent
variable that is Basic Science Concepts will be entered under the second
column in such a careful manner that the two values (gender and score) for
each participant form one row. Once the first value or score is entered under
the second column, SPSS automatically labels the column as Var00002.
Take note of the Var00001 and Var00002 as they will later change to
Gender and Scores, respectively, after naming them in Variable View.
To perform the actual data entry, ensure that the cursor (mouse pointer)
is in the topmost cell of the first column. Then, type the value that indicates
each participant’s gender and press the Enter button. Do not fail to press
Enter after typing each value. You must have observed that as you type a
value and press Enter, the cursor moves down to the next immediate row. If
you have not done the typing and pressing of the Enter key yet; do it now.
Type 1 and press Enter, 2 and press Enter, 2 and press Enter, 2 and
press Enter, 1 and press Enter, 1 and press Enter until all the values on
Gender are entered without a mistake. Next, move the cursor to the
topmost cell under the second column and click or move the cursor to that
cell by pressing the arrow right ( ) button once and pressing the arrow up (
) button and holding it down until the cursor gets to and remains in the
topmost cell of the second column. Very carefully enter the scores from that
of the first participant as in Table 1.2. That is, type 10 and press Enter, 20
and press Enter, 30 and press Enter, 10 and press Enter, 40 and press
Enter, and so on till the last score, 20 and press Enter. What you have on
your screen will be as in Figure 1.15.

51
 Figure 1.15 Data View when the variables are not yet specified

VARIABLE VIEW
The Variable View is a very special window in SPSS Statistics Data
Editor that is used for creation and specification of the variables under
study. It is the Variable View that allows for description of the
characteristics of the variables on which data are collected, entered and are
to be analysed. The description includes provision of name, label, values,
measure and role as well as for the specification of the type, width, missing
value, columns and alignment for each of the variables. To access the
Variable View, place the cursor on and click the Variable View that is
beside the Data View at the extreme bottom left of the Data Editor. This
simple action opens the Variable View as shown in Figure 1.16.

52
 Figure 1.16 Variable View of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor

Recall that when data were entered in the Data View, SPSS
automatically provided default names for the two variables. The first
column that is the independent variable, where the categorical data, were
entered was named VAR00001 and the second column where scores on the
dependent variable, the students’ Basic Science Concepts, were entered was
named VAR00002. These VAR00001 and VAR00002 are the temporary
names for the two variables under study that you are seeing in the Variable
View under Name. The essence of opening the Variable View is to
describe and specify the variables by giving them their actual names. So,
click on VAR00001 in the first row and type the real name that best
describes that variable, which is Gender. Next, accord a similar treatment
to the VAR00002 in the second row by clicking it and typing the actual
name for this variable, which is Scores.
The second column in the Variable View is called Type and has rightly
been described as the Numeric data for the two variables (Gender and
Scores). While the third column, Width, indicates the number of digits or

53
characters that are displayed for each of the variables to be 8, the fourth
column, Decimals, has shown that both of the variables will have 2 decimal
places. The fifth column, Label, requires you to assign the most suitable
label that best describes each of the variables. The first variable which is
Gender can best be labelled Gender, but just for the purpose of illustration,
label it as Sex; and label the second variable, Scores, as Basic science
concept scores. These labels will appear in the output of the analysis. You
may wish to know why apart from providing names to the variables, SPSS
Variable View still wants you to provide label for each variable. The name
of a variable cannot begin with a number or numeral and the variable name
cannot accept any space; but the label can commence with a numeral and it
can accept space.
The sixth column, Values, is where you provide crucial additional
information to each categorical variable by stating the value you coded each
category with and defining each category by providing its specific label. To
illustrate this with the categorical variable, Gender, move the cursor to the
first row under the column, Values, that is written None and click. This
makes a small blue box with three dots which is an ellipsis button to
appear beside the None as shown in Figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16 Ellipsis in the cell for Values and Gender

Then, click on the small blue box (i.e., the ellipsis button) to produce the
dialog box that requires you to type in the Value and Label for each
category of the Gender as in Figure 1.17. Recall that while males were
coded with the value 1, females were coded with the value 2.

54
 Figure 1.17 Values dialog box

Then, type 1 in the box beside Value and Male in the box beside Label
as exhibited in Figure 1.18.

Figure 1.18 Values dialog box with value and label for male.

Next, click Add for the entered male’s value and label to be added into
the big box beside Add as shown in Figure 1.19.

55
 Figure 1.19 Value Labels dialog box after clicking Add for male

To specify the coded value and label for the female’s category of
Gender, type 2 in the box beside Value and Female in the box beside
Label. When done, the Value Labels dialog box will look like what is in
Figure 1.20.

Figure 1.20 Values dialog box with value and label for female

56
 The value and label that have been typed cannot enter into the analysis
unless you click Add. So, click Add to move the entered value and label for
females from where they are into the big box beside Add. When done, the
Value Labels window will become like what is exhibited in Figure 1.21.

Figure 1.21 Value Labels dialog box after clicking Add for female

To conclude the specification and labelling of the categorical variable

(Gender) in the Values column, place the cursor on and click OK in the
Value Labels dialog box that is shown in Figure 1.21. With this action (the
clicking of the OK), the Value Labels dialog box disappears, and the
Variable View becomes like the screenshot presented in Figure 1.22.

Figure 1.22 Values dialog box after clicking OK

After clicking OK, you are done with the Values; and the None that was
in the cell for Gender row against Values column gets replaced with the

57
name for one of the categories, in this case, Male.
The seventh column in the Variable View window is known as Missing
which is used to indicate the number and percentage of missing values or
cases from the data. Any value of the variable that is not available is treated
as a missing value. For the current example data that were entered in the
Data View, there is no value that was missing, so the Missing column has
rightly recorded None for Gender and None for Scores. The eighth column
of Variable View is called Columns that is used to show the width of each
displayed column at the point of data entry. By default, the Columns has
the width of 8 characters, and is so stated for each of the two variables.
Align is the ninth column of the Variable View; and it is used to indicate
how data entered for each variable will be aligned either to the left, right or
centre of the cells in the Data View. The tenth column of Variable View is
termed Measure. This specifies the scale of measurement at which data
were collect for each variable. There are three possible options that data on
a variable could take. They are Nominal, Ordinal, and Scale. The Scale is
used to represent data collected at interval scale of measurement or at ratio
scale of measurement. For the example under consideration, data on Scores
that the K-6 students got on Basic Science Concepts are collected at the
interval level of measurement that SPSS describes in the Variable View as
Scale.
Take the cursor to the cell for Gender against Measure that is written
Unknown, click it and you will see a small dropdown dialog box in which
you select Nominal. Then, put the cursor on Unknown at the cell for
Scores against Measure, click it to see its dropdown dialog box and select
Scale as shown in Figure 1.23. The last column of the Variable View is
Role for pre-specification of variables as either Input, Target, Both, None,
Partition or Split (shown in Figure 1.23) for different uses in certain dialog
boxes.

58
 Figure 1.23 Variable View window with Measure specified and options for Role shown

Haven gone through the various fields in the Variable View, it is time to
again switch over to the Data View in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor. On getting to the Data View, you will notice very easily and
interestingly that the data which when you entered in Figure 1.15 had
Var00001 and Var00002 as names for the two variables in question, are
now having the actual names of the variables as Gender and Scores
respectively in the first and second columns of the Data View. Gender and
Scores have automatically replaced VAR00001 and VAR00002 because of
the specification of the characteristics of the variables that was done in the
Variable View. It shows the robustness and complementary nature of the
Data View and Variable View of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor.
To switch over from Variable View to Data View, simply move the cursor
to and click Data View that is at the bottommost and extreme left corner of
the Variable View. When done, the Data View now looks like what is in
Figure 1.24.

59
 Figure 1.24 Data View after specifying the variables

As long as the characteristics of the data entered have been specified in

the Variable View, it is possible to also see the value label for the
categorical variable (Gender) in the Data View. To accomplish this, move

60
the cursor to Gender in the Data View and click. This click highlights the
entire column for Gender as shown in Figure 1.25.

Figure 1.25 Data View with Gender column highlighted

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 With the Gender column highlighted, move cursor to the Toolbar and

click the Value Labels icon, . With this click, the actual labels (Male
and Female) replaces the coded values (1 and 2), respectively as exhibited
in Figure 1.26. With the Gender column highlighted, and you again click
the Value Labels tool in the Toolbar, the labels Male and Female gest
replaced with the coded values of 1 and 2, respectively, as shown earlier in
Figure 1.25. This is a further demonstration of the flexibility, robustness
and complementary nature of the Data View and Variable View in IBM
SPSS Statistics Data Editor.

62
 Figure 1.26 Data View with the value labels for Gender

IBM SPSS STATISTICS VIEWER

63
When I began description of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor, I
mentioned that there are three major windows that IBM SPSS Statistics
uses, namely:
IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor
IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer
IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor.
The IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer is a most special window for the
viewing of all results, preferably termed Output of data analysis done with
the software (IBM SPSS Statistics). Very aptly, the SPSS Statistics Viewer
window can be referred to as the SPSS Output window. For the IBM SPSS
Statistics Viewer to be used, data must have first been analysed. So, let me
use very simple descriptive analysis of the data in Table 1.2 that have been
entered in Figure 1.24 to very quickly illustrate the IBM SPSS Viewer
window by running a very quick analysis.
To execute very quick descriptive analysis of the data in Figure 1.24,
there are just two steps for each of the variables:
For Gender, the first step is to move the cursor to Gender and click
to highlight the Gender column as can be seen in Figure 1.27.

64
 Figure 1.27 Data View with Gender and Scores highlighted

The second step is to move the cursor to and click the Run

descriptive statistics icon in the Toolbar while the Gender

column is highlighted. This single simple click executes quick

65
 descriptive statistics analysis for the data and produces the Output or
results that are demonstrated in the first part of Output 1.1.
Then, get back to the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor that is containing
the dataset as in Figure 1.24. Repeat the two steps action, but for Scores
this time. That is, while on the SPSS Data Editor containing the dataset,
move cursor to and click Scores to highlight the Scores column as shown in
Figure 1.27. This is the first step. Then, for the second step, move cursor to

and click the Run descriptive statistics tool in the Toolbar while the
Scores column is highlighted. With this click, quick descriptive statistics
analysis is executed for the Basic Science Concepts data, named Scores;
and the results produced in the IMB SPSS Statistics Viewer as displayed
in the second part of Output 1.1.
Also, the quick Descriptive Statistics can be done at once for both
variables instead of doing it for each of the variables. Click to select both
Gender and Scores for the two columns to be highlighted as shown in

Figure 1.27. Next, move cursor to and click , the Run descriptive
statistics tool in the Toolbar. With this single click, IBM SPSS Statistics
instantly completes the analysis and produces the results in the IBM SPSS
Statistics Viewer as presented in Output 1.1. The window where outputs
are displayed in IBM SPSS Statistics is the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer.

Output 1.1 Descriptive statistics as displayed in the

Viewer

66
67
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 1.1 AS
ILLUSTRATION OF SPSS VIEWER
IBM SPSS Statistics always presents the results, better known and more
frequently called Output, in the Viewer window. Sections of the output are
summarized in user-friendly tables. The first table within the output
indicates Frequencies Statistics for the variable Sex (recall when in the
Label column of the Variable View, Sex was typed in as the Label instead
of Gender). It shows the valid and invalid number of cases (N) for sex. The
Mode, Range, Minimum and Maximum are also shown for Sex. The second
table for Sex within the first part of the output has indicated the Frequency,
Percent, Valid Percent and Cumulative Percent for all the cases that are
male and female.
The third table, which is the second part of the Output 1.1, has given the
Frequencies Statistics for Basic Science Concepts, again recall when in
the Label column of Variable View; the Basic Science Concepts was
typed in as the Label instead of Scores. The Valid (20) and Missing (0)
number of cases (N) are shown in this table. Also, the Mean (29.5000),
Median (30.0000), Standard Deviation (13.94538), Range (40), Minimum
(10), and Maximum (50) are given as the total (male and female students

68
together) descriptive statistics for the variable, Basic Science Concepts
(i.e., the Scores).
Haven looked at the output of the data analysis in the IBM SPSS
Statistics Viewer, it will be optimally easy for best understanding of the
importance of the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer window now. The IBM
SPSS Statistics Viewer, like the other two major windows in SPSS, has
Menu Bar and Toolbar. The Menu Bar has 13 distinct functions or menu
items that are listed as File, Edit, View, Data, Transform, Insert, Format,
Analyze, Graphs, Utilities, Extensions, Window, and Help. To see the
several statistical mechanisms that each of the menus in the Menu Bar is
used for, move the cursor to it and click.
The Toolbar in IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer window has 16 tools that
are represented with icons to provide very quick access to commonly used
functions in the Menu Bar. They are:

1. Open output document

2. Save this document

3. Print

4. Preview print this dataset

5. Export

6. Recall recently used dialogs

7. Undo a user action

8. Redo a user action

9. Go to Data

10. Go to Case

11. Go to Variable

69
 12. Variables

13. Create/Edit AutoScript

14. Run Script

15. Designate Window

16. Customize Toolbars

For a brief understanding of what each of these Toolbar tools does in the
SPSS Viewer, move your cursor to it and click to have its dropdown dialog
box that outlines the statistical operations that can be performed with the
tool. Most of the functions of the Menu Bar items and Toolbar tools in IBM
SPSS Viewer window are much like what the Menu Bar menus and
Toolbar tools do in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data View that have been
described earlier.
In addition to the Menu Bar and Toolbar, it is most glaring that the IBM
SPSS Statistics Viewer window has two sides, the left part and the right
part. The left side provides an outline that represents the contents of the
statistical analysis done in a tree-like structure that produced the output.
The right side presents the actual results or output, summarized in most
suitable research-report-ready tables, charts, graphs, models and texts.
Subsequently, it is the information presented in the right-hand section of the
IBM SPSS Viewer window that will be presented and explained briefly for
each statistical test in this book. Just know that the results in the right part
are in accordance with the decision-tree-like structure in the left part of the
IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer for any specific analysis done.

IBM SPSS STATISTICS SYNTAX EDITOR

The IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor is the third of the three major
windows in SPSS, and it is used for all sorts of data analysis via IBM SPSS
Statistics programme commands. Recall that the three main widows in IBM
SPSS Statistics are:

70
 IBM SPSS Data Editor
IBM SPSS Viewer
IBM SPSS Syntax Editor.
IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor is a most powerful window that
executes statistical analysis by simply typing in the SPSS Programme
Commands, known as SPSS Statistics Syntax for running each statistical
test accurately with greatest ease and swiftness. All that it typically requires
is your mastery of the SPSS Programme Commands necessary for
performing any given statistical analysis. You do not need to worry yourself
any bit on how to know those Commands because all the necessary SPSS
Syntax or SPSS statistical command jargons are provided for you in this
book. IBM SPSS Statistics has so much simplified the statistical
programme Commands, as presented in this book, that you only need to get
a copy of this text and meticulously enter the Syntax as explicitly provided
herein. The only modification that you will be doing is replacing the names
of the variables used for illustration in this book with names of the actual
variables that you collected data on in your investigation.
Most likely, there cannot be a better way of learning how to correctly
write IBM SPSS Statistics Programming Language (known as
Command Syntax) than as warmly articulated with precision in this book.
For each statistical test, once you start entering the IBM SPSS Command
Syntax as in this book, the SPSS Statistics software will also prompt you to
speedily type the Commands into the Syntax Editor by changing the text
colour and providing little drop-down menus from time-to-time for you to
choose the word(s), term(s) or phrase(s) that you intend to type. You are
bound to most speedily learn and master how to write IBM SPSS
Statistical Syntax as illustrated with exciting amazement. You are indeed
welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics, the only statistical home that instantly
catches and sustains your total attention until you most successfully
conclude analysing all sorts of research data.
Therefore, data analysis with IMB SPSS Statistics can conveniently and
most comfortably be done in two ways.
1. Data Editor Method: Statistical analysis is done in this method with
SPSS dialog boxes selection and clicking via the Data Editor
window. This method of data analysis is also referred to as SPSS
Dialog Boxes Point and Click.

71
 2. Syntax Editor Method: Data analysis is done in this method by
typing in a few SPSS Statistics Programming Language, known as
Command Syntax or simply as Syntax, via activation of the Syntax
Editor window.
The two methods of data analysis with the use of IBM SPSS Statistics
share two main common features or characteristics. Firstly, the data to be
analysed must be entered and well labelled as already explained under Data
View and Variable View of the Data Editor. Secondly, the output of data
analysis done in both of the methods must always be shown in the IBM
SPSS Statistics Viewer window as discussed already.
Reason for why the Data Editor approach and the Syntax Editor
approach have much in common is because in both methods, the analysis is
actually executed on the basis of the same principle of IBM SPSS
Statistical Programming Language. The only difference is that while in
the Data Editor technique, the Command Syntax is written behind the
correct dialog boxes for selection; in the Syntax Editor technique, the user
of IBM SPSS has to key in the programming Command Syntax that IBM
SPSS Statistics has most carefully written and made available for the
public (IBM Corp., 2019) as aptly demonstrated in the current book.

Activation of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

To activate IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor, follow these steps:
Click File in the SPSS Data Editor.
Move cursor to New for its dropdown dialog box to appear as shown
in Figure 1.28.

72
 Figure 1.28: Data Editor indicating File and New dropdown menus

Carefully trace the cursor rightwards to reach Syntax.

Click Syntax. This action opens the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax
Editor as illustrated in Figure 1.29.

73
 Alternatively, move cursor to the Menu Bar and click Window; and in
the pulldown dialog box of the Window, click Go to Designated Syntax
Window. The actions of clicking Window and clicking Go to Designated
Syntax Window immediately opens the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax
Editor that is shown in Figure 1.29.

Figure 1. 29 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

The fifth step demands that you carefully key in the IBM SPSS
Statistics Programme Commands (i.e., Syntax) for the specific
statistical analysis which you are subjecting the entered data to. It is
in the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor shown in Figure 1.29 that
you type in or enter the Syntax meant for the statistical test that you
want to do.
To execute the simple descriptive statistics for the data on K-6 students’
Basic Science Concepts by Gender in Table 1.2 and Figure 1.24, type the
following Syntax or Commands presented in Syntax 1.1 into the Syntax
Editor.

Syntax 1.1 Chapter 1 Syntax 1.sps

74
 After entering the requisite Syntax in the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax
Editor, it will look like Figure 1.30.

Figure 1.30 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor with the entered Syntax

The sixth step is the final step and can be done in either of two
possible ways. First, select the Syntax that you have entered into the
SPSS Syntax Editor, move the cursor to the Toolbar and click ,
which is the tool or icon for Run Selection. The moment this is done,
IBM SPSS Statistics completely performs the analysis and produces

75
 the output in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer on your screen in split
seconds as shown in Output 1.2.
The second way of performing the sixth step is by moving the cursor to
the Menu Bar and clicking Run. With this click, the Run dropdown dialog
box as in Figure 1.31 opens. In the Run dropdown dialog box, click All. By
clicking All, IBM SPSS Statistics totally executes the analysis and presents
the results in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer instantly on your screen as
displayed in Output 1.2.

Figure 1.31 SPSS Syntax Run drop-down dialog box

Output 1.2 Descriptive statistics with SPSS Syntax

76
 The results of the descriptive statistics on students’ Basic Science
Concepts in Output 1.2 when the data were analysed with IBM SPSS

77
Statistics Syntax Editor method and in Output 1.1 that the same data were
analysed with IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor method are exactly the
same. So, it is left for you to use any of the two methods of analysing data
with IBM SPSS Statistics. Let me reiterate that only the right side of the
SPSS Viewer is presented in the Output 1.2 as that point has earlier been
made; and that all subsequent analysis will have only the results in the right
part of the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer displayed. Irrespective of the
method that you would choose to use, it is better to study and master the
two methods (SPSS Data Editor method and SPSS Syntax Editor method)
of data analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics as excellently treated definitively
in this book.

RULES FOR IBM SPSS STATISTICS SYNTAX

ENTRY
The entering of IBM SPSS Statistical Command Syntax into the IBM
SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor as exemplified in Figure 1.30 demands
strict adherence to six mandatory rules. Be calm, no stress at all as these
rules are observed stringently in the writing of IBM SPSS Statistics
Syntax used for illustrating execution of each statistical analysis in this
book. This is to ensure that the rules very soon become part of your reflex
actions as you use the book.
i. Each IBM SPSS Statistical Command must start from the first
column (i.e., without pressing the Spacebar or the Tab button on the
Keyboard before starting the entry) in the IBM SPSS Statistics
Syntax Editor.
ii. Every completed IBM SPSS Statistical Syntax must end unfailingly
with a period (.) or full stop.
iii. Press Spacebar to put a space between every two separate words. A
comma can be used interchangeably with each space.
iv. Each Subcommand must be separated from other Commands with a
Forward lash (/).
v. It is preferable to start every Subcommand on a new line and with a
space by pressing the Enter key followed by the Spacebar key or
the Tab key on the Keyboard.

78
 vi. Press the Enter key, then the Spacebar key, preferably the Tab key
on the Keyboard whenever a Command Syntax is getting too long to
be contained in a single line.

Source of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax

The IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax is fundamentally central as no statistical
analysis could be executed via any method with the use of IBM SPSS
Statistics without the Command Syntax playing key role overtly or covertly.
Execution of statistical analysis with SPSS Data Editor method, the SPSS
Dialog Boxes Point and Click method, is made possible because the SPSS
Command Syntax for each analysis is invisibly structured behind the
correct dialog boxes selections. Statistical analysis with IBM SPSS
Statistics Syntax method works on the basis of the overtly entered SPSS
Statistics Syntax for each analysis.
In fact, the SPSS Command Syntax is so important that IBM
Corporation has written a whole book of 2354 pages, titled IBM SPSS
Statistics 26 Command Syntax Reference, for it (IBM Corp., 2019). Once
you acquire and install the IBM SPSS Statistics 26.0 in your computer, you
have automatically got the IBM SPSS Statistics 26 Command Syntax
Reference as you can easily click Help in the Menu Bar, and in the Help
dropdown dialog box, click Command Syntax Reference to have the IBM
SPSS Statistics 26 Command Syntax Reference opened as a PDF file
whenever you need to make reference to it for information. The Version 26,
Release 0, of the Command Syntax reference also applies “to all subsequent
releases and modifications until otherwise indicated in new editions.”

SAVING OF FILES
In IBM SPSS Statistics, there are three types of data, each of which
deserves to be saved as a file in a different environment with unique dialog
boxes and distinct extension to allow for easy retrieval and reference. If a
Data, Syntax or Output file that you used for a statistical analysis is not
saved, it cannot be readily retrieved at some other time or a later date for
use when the need arises. The three types of files in accordance with the

79
three major windows in IBM SPSS Statistics that should typically be saved
uniquely are:
Data file
Syntax file
Output file.
While the Data file can solely be saved when working in IBM SPSS
Statistics Data Editor window, the Syntax file can be saved exclusively
when working in IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor window, and the
Output file can be saved outrightly only when working in IBM SPSS
Statistics Viewer window. The file extension for saving a Data file is .sav.
The file extension for saving a Syntax file is .sps. The file extension for
saving an Output file is .spv. You do not mandatorily have to type the
extension when naming a file for saving, because even when you do not
type the file extension, IBM SPSS Statistics will automatically add the
extension to complete the file name to enable the saving. Saving of file in
each of the three windows is only possible when the specific window and a
particular file are activated (i.e., when you are currently working on it or
when it is actively open). You can only save a Data file when you are
working on it in either Data View or Variable View in the IBM SPSS
Statistics Data Editor. Similarly, a Syntax file can only be saved while
you are working on it in the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor. Finally, it
is the moment that you are on an Output in the IBM SPSS Statistics
Viewer window that you can save the Output file.

Data File Saving

There are five easy to follow steps for creating and saving a Data file in
IBM SPSS Statistics thus:

Step 1: Ensure that the Data Editor is activated at the moment. An

activated Data Editor looks like Figure 1.32, showing File as the first
menu in the Menu Bar of the SPSS Data Editor. File, the first menu item
on the Menu Bar is at about the topmost extreme left of the Data Editor.

80
 Figure 1.32 Data Editor showing File in the Menu Bar

Step 2: Place the cursor on and click File in the Data Editor to display the
File dropdown dialog box as in Figure 1.33.

81
 Figure 1.33 File drop-down dialog box in Data Editor

Step 3: Place cursor on and click Save As… in the File dropdown dialog
box for the Save Data As dialog box to appear as shown in Figure 1.34

82
 Figure 1.34 Save Data As dialog box for Chapter 1 Table 2 Data.sav

Step 4: Type a suitable name for the File in the panel at the right of File
name. For instance, type Chapter 1 Table 2 Data.sav as the name for the
students’ Basic Science Concepts by Gender data.

Step 5: Either press Enter on the Key Board or move cursor to and click
Save that is located at the right close to the File name that you have just
entered. With this, the Chapter 1 Table 2 Data.sav has been created and
saved securely for future use.

Step 6: If you do more work on the file such as editing it or adding more
data after the file has been created and saved, move the cursor to and click
the Save icon on the Toolbar or press Ctrl and S simultaneously on the
Keyboard. With this, the file has been saved with the modification.

Syntax File Saving

Recall the six steps for activation and use of Syntax Editor as earlier
illustrated a short while ago in Figures 1.28 – 1.31 to analyse the data in

83
Figure 1.24. That is, in the SPSS Data Editor containing the data in
question, you clicked File, selected New, and click Syntax, after which the
Syntax 1.1 was entered into the SPSS Syntax Editor.
Make sure that you are in the Syntax Editor with the right Syntax or
statistical programme Commands entered as shown in Figure 1.30.
Alternatively, let me quickly show you another very easy way of
activating Syntax Editor.
From the Data Editor that you have entered the data to be analysed,
move cursor to the Menu Bar and click Window. This click makes
the Window dropdown dialog box to open as exemplified in Figure
1.34.

Figure 1.34 Window dropdown dialog box

Move cursor to and click Go to Designated Syntax Window. With

this click, the Syntax Editor window gets activated as shown in
Figure 1.35.

Figure 1.35 Syntax Editor that is blank or empty

84
 Carefully enter the SPSS programme Commands or Syntax used to
demonstrate quick Descriptive Statistics for data in Table 1.1 or
Figure 1.24. On completion of entering the SPSS statistical
Commands, the Syntax Editor will look as in Figure 1.36.

Figure 1.36 Syntax Editor with quick Descriptive Statistics Commands entered

Hold down Ctrl key and press S key on the Keyboard

simultaneously to have Save Syntax As dialog box that is presented
in Figure 1.37. Alternatively, click File and in the File dropdown,
click Save As.

85
 Figure 1.37 Save Syntax As dialog box for Chapter 1 Syntax 1.sps

Enter a most suitable name for the Syntax file in the field at the right
of File name which is for that purpose. In this example, the
appropriate name to enter is Chapter 1 Syntax 1.sps as shown in
Figure 1.38.

86
 Figure 1.38 Save Syntax As with file name entered

Finally, move cursor to, and click Save in the dialog box or press the
Enter key on the Keyboard. This saves the Syntax file as Chapter 1
Syntax 1.sps securely for easy access in the future whenever the
need arises.

Output File Saving

Again, you have to be in the Viewer window in order to save a particular
output. This is because like Data file and Syntax file, the Output file can
only be created and stored with a totally different programming language
that is only available in and understood by the Viewer window; and cannot
be interchangeable with neither the Data Editor nor the Syntax Editor.
While the Viewer window where Output must be saved does not
understand Data Editor and Syntax Editor where Data file and Syntax
file must respectively be saved; the Data Editor does not understand the
programming language with which Syntax file and Output file are stored
in the Syntax Editor and Viewer window, respectively. Equally, the
Syntax Editor in which Syntax file must be saved does not understand the

87
programming language with which Data file and Output file are
respectively saved in the Data Editor and Viewer window. It is because of
the difference in the programming language used uniquely by each of the
three major IBM SPSS Statistics windows that a Data file must always
end with the extension .sav; a Syntax file must end always with the
extension .sps; and an Output file must always end with the extension .spv.
Follow the outlined steps to save the Output.

Step 1: Ensure that you are in the Viewer window, viewing the results of the
analysed data as earlier illustrated in Output 1.1 or in Output 1.2.

Step 2: Move cursor to the Toolbar and click , the icon or tool for Save
this document and the Save Output As dialog box will appear as in Figure
1.39.

Figure 1.39 Save Output As dialog box

Note that you can also get to the Save Output As dialog box that is
presented in Figure 1.39 via File in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer
window. To do this, while viewing your Output in the Viewer window,

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move cursor to the Menu Bar and click File which is the first menu in the
Menu Bar and located at the topmost left extreme corner, to open File
dropdown dialog box as shown in Figure 1.40.

Figure 1.40 File dropdown dialog box in IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer

Then, move cursor to and click Save As… to have the Save Output As
dialog box as exhibited in Figure 1.39.

Step 3: In the File name panel that is like a row just at the right of File
name, type the name with which you want the Output to be saved. In this
example, the preferred name is Chapter 1 Output 1. So, type in Chapter 1
Output 1.spv as shown in Figure 1.41.

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 Figure 1.41 Save Output As dialog box with the file name

Step 4: Finally, press Enter on the Keyboard or move cursor to and click
Save that is just at the right of the File name panel where you typed in the
name of the output file within the Save Output As dialog box. With this,
the Output file has been securely saved for future retrieval and use.

PRINTING OF FILES
The printing of a file in IBM SPSS Statistics demands that you first
activate the very file that you want to print. That is, to print an Output file
like the one that is currently active (Chapter 1 Output 1.spv) in the IBM
SPSS Statistics Viewer on your screen, you must be in the Viewer
window. To print a Data file, you must activate the Data Editor and ensure
that the particular dataset you want to print is the one showing on the
screen. Similarly, Syntax file printing demands activation of the Syntax
Editor and opening of the specific Syntax file that you are interested in
printing. The activation of the particular window from which you want to
print a file is necessitated by the earlier emphasized point that each of the

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three major windows (Data Editor, Viewer, and Syntax Editor) in IBM
SPSS Statistics operates on its unique programming language.

Output File Printing

Beginning with the printing of the current Output that is right open in the
IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer on the screen, move the cursor to the Toolbar

and click the tool or icon for Print for the Print dialog box to open as
shown Figure 1.42.

Figure 1.42 Print Output dialog box

The Print dialog box for Output shows the name of the printer that is
currently set as the default printer for the computer. One of the two possible
Print Range, and is highlighted to let you
know whether what will be printed is All visible output or Selected
output. If no table in the Output was selected before your clicking the

Print icon , then the default of what will be printed is All visible
output. But if at least one table in the Output was selected when you
clicked the Print icon, then the Selected output will be the default possible

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printing range that the printer will print for you. Also, in the Print dialog
box is the option for the number of copies that you want to get printed thus
. One copy is the default, but if you want more copies,
say 5 to be printed, you move the cursor to and click the up-pointed arrow
to increase the Number of copies till it gets to 5 thus
. There is as well a tick in the very small box beside Collate indicating that
the printer will while printing, collate (arrange) the papers on which the
printing will be done according to page-numbers for the 5 sets. The final
step in the printing is just for you to move cursor to and click OK in the
Print dialog box. With this, the printer prints out the Output.

Apart from clicking the Print icon in the Toolbar, it is possible to

access the Print… dialog box by moving cursor to the Menu Bar in the
IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer window and clicking the File menu to have
its dropdown dialog box shown in Figure 1.43.

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 Figure 1.43 File drop-down menu showing Print

In the File dropdown dialog box, move cursor to and click Print… for
the Print… dialog box to open, and you perform the actions spelt out in the
previous paragraph to get your Output printed.

Printing of Data File

To print a Data file, you must activate the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor and be seeing the exact data that you want to print in the Data View.
With the specific Data file in the Data View of the IBM SPSS Statistics
Data Editor open, the printing process for a Data file is exactly the same
as discussed under the Printing of Output File. The only difference in the
two printing scenarios is that while the printing of Output file demands

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starting from the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer window where the Output
in question is located, the printing of a Data file demands that you start
from the Data View of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor where the
Data file that you want to print is.
Be sure that you are right now at the K-6 students’ data saved as
Chapter 1 Table 2 Data.sav in the Data View of IBM SPSS Statistics

Data Editor. Click in the Toolbar to have the Print dialog box shown
in Figure 1.44. Then, click OK to have one copy of the Data file printed. If
it is five copies that you want to print for instance, increase the Number of
copies by clicking the up-pointed arrow beside it till it gets to 5; then click
OK in the dialog box or press Enter key on the Keyboard.

Figure 1.44 Print dialog box for Data file

Printing of Syntax File

A Syntax file is printed exactly as illustrated with Output and Data files
printing, but you must first activate the Syntax Editor and be on the
particular Syntax file that you want to print. In the IBM SPSS Statistics

Syntax Editor, click the Print icon in the Toolbar to get the Print
dialog box and press Enter key on the Keyboard or click OK button in the
dialog box. With this, a copy of the Syntax file gets printed. You can repeat

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the process to get any number of copies of the Syntax file that you want,
printed.

RETRIEVAL OF FILES
The entire essence of saving files in IBM SPSS Statistics is to guarantee
automatic retrieval as at when needed. Retrieval of a saved file can only be
done from the specific window where it was saved. That is, while retrieval
of a Data file should better be done from the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor, retrieval of a Syntax file is best done from the SPSS Syntax
Editor, and retrieval of an Output file should necessarily be done from the
SPSS Viewer window.

Retrieval of Data File

Saved Data files can most easily be retrieved from IBM SPSS Statistics
Data Editor for use as at when the need arises. Only a few menu selections
can be used to accomplish the purpose.

Step 1. Move cursor to the Menu Bar in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor and click File to have its dropdown dialog box in which you move
the cursor to Open for the Open dropdown dialog box to appear as
illustrated in Figure 1.45.

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 Figure 1.45 File and Open drop-down dialog boxes

Step 2. Click Data in the Open dropdown dialog box. This produces the
Open Data dialog box presented as demonstrated in Figure 1.46.

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 Figure 1.46 Open Data dialog box for Chapter 1 Table 2 Data.sav

It is not only through clicking File in the SPSS Data Editor that you
can reach the Open Data dialog box. Alternatively, move cursor to Toolbar
and click the Open data document icon or tool for the Open Data
dialog box to be displayed as in Figure 1.46.

Step 3. Look for the name of the file you want to open, place the cursor on
it and double-click (press the left button on the mouse in very close
succession) or click the file name once and click Open or press the Enter
key on the Keyboard. In this case, the file name is Chapter 1 Table 2
Data.sav. Double-clicking on the file name or clicking the file name once
and either pressing Enter or clicking Open instantly retrieves the file in
question. Note that it is not possible to find a Syntax file or an Output file
within the Open Data dialog box. In fact, the title of the dialog box alone
(‘Open Data dialog box’) clearly stipulates that it is a Data file previously
created and saved that can and should be found in and retrieved via the
Open Data dialog box.

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Retrieving Syntax File
A few steps similar to those for retrieving Data files are required for the
retrieval of saved IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax files from the SPSS Syntax
Editor for use at any moment.

Step 1. Click File to have the File dropdown dialog box.

Step 2. Select Open for the Open dropdown dialog box to appear, showing
Syntax as one of the options that could be selected in it. This is presented in
Figure 1.47.

Figure 1.47 File and Open dropdown dialog box showing Syntax

Step 3. Click Syntax… This action makes the Open Syntax dialog box to
appear as in Figure 1.48.

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 Figure 1.48 Open Syntax dialog box

An alternative means of reaching the Open Syntax dialog box is as

follows:
Click Window instead of File in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor for the Window dropdown dialog box to appear as in Figure
1.49.

Figure 1.49 Window dropdown dialog box showing Go to Designated Syntax Window

Click the Go to Designated Syntax Window for the IBM SPSS

Syntax Editor to appear as given in Figure 1.50.

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 Figure 1.50 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

Move cursor to the Toolbar in the SPSS Syntax Editor and click the

icon for Open Syntax to have its dialog box as earlier shown
in Figure 1.48.

Step 4. Place the cursor on and double-click the file name for the particular
Syntax that you want to retrieve (Chapter 1 Syntax 1.sps in the current
example). Apart from double-clicking on the file name, just click it once
and press the Enter key on the Keyboard or click Open in the Open
Syntax dialog box to instantly open the Chapter 1 Syntax 1.sps file.

Retrieval of Output File

Saved Output files can be retrieved as needful from the IBM SPSS
Statistics Viewer effortlessly and practically within a few seconds by doing
the following.

Step 1. Ensure that you are in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer window to
be able to retrieve an Output file duly saved. You may want to know how
to get to the Viewer window. Very simple, click Window in the Menu Bar
to get its dropdown dialog box as in Figure 1.51.

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 Figure 1.51 Window dropdown dialog box showing Go to Designated Viewer Window

Step 2. Click the Go to Designated Viewer Window to activate the IBM

SPSS Viewer as shown in Figure 1.52

Figure 1.52 IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer

Step 3. Move cursor to and click the Open output document icon in
the Toolbar of the SPSS Viewer window. This click opens the Open
Output dialog box as illustrated in Figure 1.53.

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 Figure 1.53 Open Output dialog box

Step 4. Look for the file name of the particular output that you want to
retrieve, Chapter 1 Output 1.spv in this case, and double-click on it; or
click it once and click Open or press Enter to get the needed output opened
immediately.
In case, you do not want to get to the Open Output dialog box from the
Window in the Menu Bar, Click File in the Menu Bar for the dropdown
dialog box of File to appear. In the File dropdown menu, select Open for
the Open dropdown dialog box to appear as presented in Figure 1.54; and
click Output…

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 Figure 1.54 Open dropdown dialog box in File, showing Output

With the click on Output…, the Open Output dialog box appears as
earlier shown in Figure 1.53. Double-click on the name of the output that
you want. If you do not want to double-click, just click on the output name
to highlight it, after which you click Open in the dialog box or press the
Enter key on the Keyboard.

EXITING IBM SPSS STATISTICS

After analysing your data and printing all needed files, the next thing is to
exit SPSS. First, close each of the SPSS files that are open on the screen of
your system such as the Output file, Syntax file and the Data file. To close
an opened file in SPSS, move cursor to the Menu Bar and click File to have
its dropdown dialog box. In the File dropdown dialog box, select or click
Close as shown in Figure 1.55. After closing the files that were opened,
click File in the Menu Bar again to have its drop-down dialog box as in
Figure 1.55 and click Exit. Alternatively, simply move the cursor to the
extreme top right corner of your system and click X, which is the button for
Close, to close each of the opened SPSS files on the computer.

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 Figure 1.55 File drop-down dialog box showing Close

When you get to closing of the last Data Editor file via the Close button
X or by clicking File and Exit, IBM SPSS prompts you that ‘Closing the
last Data Editor window will exit SPSS Statistics’ as shown in Figure
1.56; and asks you if you truly want to proceed with exiting the IBM SPSS
Statistics.

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 Figure 1.56 Prompt when exiting IBM SPSS Statistics

You proceed with exiting SPSS by clicking in the dialog box.

Finally, you shut down the computer by clicking Start, then clicking the
Power button and lastly, by clicking the option, Shut down.

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 Chapter 2
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Overview
The endless quest for inventions, discoveries, new knowledge and theory
development, begins with questions that demand statistical descriptions as
the basis for solutions. Valuable information on the nature and
characteristics of variables in sampled groups are expressed descriptively.
The exquisite illustrations in this chapter guarantees every user the
attainment of expert knowledge of the various approaches in the utilization
of SPSS Statistics to practically analyse data for descriptive purposes.

Keywords: Mean, Standard deviation, SPSS syntax, Descriptive

statistical techniques, Frequencies, Explore, Descriptives.

Eight different ways of using IBM SPSS Statistics to execute Descriptive

Statistics are presented in a simple and fascinating manner in this chapter.
The descriptive statistical techniques are:
Explore via dialog boxes point and click
Explore via SPSS Syntax
Means via dialog boxes point and click
Means via SPSS Syntax
Descriptives via dialog boxes point and click
Descriptives via SPSS Syntax
Frequencies via dialog boxes point and click
Frequencies via SPSS Syntax.
Research in this changing digital world of “Revolutionary Information
Age” (Kpolovie & Lale, 2017, 30) cannot be successfully executed without
collection and statistical analysis of relevant data. Acquisition of statistical
skills by each individual is ever becoming increasingly indispensable for
enhancement of the person’s reasoning and intuition for investigation of any

106
problem and for better comprehension and utilization of other people’s
research works. Success in today’s world demands mastery and correct
application of certain statistical techniques as a precondition for one to
discover new knowledge and or apply existing knowledge most profitably.
It is with statistics that the necessary facts and information for correctly
answering research questions and testing the tenability of null hypotheses
are gathered. Without statistics, data collected in research cannot be
organized, analysed and synthesized objectively to arrive at principles,
paradigms, generalizations and theories for description, explanation,
prediction and control of future occurrence of specific phenomena.
Statistical application for right decision-making is at two levels: descriptive
and inferential. While descriptive statistics provides answers to research
questions, inferential statistics are used for testing of null hypotheses. See
Kpolovie (2018) for detailed account on parametric and nonparametric
inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics that provide valuable information about the nature
and characteristics of individuals or other elements in a sampled group are
presented in this chapter. Measures of central tendency and variability are
thoroughly explained illustratively here.
Suppose that a public health worker was interested in examining 30-year
old single and married men’s attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding
(ATEB). She randomly drew a sample of 32 men who are at the age of 30
each and administered a 5-point scale (made up of 20 items, scored 1 for
strongly disagree through to 5 for strongly agree) on the variable to them;
and obtained the tabulated scores in Table 2.1. There are two variables of
interest in a study like this, dependent variable which is the ATEB and
independent variable which is marital status.
Note that the dependent variable, attitude towards exclusive
breastfeeding (ATEB), is a continuous variable that is measured at interval
scale of measurement such that a minimum possible score that a respondent
could get is 20 and a maximum possible score that a participant could
obtain is 100. Emphatically, ATEB which is the dependent variable is a
continuous variable and not a categorical variable. Counting and reporting
the number of respondents who answered strongly disagree, those who
opted for disagree, those who indicated undecided, those who responded
agree, and those who ticked strongly agree for each item on the scale is
inappropriate because such count can only demonstrate whether all the

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scale points (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) are selected with reasonable frequency;
thereby wrongly forcing the continuous variable to serve as a categorical
variable and totally defeating the purpose of the investigation. There is no
reason why a continuous variable like attitude towards exclusive
breastfeeding here should be treated as a categorical variable. A continuous
variable is capable of taking on large number of different values like
attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding in this case or scores on an
academic achievement test, intelligence quotient or a personality trait.
The independent variable, marital status, is a dichotomous categorical
variable that is measured at nominal scale of measurement, where arbitrary
numerical assignment of 0 and 1 or 1 and 2 is used merely as label for
differentiation. For no reason should a categorical variable like marital
status in this example be treated as a continuous variable. A categorical
variable is only capable of taking on highly limited number of different
values. When a categorical variable is limited to taking on only two values
like marital status in this case or gender, it is said to be a dichotomous
variable.

Table 2.1 Attitude of single and married men towards exclusive

breastfeeding
30-year ATEB Marital
old men status
1 30 Single
2 40 Single
3 55 Single
4 51 Single
5 45 Single
6 58 Single
7 60 Single
8 62 Single
9 44 Single
10 66 Single

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 11 62 Single
12 26 Single
13 38 Single
14 40 Single
15 50 Single
16 66 Single
17 72 Married
18 35 Married
19 70 Married
20 68 Married
21 40 Married
22 50 Married
23 68 Married
24 49 Married
25 73 Married
26 67 Married
27 57 Married
28 74 Married
29 60 Married
30 65 Married
31 53 Married
32 60 Married

Step 1. Switch on your computer and allow it to fully boot up.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking on its icon on the

screen of your system and wait for it to fully get ready. When the Welcome

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to IBM SPSS Statistics window appears as in Figure 2.1, simply close it by
clicking at top right corner of Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics dialog
box, or by clicking Close at the bottom right corner and you will see the
IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor (see Figure 2.2) for entering of data.

Figure 2.1 Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics dialog box

Figure 2.2 IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor

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Step 3. Entering of data: Ensure that the cursor is in the extreme left and
topmost cell and click it (once clicked, the cell takes golden colour) so that
the data that you enter will begin from there. Very carefully type in the
values or scores listed under the Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding
(ATEB) column in Table 2.1. Type each score and press the Enter key on
the Keyboard. Do the data entry without any mistake till you enter the last
value on ATEB. Then click the right-pointed arrow once and click the up-
pointed arrow on your Keyboard and hold it down until the cursor gets to
the topmost cell of that column (just next to the column that is now called
Var00001 where you have entered data on ATEB), and click it for the cell
to have golden colour as an evidence that the cursor is in it and that the
values you will enter now will begin from there.
The IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor is set as default to accept only
numerical data. So, code every single man as 0 and every married man as
1 consistently. You could code every single man as 1 and married man as 2
consistently. Whichever code that you choose is only serving as numerals
assigned to dichotomously differentiate the 30-year old single (unmarried)
men from their counterparts who are married. To be on the same page, use
the code 0 for each single man and the code 1 for every married man that
you can see in column three of Table 2.1.
After carefully entering 0 for each single and 1 for each married man in
the second column of the Data Editor that is now called Var00002, the
next thing to do is to give the variables their actual names as treated in
Chapter 1. The entire process of naming variables is repeated here for you
to master. Try and master it as follows because it may not be repeated
subsequently. You will only be required to apply what you have learnt about
entering of data in Chapters 1 and 2 to data entry situations that you are
bound to encounter in every subsequent chapter.
Move cursor to and click Variable View at the bottom left corner of
the Data Editor to have the Variable View.
Put the cursor in the first cell under the Name column and click, then
type in the ATEB (spacing is not permitted) which is the actual name
for the dependent variable. On this same row, move the cursor to the
cell under Label, click it and type the dependent variable’s name in
full as Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding. Also move cursor
to and click the cell under Measure column, click and select Scale

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 (meaning that the variable, ATEB, is measured at the interval scale of
measurement).
Move cursor to the second row under the Name column, click it and
type Maritalstatus (spacing is not allowed here please) which is the
name for the independent variable (i.e., the categorical variable). Still
on this same row, move the cursor to and click the cell under Label
and type Marital status (space is allowed here and is therefore used).
On this row also, move cursor to the column under Measure, click it
and select Nominal (meaning that Maritalstatus is a categorical
variable that is measured at nominal scale of measurement).
On the Maritalstatus row still, move cursor to the cell under Values
and click, after which you click inside the ellipsis button (i.e., the
small blue doted box) to have a dialog box. In this dialog box,
type 0 in the box beside Value and type Single in the box beside
Label as exemplified in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Value Labels for single

Then, click Add. Next, type 1 in the box beside Value and type
Married in the box beside Label as illustrated in Figure 2.4.

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 Figure 2.4 Value Labels for married

Next, click Add to have Figure 2.5 dialog box.

Figure 2.5 Value Labels ready for final action

Finally, click OK to conclude the process for naming and labelling the
variables. Clicking the OK, takes you to the Variable View that has all the
variables’ names, labels and values as well as the measures (scales of
measurement) provided as in Figure 2.6.

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 Figure 2.7 Variable View with complete information

Take cursor to and click Data View at the very extreme bottom left of
the Variable View to see the Data Editor with all the data entered and
properly named. What you have on your screen will appear like the IBM
SPSS Statistics Data Editor in Figure 2.8.

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115
 Figure 2.8 IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor with the ATEB data

Step 4. Save the entered data simply by moving cursor to the Toolbar and

clicking the tool for Save this document or simply press Crtl+S
(press and hold the control key [Ctrl] down and simultaneously tap S key
on the Keyboard). This action will produce the Save As… dialog box in
which you type a most suitable name for the dataset, Chapter 2 Table 1
Data.sav in this example, and click Save or press the Enter key on the
Keyboard as given in Figure 2.9. Ensure to save this working data as
Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav because it will subsequently be retrieved for a
number of statistical analyses.

EXPLORE VIA SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND

CLICK
The Explore technique for execution of Descriptive Statistics, be it via
SPSS dialog boxes point and click or SPSS Syntax, is one of the best
ways of performing descriptive statistics with IBM SPSS Statistics. This is
because the technique produces descriptive statistics on the dependent
variable separately for each of the categories of the independent variable
and for the total group. It is therefore very strongly recommended for
investigations that deal with comparison of groups on the basis of
categorical independent variable with regard to a continuous dependent
variable like the example under consideration that married and single
(unmarried) men’s attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding is compared.

Step 5. Analyze. As noted in Chapter 1, the fifth step, Analyze, in the use of
IBM SPSS Statistics for data analysis is where the entire statistical
operations for every statistical test is done. You are therefore required to
attend to everything that is done at the fifth step with unreserved
concentration. For each statistical test, a number of simple actions must be
taken to execute the analysis as explicitly illustrated. Note that for any
analysis to be done, the particular data set for the analysis must always be
activated (opened) in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor.

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 Throughout the book, some situations where two or more selections or
clicking of statistical operations are to be done sequentially or successively,
I have used this rightward arrow ( ) to indicate the order of selection

or clicking. For some major steps, a downward arrow, is used to

indicate the sequence or order of statistical operations.
Activate the data set for this analysis. That is, ensure that the dataset
which is saved as Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav is open or is on
display in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor. Emphatically, only
the dataset that is in display in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor
can be analysed at a time.
Move cursor to the Menu Bar and select Analzye
Descriptive Statistics Explore as demonstrated in Figure 2.9 to have
the Explore dialog box that is presented in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.9 Analyze, Descriptive Statistics and Explore

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 Figure 2.10 Explore dialog box

Transfer Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding, when it is

highlighted, from the left box into the Dependent List box at the
right by clicking the right-pointed arrow that is directly facing
the Dependent List field. Again, to transfer a variable, the variable in
question must be highlighted with the gold colour. This operation
alone, when no categorical variable is moved from the left box to
anywhere at the right box, will produce descriptive statistics for the
men as one group or as the total group.
In like manner, move the independent variable (the categorical
variable) that is Marital status from the left box into the Factor List
box at the right by clicking the variable to highlight it and clicking
the right-pointed arrow that is directly facing the Factor List
panel. This operation as shown in Figure 2.11 will make descriptive
statistics to be performed separately for the Single men and for the
Married men.

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 Figure 2.11 Explore dialog box with variables moved to the right

Click Statistics pushbutton for Explore: Statistics dialog box to

appear. In it, ensure that there is a tick in the small box beside
Descriptives (see Figure 2.12) and click Continue to take you back
to the main Explore dialog box. The 95% Confidence Interval for
Mean will produce results for the lower and upper 95% confidence
limits or bounds of the mean.

Figure 2.12 Explore Statistics

Click Plots pushbutton to have Explore: Plots dialog box. In it,

select Factor levels together and put a tick in the small box beside
Histogram for such graph to be produced as part of the output (see

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Figure 2.13). Then, click Continue to return to the main Explore
dialog box.

Figure 2.13 Explore Plots

Finally, a click on OK now will produce the descriptive statistics

results separately for the two categories of men (single and married).
But do not click OK yet. Better still, instead of clicking the OK,
click Paste. Then, take a few more steps and the Output will as well
be for the entire men put together as a single group. But if you have
already clicked OK to be viewing the Output, never mind, perform
the 8th action.
Move cursor to the Menu Bar and select Window Chapter 2
Table 1 Data.sav [DataSet2] – IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor
and press Enter or click to activate the data for the analysis earlier
saved as Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav. Alternatively, you can activate
the data in the Data Editor by selecting File Open
Data Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav and press Enter.
Select Analyze Descriptive Statistics Explore as
shown in Figure 2.14.

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 Figure 2.14 Analyze, Descriptive Statistics and Explore

Clicking Explore produces the Explore dialog box.

Click Reset in the Explore dialog box.
Highlight Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding in the left box
and click the right-pointing arrow to transfer the variable into
the box under Dependent List at the right as illustrated in Figure
2.15.

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 Figure 2.15 Explore dialog box with variable moved to the right

Click Plots pushbutton and checkmark the small box beside

Histogram as shown in Figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16 Explore Plots

Click Continue. This takes you back to the main Explore dialog
box.

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 Finally, click OK in the Explore dialog box to have the entire
Descriptive Statistics Output as displayed in Output 2.1.

Output 2.1 Chapter 2 Output 1.spv

Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding

123
Histograms

124
Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding Stem-and-Leaf Plot for
MaritalStatus= Single & Married

Dataset Name for all the men together

125
Men’s attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding

126
Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding Stem-and-Leaf Plot

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INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 2.1:
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS EXPLORE
Before continuing from Step 6, let me very briefly interpret the Output 2.1
of the Descriptive Statistics that has just been done. The first part of the
Output, termed Case Processing Summary, has shown that 16 Single and
16 Married men were the respondents and the Attitude towards exclusive
breastfeeding of each category of men was 100% valid as none of the
respondents had a missing score. While the percentage of valid cases for
each category was 100, the percentage of missing cases in single and in
married men was 0 (zero).
The second table of the Output, called Descriptives, has revealed that
single men’s attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding has a mean of
49.5625 with a Standard Error of 3.14108. It has a 95% Confidence limit of

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42.8674 for Lower and 56.2576 for Upper, a Median of 50.5000, Variance
of 157.863, Standard Deviation of 12.56433, Minimum and Maximum
scores of 26 and 66, respectively, a Range of 40, and so on. Similar values
are equally given for the married men’s attitude towards exclusive
breastfeeding. Married men have a Mean of 60.0825, Standard Error of
2.96854 with 53.7352 and 66.3898 Lower and Upper bounds at 95%
certainty, a Median of 62.5000, Variance of 140.996, Standard Deviation of
11.87417, Minimum score of 35.00 and Maximum score of 74.00. Kurtosis,
Skewness and Interquartile Range are also given for each category of men.
Take very special note of the Mean and Standard Deviation as these are
the most important descriptive statistics that best capture the central
tendency and variability measures, and are therefore required for answering
research questions in both quantitative and qualitative research works.
The third part of the output (Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding
histogram) are two histogram graphs plotted separately for attitude of
single men towards exclusive breastfeeding and of married men towards the
same dependent variable. Specifically, the first graph is for single men and
the second graph is for the married men.
Stem-and-Leaf Plots separately for single and married men’s attitude
towards exclusive breastfeeding constitute the fourth part of the output.
Frequency, stem and leaf as well as the stem width are given for single and
for married men. The two marital status (single and married) are plotted
against attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding.
The fifth part of the output gives the Case Processing Summary for all
the men, irrespective of marital status, who participated in the study. They
are 32 in number and all the 32 cases had valid score, making 100% valid
cases and 0.0% missing cases.
Descriptives is the sixth section of the output and it gives descriptive
statistical values for all the respondents taken together. The 32 men’s
attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding has a Mean of 54.8125, Standard
Error of 2.32554, Standard Deviation of 13.15525, Median of 57, Variance
of 173.060 with a Minimum score of 26 and Maximum score of 74. The
Lower and Upper bounds of the mean are respectively 50.0695 and 59.5555
at 95% Confidence Interval. The Range, Interquartile Range, Kurtosis and
Skewness of the distribution of the men’s scores are as well given.
A comprehensive Histogram of all the men’s scores is presented as the
seventh section of the Output. Lastly, Stem-and-Leaf Plots with Frequency,

129
Stem and Leaf and Stem width values are presented, ranging from about 28
to 74 with the centre lying between 45 and 65, and 58 as the core.

Step 6. Scroll up, down, left and right to view the Output on the screen of
your system with the aid of the up-pointed, down-pointed, left-pointed and
right-pointed arrows. These arrows are located at the right edge and bottom
edge of the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer.

Step 7. Save the Output by clicking the Save this document tool in the
Toolbar to have its dialog box. Type the most suitable name for the output,
Chapter 2 Output 1.spv in this case, in the box beside File name and
press Enter or click Save as demonstrated in Figure 2.17 screenshot.

Figure 2.17 Chapter 2 Output 1.spv

Step 8. Print the output and the input. When the Output is actively in view,

click the Print icon in the Toolbar to have its dialog box (see Figure
2.18) and click OK for one copy of the All visible output to be printed. For
printing of the data, activate the Data Editor by retrieving the data much

130
earlier saved as Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav. Click the Print icon in the
Toolbar. While viewing the data click OK in the Print dialog box for one
copy of the data to be printed.

Figure 2.18 Print output dialog box

Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing all SPSS files that are open on
the computer screen. When you select Close for the last Data Editor file,
SPSS will prompt you that closing it will exit IBM SPSS Statistics and ask
you to confirm if really you want to exit SPSS (see Figure 2.18a). Click
Yes.

Figure 2.18a Exiting IBM SPSS Statistics prompt

Step 10. Shut down your computer by selecting Start Power

Shut down.

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EXPLORE VIA SPSS SYNTAX DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS METHOD
Execution of Descriptive Statistics, like every other statistical analysis, can
with the greatest ease be done by applying IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax.
All that this method of performing Descriptive Statistics demands is
careful typing in of the right SPSS Syntax for the purpose. For execution of
the Descriptive Statistics of the data saved as Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav,
the IBM SPSS Syntax required to perform the same analysis without
wasting any time opening many dialog boxes and without clicking several
statistical operational options, is as shown in Syntax 2.1.

Syntax 2.1 Chapter 2 Syntax 1.sps

Once you enter this SPSS statistical Commands (Syntax) in the IBM
SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor, a single click of Run All will get the
entire analysis done and produce the results instantly, just like when the
analysis was executed by using SPSS Dialog Boxes Point and Click

132
technique. Mastering the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax may be sounding
Greek to you and like a skill that cannot be very easily acquired.
Surprisingly, you will master it in no time with very little effort as the
whole IBM SPSS Statistics Commands for different statistical analysis are
made very handy in this book for your use. You only need to substitute the
variables names used in the examples with names of the variables in your
investigation. A quick trial will convince you. Just begin with this one and
congratulate yourself for the awesome success.

Retrieve the dataset saved as Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav by

selecting File Open Data to have its dialog box as
given in Figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19 Open Data dialog box

Click the file name, Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav, and press Enter or
click Open to open the document as earlier exhibited in Figure 2.8.

Open IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor for entry of the SPSS
Syntax by clicking Window Go to Designated Syntax

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 Window for the Syntax Editor to open as illustrated in Figure 2.20.
You can equally have the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor opened
by clicking File New Syntax.

Figure 2.20 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

Then, most carefully type in the SPSS Statistics Syntax provided in

Syntax 2.1. When done, the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor will be as
in Figure 2.21.

Figure 2.21 Syntax entered in IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

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 Click Run All. That is, click Run and in the Run dropdown
menu, click All as illustrated in Figure 2.22. Once you click All,
SPSS produces the Output in split seconds as presented in Output
2.2. Apart from clicking Run All to get the results produced,
you can simply select (highlight) the entire entered SPSS Syntax,

and click the Run Selection tool in the Toolbar. With a click
on the Run Selection tool, IBM SPSS Statistics instantly completes
the whole analysis and displays the results in the SPSS Viewer as
presented in Output 2.2.

Figure 2.22 Run drop-down window

Output 2.2 Chapter 2 Output 2.spv

135
Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding
Histograms

136
137
Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding Stem-and-Leaf Plot for
MaritalStatus= Single & Married

Dataset Name for all the men together

138
Men’s attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding

139
Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding Stem-and-Leaf Plot

140
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 2.2
Scroll through and view the entire Output 2.2 that was derived by analysing
the same data with the use of SPSS Syntax for Explore Descriptive
Statistics technique and notice that it is exactly equivalent to the Output
2.1, when the data were analysed, using SPSS Dialog Boxes Point and
Click method for the Descriptive Statistics via the Explore approach. Since
the Output 2.2 is parallel to Output 2.1, the same interpretation advanced
for the latter is equally appropriate for the former. So, do the interpretation
of Output 2.2 as was done for Output 2.1.
Alright, after interpreting the Output 2.2, complete the remaining steps
in data analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics thus
View output

141
 Save the output

Print output and the data

Exit IBM SPSS Statistics

Shut down the computer.

MEANS METHOD VIA DIALOG BOXES

SELECTION FOR DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
The Means method, be it via SPSS dialog boxes point and click or SPSS
Syntax, is a most excellent procedure for execution of Descriptive
Statistics as it allows for simultaneous outputs on the dependent variable
for a categorical independent variable. The method produces descriptive
statistics separately at once for different levels or categories of the
independent variable. The Means approach of descriptive statistics does not
only produce results for the total participants as a group, but also for the
different subgroups that make up the total group. It allows for provision of
several descriptive information on the dependent variable if the investigator
wants and opts for them in addition to mean, standard deviation and number
of cases that SPSS has set as default for the procedure. Well, data analysis
cannot be mastered by much verbose writing or by extreme grammatical
accuracy. What critically matters most is practice of the analysis. So, let the
analysis commence.
Switch on the computer

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 Start IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data since the entry has already been done and saved

Analyze, using Compare Means Method.

Now that you have activated the SPSS Data Editor containing the data
file, called Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav, the analysis proper is what has to
be done. However, if you are yet to retrieve the file, move cursor to the
Menu Bar and select File Open Data and from the Open
Data dialog box, click the file name, Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav and click
Open in the dialog box or press Enter on the Keyboard to have the IBM
SPSS Statistics Data Editor that contains the dataset.
Select Analyze Compare Means Means… as illustrated
in Figure 2.23. On clicking Means…, the Means dialog box pops up as
given in Figure 2.24.

Figure 2.23 Analyze Compare Means Means…

143
 Figure 2.24 Means dialog box with variables at the left

Move the dependent variable, Attitude towards exclusive

breastfeeding, from the left box to the right in the box called Dependent
List by highlighting the variable and clicking the right-pointed arrow
that is facing the Dependent List panel. Also move the independent
variable, Marital status, in the left box to the box termed Layer 1 of 1 at
the right by highlighting the Marital status and clicking the right-pointed
arrow that is facing Layer 1 of 1 box as shown in Figure 2.25.

144
 Figure 2.25 Means dialog box with variables moved to the right

Click the Options pushbutton to have Means: Options dialog box

where the statistical operations that are needed can be selected in addition
to the Mean, Standard Deviation and Number of Cases that are set by IBM
SPSS as default (see Figure 2.26).

145
 Figure 2.26 Means: Options

In the Means: Options menu box, the default statistical operations that
will be performed are in the box at the right that is called Cell Statistics, all
the other additional statistical operations that can possibly be done with the
Means method are listed in the box at the left which is titled Statistics. You
are at liberty to choose which ones that you want to add to the three that
serve as the default. For purposes of illustration and for the fact that other
descriptive statistical processes produce many results, move all the
operations listed at the left into the right box to have a highly
comprehensive and very robust descriptive statistics done via the Means
method. To move a statistical operation in the left box into the right box,
highlight it and click the right-pointed arrow . But because you are
moving many (all of them in this example), from the beginning, Median at
the top, place the cursor, hold down Shift key and press and hold down the
arrow-down key on the Keyboard to highlight all of them. Then, click the

146
right-pointed arrow in the dialog box to get them moved at once into
the Cell Statistics box at the right as demonstrated in Figure 2.27. There is
nothing wrong if you prefer to move them one-by-one. Then click
Continue to get back to the Means main window.

Figure 2.27 Means: Options with all operations moved to the right

You do not need to worry at all about Style and Bootstrap in the Means
main menu box for the output to also indicate 95% Confidence bounds
lower and upper around the mean. But if you click Bootstrap in the Means
dialog box for instance, its window will appear (see Figure 2.28). In it,
checkmark the very small box beside Perform Bootstrapping; then you
may click the very small circle beside Bias accelerated (BCa) or leave it as
given by default to be Percentile. Be reminded that Bootstrap statistical
functions may most likely not be in lower Forms of SPSS (see Table 1.0)
like Base and Standard. Bootstrapping is used to indicate or test stability
and reliability of the mean for predictive modelling, particularly in
estimation of a parameter variance when standard assumptions about the

147
shape of the data are not met, which is not needed for the mere purpose of
descriptive statistics that is being done here.

Figure 2.28 Bootstrap dialog box

After that, click Continue to return to the main Means window shown
in Figure 2.29.

148
 Figure 2.29 Means window when it is fully ready for output production

Finally, click OK to have the Output displayed in split seconds (see

Output 2. 3).

Output 2.3 Chapter 2 Output 3.spv

149
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 2.3
The Chapter 2 Output 3.spv in Output 2.3 has in the first part (Case
Processing Summary) shown that the scores of all the 32 men (100%)
were included in the analysis, meaning that no respondent’s score (0.0%)
was excluded. It can be discerned from the second part of the Output, called
Report, that the various descriptive statistical values are given separately

150
for Single, Married and Total, depicting attitudes toward exclusive
breastfeeding. For instance, the 16 single men have 49.5625 Mean,
12.56433 Standard Deviation, 50.5000 Median, 50.5000 Grouped Median,
3.14108 Standard Error of Mean, 793.00 Sum, 26.00 Minimum score, 66.00
Maximum score, 40.00 Range, 30.00 First entered score, 66.00 Last entered
score, 157.863 Variance, -.901 Kurtosis, 1.091 Standard Error of Kurtosis,
-.365 Skewness, .564 Standard Error of Skewness, 46.0672 Harmonic
Mean, 47.8976 Geometric Mean, which constitute 45.2% of the Total Sum
and 50.0% of the Total Number of cases.
The attitude of the 16 married men towards exclusive breastfeeding has
a Mean of 60.0625, Standard Deviation of 11.87417, Median of 62.5000,
Grouped Median of 63.3333, 2.96854 Standard Error of Mean, Sum of
961.00, Minimum score of 35, Maximum score of 74, Range of 39, 72.00
First entered score, 60.00 Last entered score, Variance of 140.996, Kurtosis
of -.246, 1.091 Standard Error of Kurtosis, -.799 Skewness, .564 Standard
Error of Skewness, 57.3820 Harmonic Mean, 58.8059 Geometric Mean,
constituting 54.8% of the Total Sum, and 50.0% of the Total Number of
respondents.
The entire 32 respondents as a group has 54.8125 Mean, 13.15525
Standard Deviation, 57.5000 Median, 57.5000 Grouped Median, 2.32554
Standard Error of Means, 1754.00 Sum, 26.00 Minimum score, 74.00
Maximum score, 48.00 Range, 30.00 First entered score, 60.00 Last entered
score, 173.060 Variance, -.713 Kurtosis, .809 Standard Error of Kurtosis,
-.469 Skewness, .414 Standard Error of Skewness, 51.1058 Harmonic
Mean, 53.0722 Geometric Mean that form 100% of Total Sum and 100% of
the Total Number of cases with regard to their attitude towards exclusive
breastfeeding. These values are the same with the descriptive statistics
values that were got when both SPSS dialog boxes point and click and
SPSS Syntax methods were employed in executing the analysis with
Explore.
Follow the remaining protocols to eventually shut down your system.
View output

Save the output as Chapter 2 Output 3.spv

151
 Print output

Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system

In case there is any unit of these protocols that you are yet to master,
refer to previous sections and rehearse.
Beyond the dialog boxes point and click, how can the Descriptive
Statistics be done with the Means method without much pointing and
clicking of dialog boxes? Use of IBM SPSS statistical Commands, better
known and referred to as Syntax, is the answer. It is good therefore to learn
how to apply SPSS Syntax in performing Descriptive Statistics with the
Means approach at once.

MEANS SPSS SYNTAX METHOD FOR

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
The Means SPSS Syntax technique for execution of Descriptive Statistics
simply requires typing this IBM SPSS Statistical Syntax or Commands
into the SPSS Syntax Editor to run the analysis (see Syntax 2.2).

Syntax 2.2 Chapter 2 Syntax 2.sps

152
 Ensure that the data file, Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav, is currently open
on your computer screen. If it is not yet open, select File Open
Data Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav Open or Enter.
That is, click File, move cursor to Open, trace the cursor rightwards to
Data and click, look for and click the file named Chapter 2 Table 1
Data.sav, and click Open or press Enter. This action opens the data for
you to see on your screen as much earlier presented in Figure 2.8.
Simply click Window Go to Designated Syntax Window and
click (see Figure 2.30).

Figure 2.30 Window Go to Designated Syntax Window

On clicking the Go to Designated Syntax Window, the SPSS Syntax

Editor opens for you to carefully type in the Syntax 2.2. When done, the
Syntax Editor will be like Figure 2.31.

Figure 2.31 Syntax window with the Syntax rightly entered

153
 Finally, click Run and All to have the Output instantly in the SPSS
Viewer as demonstrated in Output 2.4.

Output 2.4 Chapter 2 Output 4.spv

Scroll through and view this Output 2.4 and compare it with the Output
2.3 when the data were analysed with Means dialog boxes point and click
method for Descriptive Statistics. You will quickly notice that the two
results are exactly the same in all the values. The Output 2.3 and Output 2.4
are very elaborate and robust that they do not need graphical illustration.

154
This accounts for why when descriptive statistics is done with the two
Means procedures, a graph does not constitute part of the output.
Adhere to the remaining protocols in data analysis with SPSS to
eventually shut down your system.
View output

Save the output as Chapter 2 Output 4.spv, and the Syntax as Chapter
2 Syntax 2.sps

Print output

Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system

If there is any unit of these protocols that you are yet to master, refer to
previous sections and rehearse.

DESCRIPTIVES DIALOG BOXES SELECTION

FOR DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
The use of Descriptives is a most appropriate procedure for execution of
Descriptive Statistics, particularly when only continuous or quantitative
variables (not categorical) are concerned. Whenever the entire data to be
analysed were collected at higher levels of measurement (interval and or
ratio scales), descriptive statistical analysis could best be done with the
Descriptives method. This can be done simultaneously for two, three or
more variables with the greatest ease and efficiently compare the variables
in terms of their descriptive statistics values for the same group of
respondents.

155
 A peculiar statistical function that the Descriptives method is uniquely
capable of, and which give the method a relative advantage over other
Descriptive Statistics procedures is the capacity to swiftly transform raw
scores to standard scores. With Descriptives method, to transform raw
scores observed into standardized scores, simply check or tick the Save
standardized values as variables checkbox in the process of the analysis.
This special feature is crucially needed in test development, validation and
standardization; and in the analysis of certain intelligence, achievement and
personality or affective tests. Transformation of raw scores to
standardized scores is indispensable for largescale testing. Detailed
attention is accorded it in Factor Analysis, Higher-Order Factor Analysis
and Multivariate Analysis that constitute a distinct book in the IBM SPSS
Statistics Excellent Guide series. Needless for much talk, execution of the
analysis is what matters most. So, get started.
Switch on the computer

Launch IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data since the entry has already been done (but to have
better mastery of data entry, enter the data in Table 2.1, name and
label the variables, and save the file as earlier done in this chapter)

Analyze, using Descriptives Method.

If you did not enter the data again, activate the Chapter 2 Table 1
Data.sav by selecting File Open Data Chapter 2
Table 1 Data.sav Open or Enter. That is, click File, move cursor to
select Open, trace the cursor rightwards to Data and click, look for and
click the file that is named Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav, and click Open or
press Enter.
Next, click Analyze, select Descriptive Statistics, and click
Descriptives as illustrated in Figure 2.32. On clicking Descriptives, the
Descriptives main dialog box instantly appears as depicted in Figure 2.33.

156
 Figure 2.32 Analyze Descriptive Statistics Descriptives

Figure 2.33 Descriptives main dialog box

In the Descriptives menu box, click and highlight Attitude towards

exclusive breastfeeding in the left box. Then, click the right-pointed arrow
that is facing Variable(s) panel at the right to move the dependent

157
variable from the left box into the Variable(s) panel at the right as
displayed in Figure 2.34.

Figure 2.34 Descriptives menu box with dependent variable moved

In the Descriptives menu box, tick Save standardized values as

variables. This checkmark guarantees automatic execution of the
transformation of the raw scores into z standard scores. The z is a standard
score with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. If it were to be done
manually, the z Score is calculated for each of the raw scores in a
distribution of scores by subtracting the mean of all the scores in the
distribution from every of the raw scores and dividing each resultant
difference by the standard deviation of the entire scores in the distribution.
Scores got by a group of subjects, participants or respondents in two or
more variables can best be compared only after the scores on each variable
must have been transformed into standard scores such as the z Score or T
Score. T Score is arrived at as each z Score multiplied by 10 plus 50. The
standardization equates all the variables by making them to be of the same
mean and standard deviation. No cause for alarm at all about transformation
of raw scores into z Score because a single click on the Save standardized
values as variables in the main Descriptives dialog box automatically
executes the entire transformation, irrespective of how large the sample size
is and how many the variables may be.

158
 Next, click the Options pushbutton to have its menu box in which you
ensure that the tiny box beside each of Mean, Sum, St. deviation, Minimum,
Maximum, Variance, Range, S.E. mean, Kurtosis and Skewness are ticked
as exemplified in Figure 2.35.

Figure 2.35 Descriptives: Options with checked operations

Then, click Continue to return to the main Descriptives dialog box.

Finally, click OK for SPSS Statistics to instantaneously complete the
whole Descriptives analysis and present the results in the IBM SPSS
Statistics Viewer as displayed as in Output 2.5.

Output 2.5 Chapter 2 Output 5.spv

Descriptives

159
Saved standardized values
Respondents ATEB ZATEB
1 30.00 -1.88613
2 40.00 -1.12598
3 55.00 .01425
4 51.00 -.28981
5 45.00 -.74590
6 58.00 .24230

160
7 60.00 .39433
8 62.00 .54636
9 44.00 -.82192
10 66.00 .85042
11 62.00 .54636
12 26.00 -2.19019
13 38.00 -1.27801
14 40.00 -1.12598
15 50.00 -.36582
16 66.00 .85042
17 72.00 1.30651
18 35.00 -1.50605
19 70.00 1.15448
20 68.00 1.00245
21 40.00 -1.12598
22 50.00 -.36582
23 68.00 1.00245
24 49.00 -.44184
25 73.00 1.38253
26 67.00 .92644
27 57.00 .16628
28 74.00 1.45854
29 60.00 .39433
30 65.00 .77441
31 53.00 -.13778
32 60.00 .39433

161
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 2.5
It can be seen from the first part of Output 2.5 (Descriptives) that the 32
respondents’ attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding has a Range Statistic
of 48.00, Minimum Statistic of 26.00, Maximum Statistic of 74.00, Sum
Statistic of 1754.00, Mean Statistic of 54.8125, Mean Standard error of
2.32554, Standard Deviation Statistic of 13.15525, Variance Statistic of
173.060, Skewness Statistic of -.469, Skewness Standard error of .414;
-.713 Kurtosis Statistic and .809 Kurtosis Standard error. These computed
values are the same as the ones got when the data were analysed with the
two Explore methods and two Means methods.
The second part of the Output, called Saved standardized values, that
is critically important, and is completely unique to the Descriptives method;
has shown z Score for each of the 32 men’s attitude towards exclusive
breastfeeding (ZATEB). For instance, while the first man with a raw score
of 30 has a z Score of -1.88613, the second who scored 40 has a z Score of
-1.12598, the third with a raw score of 55 has a z Score of .01425, the
seventeenth respondent with a raw score of 72 has a z Score of 1.30651, the
thirtieth participant with a raw score of 65 has a z Score of .77441, and so
on. This type of descriptive information is only possible with the
Descriptives technique for establishing descriptive statistics. Note that z
Score is a standardized score with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of
1. Also, that the z Scores are not produced directly in the IBM SPSS
Statistics Viewer window, though it is part of the output, but in the IBM
SPSS Statistics Data Editor as an additional column.

DESCRIPTIVES SPSS SYNTAX FOR

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptives SPSS Syntax technique for performing Descriptive Statistics
simply demands careful typing of the IBM SPSS Statistical Commands
(Syntax) into the Syntax Editor to run the analysis. The needful SPSS
Syntax for execution of Descriptive Statistics via the Descriptives method
is presented in Syntax 2.3.

162
Syntax 2.3 Chapter 2 Syntax 3.sps

Ensure that the data file, Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav, is currently open
on your computer screen. If it is not yet open, select File Open
Data Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav Open or Enter.
That is, click File, move cursor to Open, trace the cursor rightwards to
Data and click, look for and click the file which is named Chapter 2 Table
1 Data.sav, and click Open or press Enter. Now, follow these five simple
steps.
i. Select Window.
ii. Select Go to Designated Syntax Window.
iii. Enter the Syntax 2.3.
iv. Select Run.
v. Select All.
That is, select Window and in its dropdown menu, click Go to
Designated Syntax Window to have the Syntax Editor where you
carefully type in the Syntax 2.3. When done, the IBM SPSS Syntax Editor
will be like Figure 2.36.

Figure 2.36 Syntax Editor with the Syntax rightly entered

163
 Finally, click Run All for the results to instantly be displayed in
the IBM SPSS Statistic Viewer as in Output 2.6.

Output 2.6 Chapter 2 Output 6.spv

Saved standardized values

Respondents ATEB ZATEB
1 30.00 -1.88613
2 40.00 -1.12598
3 55.00 .01425
4 51.00 -.28981
5 45.00 -.74590
6 58.00 .24230

164
7 60.00 .39433
8 62.00 .54636
9 44.00 -.82192
10 66.00 .85042
11 62.00 .54636
12 26.00 -2.19019
13 38.00 -1.27801
14 40.00 -1.12598
15 50.00 -.36582
16 66.00 .85042
17 72.00 1.30651
18 35.00 -1.50605
19 70.00 1.15448
20 68.00 1.00245
21 40.00 -1.12598
22 50.00 -.36582
23 68.00 1.00245
24 49.00 -.44184
25 73.00 1.38253
26 67.00 .92644
27 57.00 .16628
28 74.00 1.45854
29 60.00 .39433
30 65.00 .77441
31 53.00 -.13778
32 60.00 .39433

165
 The results of the analysis, using IBM SPSS Syntax Descriptives
method for the Descriptive Statistics execution, are exactly like the ones
that were arrived at via the SPSS dialog boxes point and click method that
have been presented earlier in Output 2.5.
Follow the remaining SPSS Statistics data analysis protocols of
View output

Save the output (Chapter 2 Output 6.spv) and Syntax (Chapter 2

Syntax 3.sps)

Print output

Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system

If there is any unit of these protocols that you are yet to master, please
refer to previous sections and practice till it becomes part of the information
well saved in your long-term memory. After mastering the statistical
operations at each of the ten steps, very quickly apply them to the two
Frequencies techniques for establishment of Descriptive Statistics.

FREQUENCIES DIALOG BOXES SELECTION FOR

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Use of Frequencies is another wonderful procedure for execution of
Descriptive Statistics. The Frequencies approach operates at two levels.
At the first level, Frequencies technique provides frequency counts for
each category of independent variables that are categorical in nature, and
for all the categories taken together as a group. For categorical variables,

166
data must have been collected at nominal and or ordinal scale of
measurement that can only accept frequency of cases classified into each
category without the possibility of statistical operations that require
addition, subtraction, division and multiplication.
At the second level, Frequencies method provides detailed measures of
central tendency and measures of variability or dispersion for each of the
dependent quantitative or continuous variables. Data at the second level of
Frequencies statistics must have been collected with summative response
at interval and or ratio scales of measurement that can accept all arithmetic
operations of addition, subtraction, division and multiplication as done
when calculating mean and standard deviation for instance. The
Frequencies procedure can also provide graphs like histogram, pie chart
and bar chart for each dependent variable in line with the investigator’s
choice.
The greatest strength of the Frequencies method of Descriptive
Statistics analysis is in allowing for comparison of two or more quantitative
or continuous variables simultaneously. Apart from that, the Frequencies
approach is not suitable for comparing a dependent variable separately in
line with two or more categories of an independent variable. In the working
example for instance, Frequencies cannot provide descriptive statistics
separately for the single and married categories of men, as it can only give
the descriptive statistics for both groups taken together. In fact,
Frequencies technique provides descriptive statistics more like the example
of the quick descriptive statistics that was done in Chapter 1 by merely
clicking the Run descriptive statistics tool in the Toolbar. Recall that
the output of descriptive statistics done in Chapter 1 via clicking the Run
descriptive statistics tool merely provided the descriptive statistical values
for the two groups jointly on the dependent variable. It is that type of output
that the Frequencies method is capable of producing. Enough of the
narrative, commence the analysis itself by adopting the ten steps for
application of IBM SPSS Statistics in data analysis.

Step 1. Switch on the computer.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics.

167
Step 3. Enter the data in Table 2.1, name and label the variables. The said
data have been entered and saved earlier as Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav.
So, you may very quickly retrieve it by moving the cursor to the Menu Bar
in the Data Editor and selecting File Open Data
Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav Open or Enter as depicted in Figure
2.37 and Figure 2.38.

Figure 2.37 File Open Data

168
 Figure 2.38 Open Data Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav dialog box

In the Open Data dialog box, select the file name, Chapter 2 Table 1
Data.sav Open or Enter. That is, select the file name and click
Open or press Enter to have the said file opened on the screen.
Alternatively, instead of selecting File Open Data
Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav Open or Enter as shown in Figures
2.37 and 2.38 in order to open the needed data file, from the IBM SPSS
Statistics Data Editor very quickly click Chapter 2 Table 1
Data.sav Open or Enter to have the file opened. This means that in
the Data Editor, click the Open data document icon in the Toolbar,
then click the file name in the Open Data dialog box that appeared as in
Figure 2.38 and click Open in it or press Enter on the Keyboard for the
needed file to be opened. In other words, while in Data Editor, merely
clicking automatically opens the dialog box in Figure 2.38 where you

169
select and open the particular data document that you want (in this case,
Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav) as in Figure 2.8.

Step 4. Save the data if you entered the data afresh. But if you retrieved the
dataset, this Data file has since been saved, so go on to the next step where
the specific statistical operations for the Frequencies analysis will be
performed.

Step 5. Analyze Descriptive Statistics Frequencies as shown

in Figure 2.39.

Figure 2.39 Analyze Descriptive Statistics Frequencies

Once Frequencies is clicked, the Frequencies main dialog box surfaces

as provided in Figure 2.40. It is in this dialog box that the needful statistical
operations will be done.

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 Figure 2.40 Frequencies dialog box

This dialog box (Figure 2.40) is used to perform the statistical operations
required for execution of the first level of Frequencies descriptive
statistics that provides frequency counts for the different categories of each
of the independent variables that are categorical in nature. To get this done,
highlight the independent variable (Marital status in this case) that is in the
box at the left and move it to the box under Variable(s) that is at the right
by clicking the right-pointed arrow that is directly facing the
Variable(s) panel at the right. Once done, the Marital status vanishes from
the left box and appears in the Variable(s) box at the right as shown in
Figure 2.41.

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 Figure 2.41 Frequencies dialog box with the Marital status moved

Click OK to see the output of the first level of Frequencies descriptive

statistics; or preferably, click Paste instead of the OK, and proceed to
perform the requisite statistical operations for the second level of SPSS
Frequencies descriptive statistics. The said output shall be presented
together with the results of the second level when the entire analysis is
completed as Output 2.7. This output is automatically reserved internally
till after completion of the second level of the Frequencies analysis. This is
the special function that clicking Paste performs. If you have clicked OK
and is viewing the Output of the frequency counts for the two categories of
Marital status (single and married), you notice that it is very brief as the
entire Frequencies analysis has not been done. There is no information yet
on the dependent variable (attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding). On
completion of the entire Frequencies analysis (i.e., after performing the
second level of the analysis) the complete Output, both for the first level
and the second level will be displayed robustly and eventually saved as a
single Output document.
Retrieve the Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav by moving the cursor to the
Menu Bar and selecting File Open Data Chapter 2
Table 1 Data.sav Open or Enter as shown in Figure 2.42.

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 Figure 2.42 Open Data menu box

Once the Data file name (Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav) is selected or

highlighted and you click Open or press Enter, the data file document gets
activated as presented much earlier in Figure 2.8.
Move cursor to select Analyze Descriptive Statistics
Frequencies, illustrated in Figure 2.43.

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 Figure 2.43 Analyze Descriptive Statistics Frequencies

Once you click Frequencies, its menu box will appear as in Figure 2.44.

Figure 2.44 Frequencies menu box that needs Reset

Move cursor to, and click Reset to terminate previous statistical analysis
operations done. The termination does not affect the already pasted results.
By clicking Reset, you must have observed that the independent variable
(Marital status) automatically disappeared from the Variable(s) box at the
right box and appeared in the left box as in Figure 2.45.

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 Figure 2.45 Frequencies menu box after clicking Reset

Transfer the dependent variable, Attitude towards exclusive

breastfeeding, in the left box to the panel at the right directly under
Variable(s). To do this movement, click on Attitude towards exclusive
breastfeeding to highlight it and click the right-pointed arrow that is
facing the Variable(s) field at the right, and the effect will be as can be seen
in Figure 2.46.

Figure 2.46 Frequencies menu box with dependent variable transferred

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 Click Statistics pushbutton to have the Frequencies: Statistics dialog
box in which the various statistical operations like measures of Central
Tendency, measures of Dispersion (variability), Percentile Values and
Distributions other than normal distribution are listed as depicted in
Figure 2.47.

Figure 2.47 Frequencies: Statistics dialog box

Move cursor to and check the checkbox that is beside each

descriptive statistical operation that you want for the data on the dependent
variable. For this example, check Mean, Median, Mode and Sum that are
inside Central Tendency box. Also check the checkboxes beside Std.
deviation, Variance, Range, Minimum, Maximum and S.E. mean that are
within Dispersion panel. Equally check Skewness and Kurtosis that are
inside Characterize Posterior Dis… box. In the Percentile Values box,
tick only Quartiles. You do not necessarily need to check all these
Frequencies descriptive statistical operations in analysing data for your
research, just a few like the Mean, Standard Deviation, S.E. Mean,
Minimum, and Maximum may do. When these statistical operations are

176
checked, the Frequencies Statistics dialog box will look like what is shown
in Figure 2.48.

Figure 2.48 Frequencies Statistics after checking required checkboxes

Now, move cursor to and click Continue, and it will take you back to
the main Frequencies menu box (see Figure 2.49). Note that at this time,
the entire Frequencies statistical operations you want to do for the
dependent variable (Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding) are very
ready to be displayed apart from graphic presentation.

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 Figure 2.49 Frequencies menu box to opt for Charts

In order to have either a Bar chart, Pie chart or Histogram for each
dependent variable as part of the results, click Charts pushbutton for its
dialog box to appear as shown in Figure 2.50.

Figure 2.50 Frequencies: Charts

In the Frequencies: Charts dialog box, click Histogram and the circle
beside it gets shaded. Because it is good to have a rough idea of how much
the Histogram emanating from the dependent variable approximates a
normal curve, also tick the checkbox beside Show normal curve on

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histogram as indicated in Figure 2.51. Next, click Continue to get back to
the Frequencies main menu when all the analysis needed have been done.

Figure 2.51 Frequencies: Chart with Histogram checked

Finally, a click on Ok will display the entire Frequencies Descriptive

Statistics results. Excitingly click the OK to have the keenly awaited
results instantly in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as displayed in Output
2.7.

Output 2.7 Chapter 2 Output 7.spv

179
 Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding
Cumula
Frequency Percent Valid Percent tive %
Valid 26 1 3.1 3.1 3.1

180
30 1 3.1 3.1 6.3
35 1 3.1 3.1 9.4
38 1 3.1 3.1 12.5
40 3 9.4 9.4 21.9
44 1 3.1 3.1 25.0
45 1 3.1 3.1 28.1
49 1 3.1 3.1 31.3
50 2 6.3 6.3 37.5
51 1 3.1 3.1 40.6
53 1 3.1 3.1 43.8
55 1 3.1 3.1 46.9
57 1 3.1 3.1 50.0
58 1 3.1 3.1 53.1
60 3 9.4 9.4 62.5
62 2 6.3 6.3 68.8
65 1 3.1 3.1 71.9
66 2 6.3 6.3 78.1
67 1 3.1 3.1 81.3
68 2 6.3 6.3 87.5
70 1 3.1 3.1 90.6
72 1 3.1 3.1 93.8
73 1 3.1 3.1 96.9
74 1 3.1 3.1 100.0
Total 32 100.0 100.0

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INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 2.7
The Output 2.7 has two parts in accordance with the two levels of
Frequencies Descriptive Statistics. At the first level, the results have
shown Frequencies Statistics for the independent variable, marital status,
that has two categories (single and married). The Statistics section here
indicates 32 valid cases and that no single case is missing. The sub-table
called Marital status gives frequency counts of 16 for married and 16 for
single, with a total of 32 men. While 50% of the cases are single, the other
50% of cases are married. The total is 100%. Similarly, the valid percent is
50 for each of the two categories, giving a total of 100% valid cases of the
respondents.
The second part of the Output 2.7 that is called Frequencies Statistics
of the dependent variable, Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding, has
32 valid scores (none missing), 54.8125 Mean, 2.32554 Standard Error of
Mean, 57.5000 Median, 40.00 Mode, 13.15525 Standard Deviation,
173.060 Variance, -.469 Skewness, .414 Standard error of Skewness, -.713

182
Kurtosis, .809 Standard Error of Kurtosis, 48.00 Range, 26.00 Minimum
score, 74.00 Maximum score, 1754.00 Sum, 44.2500 for 25 Percentiles,
57.500 for 50 percentiles and 66.0000 for 75 percentiles.
The second table titled Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding has
listed the different scores on the dependent variable and provided for each
score the frequency of occurrence, percentage of occurrence, indicating
both the valid percentage and the cumulative percentage. For instance, the
score 74 occurred once, which is 3.1 percent and 3.1 valid percent of total
scores, and it has a cumulative percent of 100.
Lastly, the attitude of the 32 men towards exclusive breastfeeding is
plotted with a histogram graphically. To provide an idea of how the men’s
attitude approximates normal distribution, a normal curve is superimposed
on the histogram bars. The scores do not depart too much from the normal
curve.
Haven completed the analysis as demanded by Analyze (the Step 5) of
application of IBM SPSS Statistics in execution of data analysis, the
remaining protocols to adhere are shown from Step 6 to Step 10:
View output

Save the output as Chapter 2 Output 7.spv

Print the output

Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system

Step 6. Scroll up and down, and possibly left and right to view the entire
output on the screen of your system with the aid of the up-pointed, down-
pointed, left-pointed and right-pointed arrows. These arrows are located at
the right edge and bottom edge of the screen.

183
Step 7. Save the Output by clicking the Save this document icon in
the Toolbar to have its dialog box. Type the most suitable name for the
output, Chapter 2 Output 7.spv in this case, in the box beside File name
and press the Enter key on the Keyboard or click Save in the Save Output
As dialog box (see Figure 2.52).

Figure 2.52 Chapter 2 Output 7.spv

Step 8. Print the output and the input. When the output is actively in view,

click the Print icon in the Toolbar to have its dialog box, shown in
Figure 2.53 and click OK for the output to be printed. For printing of the
data, activate the SPSS Date Editor by retrieving the data much earlier

saved as Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav. Click the Print icon while

viewing the data and click OK in the Print data dialog box.

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 Figure 2.53 Print output dialog box

Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing all SPSS files that are open on
the computer screen. When you select Close for the last Data Editor file,
SPSS will prompt you that closing it will exit IBM SPSS Statistics, and
ask you to confirm if really you want to exit SPSS as given in Figure 2.54.
Click Yes.

Figure 2.54 Exiting IBM SPSS Statistics prompt

Step 10. Shut down your computer by selecting Start Power

Shut down.

FREQUENCIES SPSS SYNTAX FOR DESCRIPYIVE

STATISTICS

185
 Switch on the computer

Start IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data since the entry has already been done and saved as
Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav

Analyze using the Frequencies SPSS Syntax Method.

Now that you have activated the SPSS Data Editor containing the data
file called Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav, the analysis proper is what has to
be done. If you have not been able to retrieve the dataset file, move cursor
to the Menu Bar and select File Open Data, and from the
Open Data dialog box (see Figure 2.55), click the file name, Chapter 2
Table 1 Data.sav and click Open in the dialog box or press Enter on the
Keyboard to have the data file on your screen.
Alternatively, while in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor, merely
clicking Open data document icon in the Toolbar automatically
produces the Open Data menu box in Figure 2.55 where you select and
open the particular data document that you want, Chapter 2 Table 1
Data.sav, in this case.

186
 Figure 2.55 Open Data menu box

The Frequencies SPSS Syntax technique for execution of Descriptive

Statistics simply requires careful entering of the Syntax 2.4 IBM SPSS
Statistical Syntax or Commands into the Syntax Editor to run the
analysis.

Syntax 2.4 Chapter 2 Syntax 4.sps

187
 With the data file open as in Figure 2.8, to activate the IBM SPSS
Statistics Syntax Editor while in the SPSS Data Editor that contains the
dataset, click Window Go to Designated Syntax Window and click
as illustrated in Figure 2.56.

Figure 2.56 Window Go to Designated Window

The click on Go to Designated Syntax Window opens the IBM SPSS

Statistics Syntax Editor where you carefully enter the Syntax 2.4. When
done, the Syntax Editor will be as in Figure 2.57.

188
 Figure 2.57 Syntax window with Frequencies Syntax rightly entered

Finally, click Run All to have SPSS produce the results in the
SPSS Viewer instantly as displayed on your screen and demonstrated in
Output 2.8.

Output 2.8 Chapter 2 Output 8.spv

189
 Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid 26 1 3.1 3.1 3.1
30 1 3.1 3.1 6.3

190
35 1 3.1 3.1 9.4
38 1 3.1 3.1 12.5
40 3 9.4 9.4 21.9
44 1 3.1 3.1 25.0
45 1 3.1 3.1 28.1
49 1 3.1 3.1 31.3
50 2 6.3 6.3 37.5
51 1 3.1 3.1 40.6
53 1 3.1 3.1 43.8
55 1 3.1 3.1 46.9
57 1 3.1 3.1 50.0
58 1 3.1 3.1 53.1
60 3 9.4 9.4 62.5
62 2 6.3 6.3 68.8
65 1 3.1 3.1 71.9
66 2 6.3 6.3 78.1
67 1 3.1 3.1 81.3
68 2 6.3 6.3 87.5
70 1 3.1 3.1 90.6
72 1 3.1 3.1 93.8
73 1 3.1 3.1 96.9
74 1 3.1 3.1 100.0
Total 32 100.0 100.0

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 It can be discerned that the Output 2.8 for when the descriptive statistics
was done with Frequencies SPSS Syntax method is exactly the same with
Output 2.7 when the Frequencies SPSS dialog boxes point and click
technique was used for execution of the descriptive statistics. With the two
outputs being equivalent, the same explanation of the Output 2.7 earlier
given, applies here too for Output 2.8.
Follow the remaining basic protocols for data analysis with IBM SPSS
Statistics to eventually shut down your system.
View output

Save the output as Chapter 2 Output 8.spv, and the Syntax as Chapter
2 Syntax 4.sps

Print output

192
 Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system

Whenever you have a set of data henceforth, irrespective how large and
complex the dataset may seem, adopt the most appropriate approach for the
dataset to swiftly perform Descriptive Statistics for the data. Surely, you are
set to accurately and effortlessly execute Descriptive Statistics for any given
dataset. Congratulations.

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 Chapter 3
INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t TEST

Overview
The most appropriate inferential statistical technique for comparison of two
groups with respect to a specific dependent variable is the Independent-
Samples t Test. The assumptions that underlie comparison of means are
elucidated. How to personally utilize SPSS Statistics in the analysis of data
collected independently from two groups for accurate comparison of the
populations that the groups represent is presented in this chapter for every
user to effortlessly master. Dialog boxes selection and syntax methods are
excellently illustrated with screenshots. Gender difference in basic science
concepts, and attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding by marital status are
used for demonstration.

Keywords: t Test, Independent-samples t Test, Interpretation of

output, Effect size, Cohen’s d; Independent-samples t Test syntax,
Interpretation of output; Homoscedasticity; normal distribution;
Independence of observations; Assumptions.

Whenever two means are to be compared, t Test is the most appropriate

inferential statistical technique that is very commonly used. There are three
types of t Test:
Independent-Samples t Test
One-Sample t Test
Paired-Samples t Test.
Independent-Samples t Test execution, using IBM SPSS Statistics
dialog boxes point and click method and IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax
technique, is treated in this chapter. Chapters 4 and 5 will examine One-
Sample t Test and Paired-Samples t Test, respectively. The Independent-
Samples t Test is a very important inferential parametric statistics that is

194
adopted for determination of statistically significant difference between two
independent samples with respect to a particular dependent variable and a
dichotomous categorical or grouping independent variable. One-sample t
Test is applied for comparison of a sample mean with a known or estimated
population mean. Paired-samples t Test is used for comparison of two
different means from correlated, dependent or paired samples. Whenever
two means obtained by the same subjects are to be compared, paired-
samples t Test is utilized for the purpose.

ASSUMPTIONS THAT UNDERLIE COMPARISON

OF MEANS
Any investigation that will compare two means for possible significant
difference, must draw a truly representative sample with accuracy and
precision from each of the populations. For a sample to possess the three
qualities of true representativeness, accuracy and precision, it must be large
enough and preferably drawn via a probability sampling method such as
simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling or cluster
sampling. A large enough sample should at least meet Kpolovie (2018)
“minimum suitable sample size from population” that is presented in
Appendix A of this book. The following assumptions of inferential statistics
must also be met.

Normal distribution of the population

Each of the populations from which a sample is to be randomly drawn for
comparison of means in the investigation demands to be normally
distributed with regards to the dependent variable. This is to guarantee that
a precise, accurate and representative sample randomly taken from each
population is also distributed evenly. This assumption is indispensable
because the t is distributed symmetrically around a mean of zero that
matches the null hypothesis of no significant difference between the two
means. To meet the assumption, the sample from each population must be
fairly large (Ho, 2014) in line with central limit theorem. Normality of the
dependent variable in each sample can easily be assessed by graphical
examination of the distribution and via test of univariate normality.

195
Independence of observations
Application of t Test assumes that the different populations from which
samples are to be drawn are completely independent of each other and that
the samples are randomly drawn from the populations in a completely
independent manner. That is, the random selection of each of the
individuals or elements from population A to constitute sample A is totally
independent of the random selection of each of the subjects from population
B to form sample B. Independence of observations tends to be the most
important of the assumptions that underlie comparison of means statistical
techniques and other inferential statistical approaches because violation of
this assumption is capable of causing serious inferential errors. Indeed, the
best strategy for achieving total independence in research is by explicit
randomization that ensures random drawing of general sample and random
assignment of subjects as well as treatment conditions to the required
groups (Kpolovie, 2018; 2016; 2011; 2010).

Homoscedasticity of variance
Mean comparisons as in t Test always assumes homoscedasticity which is
homogeneity of variance or equality of variance in the different populations
from which random samples are taken for the study. The variance of the
dependent variable should be comparable across levels of the independent
variable. In t Test, homoscedasticity or homogeneity of variance assumption
is addressed by a default in the IBM SPSS Statistics. Apart from that, to
ensure homogeneity of variance, I very strongly recommend that sample
sizes of the various groups should be equal or at least approximately equal.
With equal sample sizes that are each suitably large, homoscedasticity
assumption may be violated without serious risk (Kpolovie, 2018).

INFLUENCE OF GENDER ON K-6 STUDENTS’

BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPT
Suppose that an investigator interested in finding out whether gender
difference exists in primary school students’ Basic Science Concepts
(BSCS), administered a standardized test of 60 items on Basic Science

196
Concepts to 69 randomly sampled K-6 students, and they obtained the
scores listed in Table 3.1. (You may recall that the scores of the first 20
participants here were used for illustration in Table 1.1 of Chapter 1).

Table 3.1 K-6 students’ Basic Science Concept (BSCS) by Gender

Stu. Sex BSCS Stu. Sex BSCS
1 Male 10 36 Male 30
2 Female 20 37 Male 35
3 Female 30 38 Male 44
4 Female 10 39 Male 40
5 Male 40 40 Female 50
6 Male 50 41 Female 40
7 Female 10 42 Female 43
8 Male 40 43 Female 45
9 Male 20 44 Female 40
10 Female 20 45 Female 50
11 Female 30 46 Male 40
12 Female 50 47 Male 25
13 Male 40 48 Female 40
14 Male 30 49 Male 33
15 Male 10 50 Male 40
16 Male 30 51 Female 33
17 Female 50 52 Female 30
18 Female 40 53 Female 35
19 Female 40 54 Male 30
20 Male 20 55 Male 48
21 Female 55 56 Female 49

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 22 Male 45 57 Female 46
23 Female 40 58 Female 42
24 Male 35 59 Male 40
25 Female 50 60 Male 41
26 Male 30 61 Female 43
27 Female 45 62 Male 43
28 Male 30 63 Female 40
29 Female 40 64 Female 39
30 Male 25 65 Female 39
31 Male 50 66 Male 52
32 Male 45 67 Male 39
33 Female 55 68 Male 46
34 Male 55 69 female 56
35 Male 50

Research question, Alternate hypothesis and Null

hypothesis
The investigator posed a research question:
What is K-6 students’ Basic Science Concepts by gender as measured by
their mean and standard deviation?
She also hypothesized in the alternate and null forms (Kpolovie, 2011a)
that:
Alternate Hypothesis: K-6 students differ significantly in their Basic
Science Concepts by gender.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in K-6 students’
Basic Science Concepts by gender.

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EXECUTION OF THE INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t
TEST ON BSCS
Follow the ten steps for performing data analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics.

Step 1. Switch on the computer and let it fully boot.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking its icon . Wait for it to
completely get ready. That is, till when the Welcome to IBM SPSS
Statistics shows as illustrated in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics

Close the superimposed dialog box and be in the IBM SPSS Statistics
Data Editor. It is in this Data Editor that entry of the data is done.

Step 3. Enter the data very carefully in the Data View of the IBM SPSS
Statistics Data Editor. After the data entry, switch to the Variable View by
clicking it. In the Variable View, type in the Name, Label, Values, and
select the Measure for the dependent variable (Basic Science Concepts –
BSCS) and for the independent variable (Gender) as earlier exemplified in
Chapter 1. When you are done, click Data View to return to the Data View
that will be as shown in Figure 3.2.

199
200
Figure 3 Continued

201
 Figure 3.2 Continued

Step 4. Save the data by moving cursor to the Toolbar and clicking Save
this document icon . Alternatively, move cursor to the Menu Bar and
click File for its dropdown dialog box in which you click Save As… for the
Save Data As dialog box to appear. Then, type a suitable file name

202
(Chapter 3 Table 1 Data.sav in this case) in the File name field as shown
in Figure 3.3. After that, click Save or press Enter.

Figure 3.3 Save Data As… dialog box with the file name

Step 5. Analyze the data by clicking Analyze Compare Means

Independent-Samples T Test as illustrated in Figure 3.4.

203
 Figure 3.4 Analyze Compare Means Independent-Samples T Test

On clicking the Independent-Samples T Test, its menu box

immediately appears as shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 Independent-Samples T Test menu box

204
 Move the Basic Science Concepts from the left box into the Test
Variable(s) panel at the right by highlighting it and clicking the right-
pointed arrow that is directly facing the Test Variable(s) panel. Also,
highlight the Gender in the left box and move it to the Grouping Variable
panel at the right by clicking the right-pointed arrow that is directly
facing the Grouping Variable box. With the dependent variable (Basic
Science Concept) and the independent variable (Gender) moved into their
designated panels at the right, the Independent-Samples T Test menu
takes the form that is presented in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Independent-Samples T Test menu with variables moved right

The Independent-Samples T Test menu is now having two question

marks beside Gender in the Grouping Variable panel. This is prompting
you to take the necessary action for specification of the categories of the
Gender. So, click the Grouping Variable box while carefully observing to
notice the next action that the analysis will prompt you to take as portrayed
in Figure 3.7.

205
 Figure 3.7 Independent-Samples T Test menu box requesting you to Define Groups…

Were you able to notice any difference? Yes, certainly. Define Groups
has now been activated fully. Click the Define Groups… to have its dialog
box in which you type 1, the code for Male, in the Group 1 panel; and type
2, the code for Female, in the Group 2 panel as exhibited in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8 Define Groups dialog box with the Groups defined

Next, click Continue to get back to the Independent-Samples T Test

main dialog box as shown by the Figure 3.9 screenshot.

206
 Figure 3.9 Independent-Samples main menu

In case you want to see and perhaps change how IBM SPSS Statistics
intends to treat the percentage of Confidence Interval and Missing Values
in the analysis, click Options pushbutton. SPSS sets 95% Confidence
Interval and Exclude cases analysis by analysis as the default for
performing the analysis. See the screenshot indicating the IBM SPSS
Statistics default for treating Confidence Interval Percentage and Missing
Values in Figure 3.10. Then, click Continue to go back to the
Independent-Samples T Test main menu as presented in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.10 Independent-Samples T Test: Options

In the Independent-Samples T Test main menu, click Bootstrap

pushbutton. This will produce the Bootstrap dialog box (see Figure 3.11)
for performing further statistical operations that will produce additional
Confidence Intervals that are not based on the assumption of normality of

207
the dependent variable’s curve or distribution. In the Bootstrap dialog box,
check Perform bootstrapping checkbox as well as the Bias corrected
accelerated (BCa) checkbox. These Bootstrapping operations are actually
not needed in the execution of the Independent-Samples t Test that is under
consideration in this chapter which has from the onset, met the assumptions
required for comparison of means with parametric statistical tests.
Bootstrap is a nonparametric procedure for arriving at statistical inference
when the data do not meet the assumptions about underlying population
distributions.

Figure 3.11 Bootstrap dialog box

Then click Continue to return to Independent-Samples T Test main

dialog box. At this point, the entire statistical operations necessary for
performing the Independent-Samples t test have been completed. Clicking

208
OK will get IBM SPSS Statistics to instantly generate the output. So,
move the cursor to and click OK for the results to be presented in the IBM
SPSS Statistics Viewer as demonstrated in Output 3.1.

Output 3.1 Chapter 3 Output 1.spv

INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 3.1: GENDER

DIFFERENCE IN BSCS
The first table in the Independent-samples t Test Output 3.1 that is termed
Group Statistics has provided the N (number of cases), Mean, Std.
Deviation, and Std. Error Means for each of the two categories (Male and
Female) of the independent variable, Gender. While the Male is 35 in
number with 36.6000 Mean, 11.10167 Std. Deviation and 1.87652 Std.
Error Mean; the Female, 34 in number, has 39.5588 Mean, 11.50017 Std.
Deviation and 1.97226 Std. Error Mean.
The second part of the Output 3.1, referred to as Independ Samples
Test, has in the first and second columns shown F (.176) and Sig. (.676) for
the Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances. The Levene’s Test with .176 F

209
is not significant as its Sig. of .676 is greater than the chosen alpha of .05.
Therefore, the t Test results in the row of Equal variances assumed are the
ones that are to be correctly reported. If the Levene’s test had been
significant, the results in the row of Equal variances not assumed could
have been reported instead. The computed t is -1.087 with 67 degrees of
freedom, .281 Sig. (2-tailed), -2.95882 Mean Difference, 2.72093
Standard Error Difference plus -8.38983 and 2.47219 respectively for
Lower and Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference. The
calculated t of -1.087 with -2.95882 mean difference is not significant
because the probability (Sig.) of obtaining this result is .281 that is greater
than the chosen alpha of .05. Therefore, the null hypothesis postulated
much earlier that “There is no significant difference in K-6 students’ Basic
Science Concepts by gender” is retained; t(67) = -1.087, p > .05, 2-tailed.
Females (mean = 39.5588 and standard deviation = 11.50017) do not
perform significantly better than males (mean = 36.6000 and standard
deviation = 11.10167) in Basic Science Concepts.
The Mean Difference of -2.95882 between male and female students’
Basic Science Concepts is rather a function of chance because it is not
statistically significant at the chosen alpha of .05 or at the 95% certainty. In
research, a difference is indeed a difference only when it is statistically
significant, when replication of the work 100 times with other samples
randomly drawn from the same population will not produce different results
more than 5 times (Kpolovie, 2018).
It must finally be emphasized that whenever the Lower and Upper 95%
Confidence Interval of the Difference both fall either above zero or below
zero, the pair of means under comparison statistically differ significantly.
That is, the mean difference between the two means is significant. But in
the analysis that the output is being interpreted here, the Lower and the
Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference do not both fall either
above or below zero (-8.38983 [below zero] and 2.47219 [above zero],
respectively). Therefore, the Mean Difference of -2.95882 is not statistically
significant and its effect size is bound to be “trivial” or at best, “small” as
will soon be demonstrated. In other words, whenever the Lower 95%
Confidence Interval of the Difference falls below zero and the Upper 95%
Confidence Interval of the Difference falls above zero, the pair of means
under comparison do not significantly vary. The mean difference in the
scenario that zero lies between the Lower and Upper 95% Confidence

210
Interval of the Difference is not significant and is totally a mere function of
chance.

EFFECT SIZE: COHEN’S d FOR t TEST

Effect Size (ES), symbolized with d in t Test deals with provision of
incontestable answers to questions such as:
i. Is the observed significant difference large enough to constitute a
substantial effect of the independent variable on the dependent
variable?
ii. Could the difference between the two means constitute a practical
incontrovertible overwhelming preponderant evidence?
iii. Is the mean difference truly large enough to be unmistakably reported
as innovative scientific knowledge?
iv. Just how best should the observed difference be accurately
interpreted practically?
v. Is the mean difference powerful enough to meet stringent Meta-
analysis replicability requirement?

Effect Size for t Test, be it independent-samples t Test, paired-samples t

Test or single-sample t Test, is established with Cohen’s d statistic. The
Cohen’s d is computed in a unique way for each of the three types of t Test.
That is, the statistical equation of Cohen’s d, hereafter referred simply to as
d, for independent-samples t Test varies from the statistical equation of d
for paired-samples t Test, which is in turn different from the statistical
equation of d for single-sample t-test. The different equations are examined
in the appropriate chapters.
In common however, the d is a ratio of the numerator which is the
difference between the two means under consideration (either M1 – M2 or
M2 – M1) and the denominator, Spooled, which is the pooled estimate of the
standard deviation that could otherwise be described as the pooled within-
groups SD.
In terms of the classification of the magnitude of any computed d as an
Effect Size, Cohen (1988) has recommended an equivalence of the
information in Table 3.2.

211
 Table 3.2 Recommendations for classification of d as effect size
d AS THE EFFECT DESCRIPTIVE CLASSIFI-
SIZE IN t Test CATION OF THE d
0.000 to 0.199 Trivial effect size
0.200 to 0.499 Small effect size
0.500 to 0.799 Medium effect size
0.800 and above Large effect size

The Cohen’s recommendations of the classification and interpretation of

Effect Size, measured with d, is so central to comparison of two means or
comparison of several means in case of Meta-Analysis that reference will
from time to time be made to it whenever t Test is adopted for data analysis.
The variants of d statistical equations that suit the independent-samples t
Test are presented next.

EFFECT SIZE, d FOR INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t

TEST
Effect Size, d, for the Independent-Samples t Test on the K-6 students’
Basic Science Concepts by Gender is examined in this section. Cohen’s d
for the Independent-Samples t Test is computed as the difference between
the two means divided by the pooled standard deviations of the two groups.
In equation form, Effect Size (ES) that is calculated with Cohen’s d can be
given as:

Where M1 is the mean for the first group, M2 is the mean for the second
group, and Spooled is the pooled standard deviations of the two groups. The
numerator can either be M1 – M2 or M2 – M1 consistently. Just be sure to
correctly report the side (group) that the mean difference, if any, favours. If
the population standard deviation is known, the Cohen’s Effect Size statistic
(d) is simply got by dividing the mean difference between the two groups

212
by the population standard deviation (M1—M2/σ directly instead of
estimating the population standard deviation with the Spooled. Since in most
research settings, the population parameters are not known, the Spooled must
be used to estimate the population standard deviation. The Spooled is the best
estimate of the population standard deviation with respect to the construct
under investigation. The Spooled is computed as:

Substituting the Spooled formula in the d equation, the d can therefore be

calculated as:

When the means (M1 = 36.6000 and M2 = 39.5588) and standard

deviations (S1 = 11.10167 and S2 = 11.50017) of the students’ Basic
Science Concepts in the first part (Group Statistics) of the Output 3.1 are
subjected to the Equation 3:3, the computed d is -.262 that depicts “small
effect size” in accordance with the recommendations that I have presented
in Table 3.2. Illustratively:

213
 This computed d (-.262) is rightly interpreted as “small effect size” of
the independent variable on the dependent variable. That is, students’
Gender accounts for only small percent of the variance in the students’
Basic Science Concepts in favour of the female students. Recall that the
computed t value of -1.087 has since been found to be insignificant.
The entire results can therefore be summarized as thus. The basic
science concepts scores of male students (M = 36.6000; SD = 11.10167)
do not significantly differ from the basic science concepts scores of the
female students (M = 39.5588; SD = 11.50017): t(67) = -1.087; p > .05
(two-tailed); d = -.262 (a small effect size). Therefore, there is no

214
significant difference in K-6 students’ basic science concepts with regard to
gender.
In a scenario with equal sample size for the two groups, the d can also be
computed simply with Equation 3:4, which states that the Cohen’s d as a
measure of Effect Size for Independent-Samples t Test is the mean
difference between the two groups divided by the average of the square root
of the variances of both groups. That is:

Where M1 and M2 are the means for the first group and the second
group, respectively; S12 and S22 are the variances (square of the standard
deviations) for the two respective groups. Assuming that the two groups
(male and female students) in the current example are equal in size, the d
can merely be computed as:

215
 The d got here with Equation 3:4 is the same as the d got with Equation
3:3 because the two groups are almost exactly equal in size (35 and 34).
This is in line with my recommendation under homoscedasticity assumption
that ‘to ensure homogeneity of variance, I very strongly recommend that
sample sizes of the various groups should be equal or at least approximately
equal. With equal sample sizes that are each suitably large,
homoscedasticity assumption may be violated without serious risk.’
Apart from Equation 3:3 and Equation 3:4, irrespectively of whether the
two groups are equal in sample size or not, Cohen’s d as a measure of Effect
Size for Independent-Samples t Test can be computed directly with the
calculated Independent-Samples t Test value, using Equation 3:5. With
Equation 3:5, the Effect Size for Independent-samples t Test is:

Where N1 is the sample size of the group 1; N2 is the sample size of the
group 2; and t is the computed Independent-Samples t Test. In the current
example that the N1 is 35; N2 is 34; and t is -1.087, the d can be got as:

The d of -.262 has already been interpreted as a “small effect size” of the
grouping variable on the dependent variable. It must be noted that the minus
sign (“-“) in the d does not denote negativity or “less than 0” literally. It
rather reflects the side or group that the mean difference favours. The M1
(36.6000) for male students is smaller than the M2 (39.5588) for the female

216
students. If in computing the d, the male’s mean (M1) is subtracted from the
mean of the female students (M2), the result will simply be .262, still
denoting that the Basic Science Concepts mean of the female students is a
little higher than that of their male counterparts. Thus, the computed -.262 d
does not mean less than zero. Be again reminded that the mean difference,
as revealed by the t, is not significant statistically and so, denotes chance
occurrence. Haven completed interpretation of the Output 3.1, follow the
remaining five steps in data analysis with SPSS Statistics to shut down the
computer.

Step 6. View the output by scrolling up, down, right and left to see every bit
of it.

Step 7. Save the Output as Chapter 3 Output 1.spv by clicking File

Save As… and entering the file name as exemplified in Figure 3.12. Then,
click Save or press the Enter key on the Keyboard.

Figure 3.12 Save Output As dialog box

217
Step 8. Print the Output by merely clicking the Print icon in the
Toolbar. If not so, click File and from the File dropdown dialog box, click
Print while in the Viewer window with the Output 3.1 showing on the
screen to have the Print Output menu as given in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13 Print Output menu

Ensure that All visible output checker is checked, and click OK

where you want one copy of all the visible output to be printed. Where you
need more than one copy printed, increase the Number of copies
accordingly in the panel provided for that purpose in the Print
Output menu before clicking the OK.

Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing all the SPSS files that are open.
When on clicking the last Data Editor to close it, IBM SPSS Statistics
prompts you to confirm that indeed you want to exit SPSS, proceed and
confirm it by clicking Yes.

Step 10. Shut down the computer. Simply select Start Power
Shut down.

218
SPSS SYNTAX FOR INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t
TEST ON STUDENTS’ BSCS
The IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax with which to perform the Independent-
Samples t Test on the K-6 students’ Basic Science Concepts by Gender is
as shown in Syntax 3.1.

Syntax 3.1 Chapter 3 Syntax 1.sps

T-TEST GROUPS=Gender(1 2)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=BSCS
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).

Step 1. Switch on the computer.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics.

Steps 3 and 4. Retrieve the data since the data are already entered, named,
and saved. In the Data Editor, move cursor to the Toolbar and click Open
data document tool or icon to have the Open Data dialog box (see
Figure 3.15). Alternatively, move cursor to the Manu Bar and click File
Open Data (see Figure 3.14) to have the Open Data dialog
box shown in Figure 3.15.

219
 Figure 3.14 File Open Data

Figure 3.15 Open Data dialog box

Look for the name (Chapter 3 Table 1 Data.sav) with which the data
file was saved, click it to highlight it and click Open or press Enter on the

220
Keyboard. With this, the Chapter 3 Table 1 Data.sav opens as presented in
Figure 3.2.

Step 5. Analyze the data with the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax method by:
Activate or open the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor. To do
this, move cursor to the Menu Bar and click Window Go to
Designated Syntax Window as shown in Figure 3.16 for the Syntax
Editor to open. Once the Go to Designated Syntax Widow is
clicked, the SPSS Syntax Editor appears on your screen as shown in
Figure 3.17. The IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor can also be
opened by clicking File New Syntax. That is, click File
and in the File dropdown menu, select New; and in the dropdown of
the New, click Syntax.

Figure 3.16 Window Go to Designated Syntax Window

Figure 3.17 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

Very carefully enter the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax given in

Syntax 3.1 into the Syntax Editor. When it is done, the Syntax
Editor will look as presented in Figure 3.18.

221
 Figure 3.18 SPSS Syntax Editor with the Syntax entered

Highlight the entered Syntax and click Run Selection icon in

the Toolbar. Alternatively, do not select (highlight) the entered
Syntax. Just click Run in the Menu Bar and click All in its
dropdown dialog box, illustrated in Figure 3.19. A click on the Run

Selection icon or a click on Run All instantly gets the

entire analysis done and produces the results as exhibited in Output
3.2.

Figure 3.19 Syntax Run dropdown dialog box

Output 3.2 Chapter 3 Output 2.spv

222
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 3.2
It is glaring that the Output 3.1 got through dialog boxes point and click
method and the Output 3.2 arrived at through SPSS Syntax technique for
execution of the Independent-Samples t Test are exactly the same. Go
through the interpretation of Output 3.1 again and very carefully write out
an interpretation of the Output 3.2 accordingly.
Learning to apply SPSS Syntax is, after all, very easy and very fast. It is
like a short cut to execution of statistical analysis with the use of IBM SPSS
Statistics. The use of SPSS Statistics Syntax is, therefore, very much worth
mastering. Do not miss it.

Step 6. Scroll with the aid of the right-pointed, left-pointed, up-pointed and
down-pointed arrows at the right edge and bottom edge of the computer
screen to view the output.

Step 7. Save the output as Chapter 3 Output 2.spv and the Syntax as
Chapter 3 Syntax 1.sps. In the Viewer window, move cursor to the

223
Toolbar and click Save this document icon and in the box beside File
name, type in the name Chapter 3 Output 2.spv and click Save or press
Enter (see Figure 3.20).

Figure 3.20 Save Output As… Chapter 3 Output 2.spv

In like manner, be in the Syntax Editor with the entered Syntax and

click Save this document icon in the Toolbar and type in the File
name as Chapter 3 Syntax 1.sps and click Save or press Enter to get the
Syntax saved.

Step 8. Print the output and the Syntax files just the way such files should
be printed as discussed earlier.

Step 9. Close all opened SPSS files and Exit IBM SPSS Statistics.

Step 10. Click Start Power Shut down to shut the system
down.

224
DIALOG BOXES SELECTION FOR
INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t TEST ON EXCLUSIVE
BREASTFEEDING
Acquisition of expert knowledge of IBM SPSS Statistics in data analysis
that this book guarantees users can most easily be achieved with relentless
practice. The data in Chapter 2 on men’s attitude towards exclusive
breastfeeding with regard to marital status shall very quickly be used here
to further ensure your mastery of Independent-Samples t Test execution
with IBM SPSS Statistics. The investigator must have asked a research
question and postulated both alternate and null hypotheses thus.

Research question
What is the attitude of single and married men towards exclusive
breastfeeding as measured by their mean and standard deviation?

Alternate hypothesis
There is a statistically significant difference in the attitude of single and
married men towards exclusive breastfeeding.

Null hypothesis
Single and married men do not significantly differ in their attitude towards
exclusive breastfeeding.
Let the analysis be done straightaway and very quickly too.
Switch on the computer

Launch IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data (Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav) that have since been
entered and securely saved

225
 Analyze, using Compare Means.
Now that you have activated the SPSS Data Editor containing the data
file called Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav, the analysis proper is what has to
be done. Just in case you are yet to retrieve the file, move cursor to the
Menu Bar and select File Open Data and from the Open
Data dialog box, given in Figure 3.21, click the file name, Chapter 2 Table
1 Data.sav and click Open in the dialog box or press Enter on the
Keyboard to have the data file on your screen.

Figure 3.21 Open Data dialog box

To perform the analysis proper, select Analyze Compare Means

Independent-Samples T Test as demonstrated in Figure 3.22.

226
 Figure 3.22 Analyze Compare Means Independent-Samples T Test

On clicking Independent-Samples T Test, its dialog box pops up, see

Figure 3.23. It is in the Independent-Samples T Test dialog box that the
entire statistical operations required for the analysis will be done.

Figure 3.23 Independent-Samples T Test dialog box

Move the dependent variable (Attitude towards exclusive

breastfeeding) in the left box into the Test Variable(s) panel at the right.
To do this, highlight the Attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding and

227
click the right-pointed arrow directly facing the Test Variable(s) box
at the right. Then, click on the independent variable (Marital status) to
highlight it in the left panel and click the right-pointed arrow directly
facing the box at the right that is called Grouping Variable. This transfers
the Marital status from the left box into the Grouping Variable panel at
the right as displayed in Figure 3.24.

Figure 3.24 Independent-Samples T Test menu with variables moved right

Click Define Groups… to have its dialog box as shown in Figure 3.25
in which you provide or type the numerals with which each level or
category of the Grouping Variable (Marital status in this case) was
coded. Recall that while Single was coded 0, Married was coded 1 when
the data in question were named, labelled and provided values in Chapter 2.

Figure 3.25 Define Groups dialog box

228
 Type 0, the numerical code for Single into the box beside Group 1; and
type 1, the numerical code for Married, in the box beside Group 2 as
shown in Figure 3.26.

Figure 3.26 Define Groups with the groups numerically defined

Click Continue to return back to the main Independent-Samples T

Test dialog box. In the Independent-Samples T Test main menu, you will
have to click Options if and only if you want to change the Confidence
Intervals from 95%, which is the default, to something else (99% for
instance) or change Exclude cases analysis by analysis that is set as
default to Exclude cases listwise to get the Independent-Samples T Test:
Options dialog box shown in Figure 3.27. If you want to effect the change,
type 99 in the box where 95 is and click the circle beside Exclude cases
listwise. But such changes are completely unnecessary except the level of
significance or alpha level chosen from the onset for the investigation is
.01. For the current analysis, the chosen alpha level is .05 and Missing
Values will be treated by Exclude cases analysis by analysis. So, you do
not need to click the Options at all. But where you have already clicked it,
simply click Continue to proceed back to the main menu of Independent-
Samples T Test as in Figure 3.24.

229
 Figure 3.27 Options dialog box

In the Independent-Samples T Test main menu, every necessary

statistical operation has been done and it is just waiting for the output to be
displayed once you click OK. So, click OK to have the results presented in
the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as exhibited in Output 3.3.

Output 3.3 Chapter 3 Output 3.spv

INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 3.3: EXCLUSIVE

BREASTFEEDING ATTITUDE

230
The first part of Output 3.3 that is known as Group Statistics has shown
that the Single (unmarried) men are 16 and they have a Mean of 49.5625,
Standard Deviation of 12.56433 and Standard Error Mean of 3.14108 on
Attitude Towards Exclusive Breastfeeding. Their counterparts, the married
men, are 16 with 60.0625 Mean, 11.87417 Standard Deviation and 2.96854
Standard Error Mean on the dependent variable (Attitude Towards
Exclusive Breastfeeding).
The second part of the Output 3.3, called Independent Samples Test,
has shown the Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances at the left-hand
side and the t Test for Equality of Means at the right-hand side. The
Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances has F of .165 and Sig. of .688,
meaning that the variances for the single and married men do not differ
significantly (F = .165, Sig. = .688, p < .05). Therefore, the t Test results to
be used are those for Equal variances assumed. For the Equal variances
assumed, the men’s attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding has a
computed t-value of -2.429, Degrees of Freedom of 30, Sig. (2-tailed) of
.021, Mean Difference of -10.50000, Standard Error of the Difference of
4.32188; and the Lower and Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference are -19.32646 and -1.67354, respectively.
Always note in accordance with Kpolovie (2018; 2011) that whenever
the statistical test for rejection or non-rejection of a null hypothesis is done
with the use of IBM SPSS Statistics, tenability of the null hypothesis is
determined by comparing the probability (p) value or significance level
(Sig.) in the output directly with the chosen alpha in the investigation. If the
p value is equal to or less than the chosen alpha, reject the null hypothesis.
Conversely, if the p value is greater than the chosen alpha, retain or do not
reject the null hypothesis. There is absolutely no reason to compare the
calculated statistical ratio arrived at via IBM SPSS Statistics with the
critical value of the statistical test as done when manual calculation is used
to test tenability of the null hypothesis.
Therefore, in this current analysis done that the p value (Sig.) of .021 for
2-tailed test is less than the chosen alpha of .05, the null hypothesis in the
example under consideration is rejected. That is, the null hypothesis that
“single and married men do not significantly differ in their attitude towards
exclusive breastfeeding” is rejected in favour of married men. With the
rejection of the null hypothesis, the alternate hypothesis that “there is a
statistically significant difference in the attitude of single and married men

231
towards exclusive breastfeeding” is sustained. The difference favours
married men who have significantly higher mean in their attitude towards
exclusive breastfeeding than the single men. The results of this analysis can
also be reported that the mean of single men’s attitude towards exclusive
breastfeeding that is equal to 49.5625 is significantly lower than the mean
of the married men towards exclusive breastfeeding that is equal to
60.0625. The results are aptly written technically that the difference in the
two means is statistically significant or simply that the null hypothesis is
rejected as t(30) = -2.429, p < .05, 2-tailed. In other words, the married
men have significantly better attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding than
the single or unmarried men.
It must as well be emphasized that whenever the Lower and Upper 95%
Confidence Interval of Difference both fall either above zero or below zero,
the pair of means under comparison statistically differ significantly. That is,
the mean difference between the two means (-10.50000) is statistically
significant. In the analysis that the Output is being interpreted here, both the
Lower and Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference (-19.32646
and -1.67354, respectively) fall below zero. Therefore, the Mean Difference
of -10.50000 is statistically significant. On the contrary, whenever the
Lower 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference falls below zero and the
Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference falls above zero, the pair
of means under comparison do not significantly differ. The mean difference
in the scenario that zero lies between the Lower and Upper 95% Confidence
Interval of the Difference is not significant and is totally a mere function of
chance.
Lastly, you must have observed in the Output 3.3 that apart from the t
ratio for Equal variances assumed, there is another t ratio of -2.429, df of
29.905, Sig. (2-tailed) of .021, -10.50000 Mean Difference, Standard Error
Difference of 4.32188, Lower value of -19.32764 and Upper -1.67236 for
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference for Equal variances not
assumed of the Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances. The rule for the
choice of which of the two t values (Equal variances assumed or Equal
variances not assumed) to use in testing tenability of a null hypothesis is
that whenever the significance (p value) of Levene’s Test is greater than .05
alpha, the t ratio for Equal variances assumed should be used. On the
contrary, whenever the significance of the Levene’s test is equal to or less
than .05 alpha, the t ratio and information under Equal variances not

232
assumed row should be used. That is, the values in the row for Equal
variances not assumed of the Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances
should be used only when the difference in the variances of the two
categories of the independent (grouping) variable is statistically significant.

EFFECT SIZE: d FOR INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t

TEST ON EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING
Establishment of the Effect Size, using Cohen’s d for the Independent-
Samples t Test, can easily be computed for the married and unmarried
men’s attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding as the difference between
the means of married men and single men on the attribute divided by the
pooled standard deviations of the two groups with the use of Equations 3:1
to 3:5.
Fitting the married men’s mean (60.0625) and standard deviation
(11.87417) and the unmarried men’s mean (49.5625) and standard deviation
(12.56433) into Equation 3:3; a d (effect size) of .859 can be obtained. A d
of .859 falls under “large effect size” in accordance with the
recommendations that I have presented in Table 3.2. Let me just very
quickly demonstrate the computation.
Recall that the numerator in the Equations 3:1 to 3:4 could either be M1
– M2 or M2 – M1. I have exemplified the computation earlier with M1 – M2
under the interpretation of gender difference in K-6 students’ Basic Science
Concepts. In the current example, let me compute the d by using M2 – M1
as the numerator of the effect size equation. Use of either M1 – M2 or M2 –
M1 as the numerator of the d equation makes no difference in calculation of
the d. What matters is knowing the group that the mean difference, if any,
favours; and interpreting the results accordingly.

With the Equation 3:3, the Effect Size, d, can easily be computed thus.

233
 The d of .859 depicts a “large effect size”, as classified in Table 3.2, of
the independent variable (marital status) on the dependent variable (men’s
attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding). Men’s marital status largely
accounts for the variance in the men’s attitude towards exclusive
breastfeeding in favor of married men.
The results in Output 3.3 can therefore be summarized thus. The
married men’s attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding (M = 60.0625;
SD = 11.87417) significantly differs from the single (unmarried) men’s
attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding (M = 49.5625; SD = 12.56433);
and the Mean Difference (MD) = 10.50000: [t(30) = 2.429; p < .05 (two-
tailed); d = .859 (a large effect size) in favor of the married men.
Therefore, there is a significant difference in the attitude of men towards
exclusive breastfeeding as a function of marital status. Note that in
computing the t, if the lower mean (that of the unmarried men in this case)
is subtracted from the higher mean (that of the married men in the example

234
under consideration), there will not be any “–” sign in the computed t. In
fact, a “–” sign as part of a calculated t does not depict negativity, it only
shows that of the two groups under comparison, the one with the higher
mean was subtracted from the one with the lower mean. Thus, a minus sign
or no minus sign in a t value is only indicative of the side that the mean
difference favors. The married men have overwhelmingly better attitude
towards exclusive breastfeeding than the unmarried men.
Since the sample size of the married men (16) is equal to that of their
counterpart unmarried men (16), the Effect Size, d, can very easily be
computed with Equation 3:4. I have pointed out earlier that the Equation 3:4
states that the Cohen’s d as a measure of Effect Size for Independent-
Samples t Test is the mean difference between the two groups divided by
the square root of the average of the variances of the two groups.
Illustratively therefore, the Effect Size of the married and single men’s
attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding is as follows.

Where M2 and M1 are the respective means for the married men and
unmarried men; S22 and S12 are the variances (squares of the standard
deviations) for the two respective groups. Note that any of the two groups
(e.g., M2 and M1) could consistently come first in the equation. The d can
simply be computed as:

235
 Apart from Equation 3:3 and Equation 3:4, irrespective of whether the
two groups are equal in sample size, Cohen’s d as a measure of Effect Size
for Independent-Samples t Test can be computed directly with Equation 3:5.
With Equation 3:5, the Effect Size for Independent-Samples t Test is:

Where N2 is the sample size of the group 2; N1 is the sample size of the
group 1; and t is the computed Independent-Samples t Test. In the current
example that the N2 is 16; N1 is 16; and t is 2.429, the d can be got as:

236
 The d of .859 has already been interpreted as a “large effect size” of the
independent variable or the grouping variable (men’s marital status) on the
dependent variable (attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding). It must be
noted that in computing the d, I consistently subtracted the lower mean
from the higher mean to illustrate that in calculation of t and d, either of the
two means can consistently be subtracted from the other. When the lower
mean is subtracted from the higher mean, the answer will not have a “–” as
a prefix. But if the higher mean is subtracted consistently from the lower
mean, there will be a “–” sign in the answer to depict the side that the mean
difference favours.
Now that the interpretation of the output has been done, adhere to the
remaining routine protocols in data analysis with SPSS Statistics to
eventually shut down your system.
View the output

Save the output as Chapter 3 Output 3.spv

Print the output

Exit IBM SPSS

237
 Shut down the system
In case there is any unit of these protocols that you are yet to master,
refer to previous sections and rehearse.

SPSS SYNTAX FOR INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t

TEST ON EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING
Data analysis with the Independent-Samples t Test using SPSS Syntax on
students’ Basic Science Concepts (BSCS) by Gender (male = 1, female = 2)
and on men’s Attitude Toward Exclusive Breastfeeding (ATEB) by Marital
status (single = 0, married = 1) are the same apart from the names and
labelling of the variables. The same SPSS Command Syntax will be given
to get data in the two cases analysed. The only thing that will be different in
the Syntax is names of the variables and the codes of the grouping
variables. The Syntax for performing the Independent-Samples t Test on
men’s attitude towards exclusive breastfeeding with regard to their marital
status is presented in Syntax 3.2.

Syntax 3.2 Chapter 3 Syntax 2.sps

T-TEST GROUPS=MaritalStatus(0 1)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=ATEB
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).

This Syntax as I have emphasized, is the same as the one given earlier
when Independent-Samples t Test was done on students’ Basic Science
Concepts with regard to Gender. The only exception is the names and
numerical codes for the variables as comparatively tabulated here.
Table 3.3 Syntax 3.1 and Syntax 3.2 compared

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 In Syntax 3.1, the independent, grouping or categorical variable is
Gender and was coded 1 and 2, while in Syntax 3.2, the independent,
grouping or categorical variable is Maritalstatus and was coded 0 and 1. In
Syntax 3.1, BSCS (Basic Science Concepts) is the dependent variable;
while in Syntax 3.2, the dependent variable is ATEB (Attitude Towards
Exclusive Breastfeeding). So, for any Independent-Samples t Test that you
will have to do with SPSS Statistics Syntax, simply replace the names and
codes of the variables in these examples with the names and codes of the
variables in your study when writing the SPSS Syntax.
Proceed with the analysis by observing the SPSS Statistics execution
conventions thus.

Switch on the computer

Start IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data (Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav) as they have since been
entered and securely saved.
Now that you have retrieved the SPSS Data Editor containing the data
file called Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav, the analysis proper is what has to
be done. But if you are yet to retrieve the file and is not very sure of how to
go about it; move cursor to the Toolbar and click the Open data document
icon and the Open Data dialog box appears as shown Figure 3.28.

239
 Figure 3.28 Open Data dialog box

Look for and click the file name, Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav. That
click got the name of the saved dataset highlighted. Next, click Open in the
dialog box or press Enter on the Keyboard to have the document that was
saved as Chapter 2 Table 1 Data.sav opened on your screen.
With the data file open on the screen, move cursor to and click Window
Go to Designated Syntax Window. That is, click Window in the
Menu Bar to have the Window dropdown dialog box and in it, click Go to
Designated Syntax Window for the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor
to immediately appear as shown in Figure 3.29. The IBM SPSS Statistics
Syntax Editor can also be got by clicking File New Syntax.
That is, click File and in the File dropdown menu, select New; and in the
dropdown of the New, click Syntax.

240
 Figure 3.29 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

Most carefully type in the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax that is given in
Syntax 3.2. When entered, the SPSS Syntax Editor will look like the
screenshot that is shown in Figure 3.30.

Figure 3.30 SPSS Syntax Editor with the Syntax for Independent-Samples t Test

Click Run and click All (see Figure 3.31) to have the results displayed.

Figure 3.31 Run dialog box

Alternatively, select and highlight the entered Syntax and click the Run

Selection icon in the Toolbar for the results to be instantly displayed

in the IBM SPSS Viewer as shown in Output 3.4.

241
Output 3.4 Chapter 3 Output 4.spv

This Output 3.4 is exactly the same as Output 3.3. The same
interpretations of Output 3.3 are most appropriately applicable with the
Output 3.4.
View the entire output by scrolling left, right, up and down with the left-
pointed and right-pointed arrows at the bottom edge of the screen, and with
the up-pointed and down-pointed arrows at the right edge of the IBM SPSS
Statistics Viewer.
Save the output. Move cursor to the Toolbar and click the Save this

document icon in the Toolbar for the Save Output As… dialog box
to appear. In it, type the name (Chapter 3 Output 4.spv in this case) with
which you want the file to be saved in the box beside File name and click
Save or press Enter as shown in Figure 3.32.

242
 Figure 3.32 Save Output As… Chapter 3 Output 4.spv

Also, get to the Syntax Editor with the entered Syntax and click the

Save this document icon in the Toolbar to have its dialog box. Type
in the name, Chapter 3 Syntax 2.sps, with which you want to save the
Syntax (see Figure 3.33). Then, press Enter on the Keyboard or click Save
in the dialog box to have the Syntax saved.

243
 Figure 3.33 Save Syntax As… Chapter 3 Syntax 2.sps

Print the output by clicking the Print icon in the Toolbar when the
SPSS Viewer with the Output 3.4 is activated (see Figure 3.4), and click
OK to get one copy of the Output 3.4 printed. Repeat the operation to get
the required number of copies printed.

244
 Figure 3.34 Print All visible output menu

Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing all the opened SPSS windows. On
getting to the last Data Editor that is opened, clicking Close produces a
dialog box as exhibited in Figure 3.35 to prompt you to confirm if really
you want to exit IBM SPSS Statistics. In it, click Yes.

Figure 3.35 IBM SPSS Statistics exit prompt

Finally, shut down the system by clicking Start Power

Shut down.

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 Chapter 4
ONE-SAMPLE t TEST EXECUTION

Overview
In research scenarios that the population mean of the variable of interest is
known, the investigator is required to draw a single sample and compare it
with the parameter for possible establishment of significant difference, if it
does exist, the one-sample t Test is used in the data analysis. Execution of
such parametric inferential comparisons with SPSS Statistics is
magnificently demonstrated with screenshots from data entry to results
interpretation for the user to absolutely acquire expert skills in performing
One-sample t Test. Life expectancy, and private dedicated gifted schools’
students’ IQ are used for the demonstration.

Keywords: t Test, One-sample t Test, One-sample t Test syntax,

Output interpretation, Cohen’s d, Life expectancy, Gifted
students’ IQ, Effect size, Null hypothesis.

When the population mean on a variable is known, an investigator needs to

draw just one sample from the population and compare it with the mean of
the population to determine whether the sample is truly different from the
population regarding the variable. One-Sample t Test is used for
comparison of a single sample mean with some known or estimated
population mean. Whether the mean of a sample typically differs
significantly from the mean of the population on a dependent variable can
only be established with the One-Sample t Test.

LIFE EXPECTANCY IN EUROPE AND IN THE

WORLD

246
Taking Life Expectancy that the World average is known as a dependent
variable, it is possible to draw one sample from the population and compare
the sample mean with the world population mean. The World average,
termed Test Value in One-Sample t Test, of Life Expectancy is 72.24
(Kpolovie, Oshodi & Iwuchukwu, 2016). Life Expectancy is a statistical or
theoretical measure of the length of time or years an average human in a
given country and continent is supposed to live on earth. Life Expectancy is
an estimate of the average age at which individuals in a particular country
will be when they die. It is the average length of years that the citizens of a
country live before their death. To illustrate computation of One-Sample t
Test, the Life Expectancy of 44 randomly sampled European countries will
be compared with the known world average of 72.24 to ascertain whether
humans are expected to live significantly longer or shorter in Europe than
the world average. In other words, the data collected are meant for finding
out how long humans are expected to live before their death in Europe and
in the World. The data are presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Chapter 4 Table 1 Data.sav: Life Expectancy in European

countries

247
Research question, Alternate hypothesis and Null
hypothesis
The research question asked and the hypothesis postulated for the
investigation are as follows.
Research question:

248
 What is the difference between life expectancy in Europe and in the
world?
Alternate hypothesis:
Life expectancy in Europe differs significantly from that of the world.
Null hypothesis:
A significant difference does not exist between life expectancy in
Europe and the life expectancy in the world.

SPSS DIALOG BOXES SELECTION FOR ONE-

SAMPLE t TEST
Step 1. Switch the computer on and allow it to fully boot.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking its icon . Wait for it to
fully get ready and when it is done, close the superimposed dialog box on
the Data Editor to be left exactly with the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor alone on the screen.

Step 3. Enter the data. Begin with the topmost and leftmost cell in the SPSS
Data Editor by clicking on that particular cell. Type each value and press
the Enter key on the Keyboard. Note that each value represents the life
expectancy of a particular country in Europe, and the countries are
represented with the serial numbers in the Data Editor. On completion of
the data entry in the Data View, click Variable View. In the Name column
of the Variable View, type the variable name, LExEurope, without space.
In the column for Label, type the exact label for the variable as Life
Expectancy in Europe. Ensure that Scale is written for the row under the
column, Measure, as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 IBM SPSS Statistics Variable View

249
 Once you click Data View at the extreme bottom left of the IBM SPSS
Data Editor, it takes you back to the Data View with the variable properly
named and with all the entered data. So, click Data View to confirm what
happens as presented in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Data Editor with the data and named variable

250
 Figure 4.2 Continued

Step 4. Save the data. Move cursor to the Toolbar and click the Save this
document icon . That click instantly produces the Save Data As dialog
box. In the File name field within the Save Data As dialog box, type a
suitable name, Chapter 4 Table 1 Data.sav, in this example and click

251
Save. Alternatively, move cursor to the Menu Bar and click File
Save As… (illustrated in Figure 4.3) for the Save Data As dialog box to
appear for you to type in a name for the document. So, name the file as
Chapter 4 Table 1 Data.sav as exemplified in Figure 4.4 and click Save or
press Enter to have the dataset saved properly for easy retrieval as at when
needed.

Figure 4.3 File Save As… dialog box

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 Figure 4.4 Save Data As dialog box with the file name

Step 5. Analyze the data. It is at this step that the entire statistical operations
for execution of the One-Sample t Test are performed.
Click Analyze
Click Compare Means (see Figure 4.5)
Click One-Sample t Test. This click produces the One-Sample T
Test menu that is exhibited in Figure 4.6.

253
 Figure 4.5 Analyze Compare Means One-Sample

Figure 4.6 One-Sample T Test menu

Ensure that the Life Expectancy in Europe is highlighted, and move

it from the box at the left into the Test Variable(s) box at the right by
clicking the right-pointed arrow as demonstrated in Figure 4.7.

254
 Figure 4.7 One-Sample T Test with the variable moved right

In the box beside Test Value, type in the population mean, that is the
world average of Life Expectancy which is 72.24 as shown in Figure
4.8.

Figure 4.8 One-Sample T Test menu with the Test Value entered

Move cursor to and click OK to have IBM SPSS Statistics produce

the results in the SPSS Viewer window as
displayed in Output 4.1.

Output 4.1 Chapter 4 Output 1

255
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 4.1: LIFE
EXPECTANCY IN EUROPE
The first part of the One-Sample t Test output, termed One-Sample
Statistics, has shown the sample size (N) to be 44, the Mean of Life
Expectancy in Europe to be 79.3214, Standard Deviation to be 3.51484 and
the Standard Error of Mean to be .52988. These descriptive statistics could
serve as the answer to the research question by stating the sample mean
against the population mean.
The second part of Output 4.1, called One-Sample Test, has provided
the Test Value of 72.24 (which is the World mean), the computed t-ratio to
be 13.364, degrees of freedom (df) to be 43 (number of cases minus 1), Sig.
(2-tailed) to be .000 that is interpreted or written as less than .0005, and
Mean Difference of 7.08136. In addition, the Lower and Upper 95%
Confidence Interval of the Difference are respectively 6.0128 and 8.1500.
The computed t is actually arrived at by dividing the Mean Difference
(7.08136) by the Standard Error of Means (.52988). That is, t = Mean

256
Difference ÷ Standard Error of Mean (t = 7.08136 ÷ .52988 = 13.364).
The p-value (Sig. 2-tailed) of less than .0005 is smaller than the chosen
alpha of .01. Therefore, the null hypothesis that “a significant difference
does not exist between Life Expectancy in Europe and the Life Expectancy
in the World” is rejected in favour of European countries. That is, European
countries have Life Expectancy mean (79.3214) that is significantly greater
than the average of Life Expectancy in the World (72.24). With the rejection
of the null hypothesis, the alternate hypothesis that “Life Expectancy in
Europe differs significantly from that of the World” is sustained as t(43) =
13.364, p < .01.
It must finally be emphasized that whenever the Lower and Upper 95%
Confidence Interval of the Difference both fall either above zero or below
zero, the pair of means under comparison statistically differ significantly.
That is, the mean difference between the two means is significant. In the
analysis that the results (Output 4.1) is being interpreted here, both the
Lower and Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference (6.0128
and 8.1500, respectively) fall above zero. Therefore, the Mean Difference
of 7.08136 is statistically significant. Substantially high Effect Size is
expected as the mean difference is significant even at .0005 alpha.
On the contrary, whenever the Lower 95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference falls below zero and the Upper 95% Confidence Interval of
the Difference falls above zero, the pair of means under comparison do not
significantly vary. The mean difference in the scenario that zero lies
between the Lower and Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference is not significant and is interpreted as a mere function of chance
as its Effect Size is bound to be “trivial”.

EFFECT SIZE – COHEN’S d FOR ONE-SAMPLE t

Test
Output 4.1 with statistically significant t [sample M = 79.3214; sample SD
= 3.51484; and population M = 72.24: t(43) = 13.364, p < .0005)] has
shown that the sample (Europe) has a significantly greater mean than the
population (World) mean on Life Expectancy. The additional information
that must be provided for better interpretability, comprehension and
practical utility is whether the significant Mean Difference qualifies for a

257
“Trivial”, “Small”, “Medium”, or “Large” Effect Size. Recall the
classification of Effect Size that I have given in earlier in Table 3.2 of
Chapter 3 to be as follows. These classifications correspond with the
recommendations by Cohen (1988).
d AS EFFECT SIZE DESCRIPTIVE
IN t Test CLASSIFICATION d
0.000 to 0.199 Trivial Effect Size
0.200 to 0.499 Small Effect Size
0.500 to 0.799 Medium Effect Size
0.800 and above Large Effect Size
Cohen’s d as the measure of Effect Size for the One-Sample t Test can,
and should be computed as the Mean Difference between the population
mean and the sample mean divided by the sample Standard Deviation. In
the current example, while the Life Expectancy Mean Difference is
7.08136, the sample Standard Deviation is 3.51484. Therefore, the Effect
Size, d, is as given in Equation 4:1:

Where M1 is the sample mean, M2 is the population mean, and S is the

standard deviation of the sample. Substituting the symbols in the Equation
4:1 with their actual values, the One-Sample t Test Effect Size, measured
with Cohen’s d becomes:

A d of 2.015 is, indeed, a very “Large Effect Size”. Thus, Europe has a
Life Expectancy (79.3214) that is significantly higher than the world’s Life
Expectancy (72.24); and the Mean Difference is equal to a vary “Large
Effect Size” (2.015). The results can therefore be fully summarized as Life

258
Expectancy in Europe (M = 79.3214 and SD = 3.51484) is significantly
better than the Life Expectancy in the World (M = 72.24): [t(43) =
13.364; p < .0005; d = 2.015 (a “Large Effect Size”)].
Apart from the Equation 4:1, d as the measure of Effect Size in One-
Sample t Test can be computed directly from the calculated One-Sample t
Test ratio as the t value multiplied by the square root of 1 divided by the
sample size. In equation form, computing d directly from the t value is as
given in Equation 4:2.

Where t is the calculated value of the One-Sample t Test, and N is the

sample size. In the current example, the t value is 13.364 and the sample
size, N, is 44. Replacing the symbols in the Equation 4:2 with their actual
values, the Cohen’s d as the measure of Effect Size (ES) becomes:

Either of the two equations (Equation 4:2 and Equation 4:1) can be used
for determination of the Effect Size whenever One-Sample t Test is
executed in a research. Application of the two equations is even better
because each can be used for confirmation of the other as they are bound,
by right, to produce the same result just as each of them in this example has
demonstrated that the Effect Size of the difference between the Life
Expectancy in Europe and in the World is 2.015 that is a “Large Effect
Size” in favour of Europe.
With the completion of the interpretation of the Output 4.1, it is time to
proceed with the remaining routine protocols of data analysis with IBM

259
SPSS Statistics and eventually shut down the system.

Step 6. View the output by scrolling right. left, up and down with the arrows
at the bottom edge and right edge of the screen.

Step 7. Save the output. While on the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer
window, click the Save this document icon in the Toolbar to have the
Save Output As dialog box as exemplified in Figure 4.9. Type a suitable
name (Chapter 4 Output 1.spv) in the box beside File name as shown in
Figure 4.10, and click Save or press the Enter key on the Keyboard.

Figure 4.9 Save Output As dialog box

260
 Figure 4.10 Save Output As with the document name

Step 8. Print the output and input (data) by clicking the Print icon in
the Toolbar and clicking OK to get one copy of All visible output printed.
Repeat the action until the desired number of copies are printed. To print the
input or data, activate the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor with the data

file (Chapter 4 Table 1 data.sav) on the screen, click the Print tool
in the Toolbar and click OK to get a copy of the data file printed.

Step 9. Exit SPSS Statistics by simply closing every SPSS window that is
open on the computer screen.

Step 10. Shut down the system by clicking Start Power Shut
down.

261
SPSS SYNTAX EXECUTION OF ONE-SAMPLE t
TEST
Use of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax is a very easy and fast method for
execution of One-Sample t Test as illustrated in this section. Correct typing
in of the statistical Commands in the SPSS Syntax Editor is everything
required. The Syntax for performing One-Sample t Test is as given in
Syntax 4.1.

Syntax 4.1 Chapter 4 Syntax 1.sps

T-TEST
/TESTVAL=72.24
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=LExEurope
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).

Just follow the simple routine steps for data analysis with SPSS.
Switch on the computer

Launch IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data since the entry has already been done.
Now that you have activated the SPSS Data Editor containing the data
file called Chapter 4 Table 1 Data.sav, the analysis proper is what has to
be done. In case you have not successfully retrieved the file, move cursor to
the Menu Bar and click File Open Data (see Figure 4.11) to
have the Open Data dialog box as given in Figure 4.12.

262
Figure 4.11 File Open Data

Figure 4.12 Open Data dialog box

263
 Click the file name, Chapter 4 Table 1 Data.sav, and click Open in the
dialog box or press Enter on the Keyboard to have the data file on your
screen as earlier shown in Figure 4.2.
Move cursor to the Menu Bar and click Window Go to
Designated Syntax Window that is demonstrated in Figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13 Window Go to Designated Syntax window

Once you click the Go to Designated Syntax Window, SPSS takes you
there instantly as shown in Figure 4.14.

Figure 4.14 SPSS Syntax Editor

Carefully enter the Syntax for performing the One-Sample t Test

analysis that was given in Syntax 4.1 as shown in Figure 4.15.

264
 Figure 4.15 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor with the Syntax entered

Click Run ALL (see Figure 4.16), or highlight the entered Syntax

and click the Run icon in the Toolbar. With this, IBM SPSS Statistics
instantly completes the analysis and displays the results in the SPSS
Viewer window as exemplified in Output 4.2.

Figure 4.16 Run All

Output 4.2 Chapter 4 Output 2.spv

265
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 4.2
The same interpretation for Output 4.1 when the SPSS Dialog Boxes Point
and Click method was used for analysing the European life expectancy data
is applicable with the Output 4.2 when SPSS Syntax method was adopted
for execution of the t Test.
Follow the remaining routine protocols to eventually shut down your
system.
View output

Save the output as Chapter 4 Output 2.spv and the Syntax as Chapter 4
Syntax 1.sps

Print output

266
 Exit IBM SPSS Statistics (see Figure 4.17)

Shut down the system

Recall that on clicking Close to close the last IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor, you will be prompted to click Yes or No if truly you want to exit
SPSS as in Figure 4.17.

Figure 4.17 SPSS exit confirmation prompting

Since you have completed the analysis that you wanted to perform, click
Yes to exit SPSS. If there is any unit of these protocols that you are yet to
master, refer to previous sections and rehearse.

ONE-SAMPLE t TEST FOR IQ DIFFERENCE IN WJ

III
One more example will be used to illustrate execution of One-Sample t
Test. The population of students or adolescents in the United States have a
mean of 100 in Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III).
It has also been established that students in public Dedicated Gifted Schools
significantly differ positively with overwhelming effect size from the US
population IQ mean of 100 (Alamieyeseigha and Kpolovie, 2013, Kpolovie,
2015; Hunt, 2011). Suppose that a psychometrician wanted to find out
whether students in three Dedicated Gifted Schools that are private will also
make significantly different mean from the US average (100) in the
Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III). The United

267
States average in the WJ III consists of standard score range of 90 to 110
that is equivalent to 25 to 75 percentile rank. The psychometrician
randomly drew a sample of 66 students from the three private Dedicated
Gifted Schools, namely:
i. Hampshire Country School
ii. North Broward Preparatory School
iii. New Mexico Military Institute
The psychometrician administered both the General Intellectual
Ability (GIA) and Brief Intellectual Ability (BIA) Scales of the WJ III to
the sampled students. These two Scales contain all the nine Sub-Scales of
the WJ III:
1. Comprehension Knowledge
2. Long-Term Retrieval
3. Visual-Spatial Thinking
4. Auditory Processing
5. Fluid Reasoning
6. Processing Speed
7. Short-Term Memory
8. Quantitative Knowledge
9. Reading Writing
A sample of 66 students from the three private Dedicated Gifted Schools
was suitably large enough for the study. For instance, Hampshire Country
School in the 2018/2019 session runs 3-10 Grades with 21 students and an
average class size of 4 students. The North Broward Preparatory School
programme range from Prekindergarten to 12 with student population of
1445 and an average class size of 15 students. Of the 1445 students, those
aged 9 to 12 are relatively few. New Mexico Military Institute runs Grade 9
to 12 with a student population of 500 and an average class size of 14
students. Each of these three boarding schools has over the years proven to
live above board, honing leadership skills and character through exceptional
education, training, experience and an uncommon academic excellence. It is
one of the best opportunities that a child could get to be a student in any of
these three schools and discover his/her talents and special aptitudes.
With the use of Intelligence Quotient tests, gifted children are not only
determined, but are classified into five categories for purposes of suitable
special accelerated educational programmes and other unique support

268
(Davis, Rimm & Siegle, 2011; Kpolovie, 2017; 2015; 2011). The five
classification of giftedness on the basis of demonstrated IQ are the:
Profoundly gifted with IQ of 180 and above
Exceptionally gifted with IQ of 160 – 179
Highly gifted with IQ of 145 – 159
Moderately gifted with IQ of 130 – 144
Mildly gifted with IQ of 115 – 129.
It is expected that if students in the privately Dedicated Gifted Schools
are indeed gifted, then their IQ on the average will at least be 15 points
higher than the population IQ mean of 100. That is, the private dedicated
Gifted School students will on the average be having IQ that range from
115 and above as measured with the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive
Abilities (WJ III).
On the whole, only about 32 million students in the United States have
IQ that qualifies them to be classified as gifted and are treated accordingly
with accelerated individualized educational curriculum (Alamieyeseigha
and Kpolovie, 2013). Approximately 68% of the US student population
have IQ that range from 85 to 115 and fall within ±1z on a normal curve;
and they are the students who are actually addressed by the standard school
age/grade-based curriculum. Students whose IQ do not fall within the -1z
and +1z require completely different curriculum (Kpolovie, 2012; 2015;
2017; Davis, Rimm & Siegle, 2011).
Between +1z and +2z of the normal curve has IQ that range from 115 to
130 that is scored by approximately 13.59% of the student population.
These students are gifted and demand a special curriculum that is greatly
modified accordingly to meet their learning needs. They are in the main,
accorded such curriculum. Between +2z and +3z of the normal curve has IQ
range of 130 to 145 that only 2.14% of the US student population have.
These are exceptionally gifted students that only very unique individualized
accelerated curriculum can suitably take care of. Between +3z and +4z of
the normal curve has .13% of the student population, denoting 13 students
in every 10,000, who have IQ that range from 145 to 160. These students
are so exceedingly gifted that only highly exceptional individualized
curriculum could meet their unique needs. At the very extreme above the
mean, +4z and beyond, has .003% of the student population who have IQ
that is greater than 160 to depict their profound giftedness. Only one in
every 30,000 students in the population could possess such extreme

269
giftedness. Accordingly, only exceptionally extreme individualized
accelerated curriculum could meet the needs of such profoundly gifted
students. In the US, each of these categories of students are actually
provided with the unique curriculum that best matches them; unlike the
Nigerian situation that every student is forced to undergo the same
curriculum to become and remain nothing more than an average person
(Alamieyeseigha & Kpolovie, 2013; Kpolovie, 2012).
The normal curve of IQ is indeed normally distributed symmetrically
(Herrnstein & Murray, 1994; Kpolovie, 2017; 2015; Hunt, 2011) and so, the
same 13.59% of the students have IQ that range from 70 to 85 and fall
within -1z and -2z. These students also need a different curriculum that will
be most suitable for them. Two standard deviations below the mean, within
-2z and -3z of the normal curve also has just 2.14% of the student
population with IQ scores that range from 55 to 70; and these exceptional
students need their own customized individualized curriculum that best
addresses each of them. In like manner, between -3z and -4z of the normal
curve has .13% of students with IQ that is less than 55, and they require a
most special individualized curriculum to address their peculiar
exceptionality. Also, there is .003% of the student population with IQ that
falls lower than -4z below the mean. Exceptionally extreme individualized
curriculum is necessarily needed for such students to bring out the best in
them and make them more useful and less dependent.
Funding of education must be structured to adequately accommodate the
unique needs of the different types of students. This necessitates
investigation of the extent to which students in the private Dedicated Gifted
Schools differ from the United States average students with respect to their
IQ as measured with the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities
(WJ III). The scores of the sampled students from the Dedicated Gifted
Schools on the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III) are
given in Table 4.2 and are used to illustrate how the One-Sample t Test
analysis is performed with the use of IBM SPSS Statistics.

Table 4.2 Dedicated Gifted Schools students’ scores on the WJ III

Stu. IQ WJ III Stu. IQ WJ III
1 116 34 150
2 134 35 121

270
3 113 36 134
4 145 37 142
5 128 38 127
6 131 39 115
7 122 40 112
8 136 41 148
9 113 42 151
10 146 43 109
11 125 44 161
12 127 45 122
13 148 46 155
14 109 47 111
15 156 48 142
16 124 49 130
17 132 50 138
18 135 51 130
19 108 52 142
20 151 53 161
21 120 54 123
22 125 55 134
23 137 56 140
24 138 57 141
25 110 58 123
26 144 59 144
27 137 60 153
28 150 61 142

271
 29 148 62 133
30 120 63 144
31 126 64 133
32 116 65 131
33 117 66 122

Research question
What is the difference between private Dedicated Gifted Schools Students’
WJ III mean IQ and the United States students’ WJ III mean IQ?

Alternate hypothesis
Students in the private Dedicated Gifted Schools differ significantly from
the general United States students in their mean IQ scores on the
Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III).

Null hypothesis
Students in the private Dedicated Gifted Schools do not differ significantly
from the general United States students in their mean IQ scores on the
Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities (WJ III).

SPSS DIALOG SELECTION FOR ONE-SAMPLE t

TEST
Very quickly perform the One-Sample t Test analysis by following the
routine IBM SPSS Statistics data analysis protocols.
Switch on the computer

Launch IBM SPSS Statistics

272
Enter the data very carefully as done in the earlier example, name and
label the variable as shown in Figure 4.18

Save the dataset as given in Figure 4.19

Analyze using Compare Means.

273
Figure 4.18 Chapter 4 Table 2 Data.sav

274
Figure 4.18 Continued

275
 Figure 4.18 Continued

After successfully entering, naming and labelling the data as in Figure

4.18, save the data by clicking the Save this document tool in the
Toolbar. The click immediately produces the Save Data As… dialog box in
which you type in the name of the file, Chapter 4 Table 2 Data.sav, in the
File name field as shown in Figure 4.19. After typing the File name in the
field meant for that purpose, press the Enter key on the Keyboard or simply
click Save. With this action, the dataset gets saved as Chapter 4 Table 2
Data.sav for easy retrieval and use whenever the need arises subsequently.

276
 Figure 4.19 Save Data As… Chapter 4 Data 2.sav

Click Analyze Compare Means One-Sample T Test as

portrayed in Figure 4.20. On clicking One-Sample T Test, the One-
Sample T Test dialog box instantly pops up as displayed in Figure 4.21. It
is in the One-Sample T Test dialog box that the entire analytical operations
are performed.

277
 Figure 4.20 Analyze Compare Means One-Sample T Test

In the One-Sample T Test menu, move the variable (WJ III IQ

[IQ_WJIII]) from the left box into the Test Variable(s) box at the right by
highlighting it and clicking the arrow pointing at the Test Variable(s)
field. In the small box beside Test Value, type 100 which is the United
States population mean IQ scores on the Woodcock-Johnson Test of
Cognitive Abilities (WJ III). When done, the One-Sample T Test dialog
box will look like the illustration in Figure 4.21.

278
 Figure 4.21 One-Sample T Test menu ready for output

For IBM SPSS Statistics to display the results of the analysis in the
SPSS Viewer window, click OK. The results are as exemplified in Output
4.3.

Output 4.3 Chapter 4 Output 3.spv

279
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 4.3: STUDENTS’
WJ III IQ
It is clear from the One-Sample Statistics table in Output 4.3 that the IQ of
the 66 students from Dedicated Gifted Schools on the Woodcock-Johnson
Test of Cognitive Abilities, 3rd Revision (WJ III IQ), has a Mean of
132.5909, Standard Deviation of 13.97688 and Standard Error of Mean of
1.72043.
It can be discerned from the One-Sample Test table of the Output 4.3
that the Test Value is 100 and that the t is 18.943 with 65 degrees of
freedom (df), .000 p-value (Sig. 2-tailed) that is written as less than .0005,
a 32.59091 Mean Difference, plus 29.1550 Lower and 36.0269 Upper
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference. Since the p-value (Sig. [2-
tailed]) of .0005, is smaller than the chosen .05 and even of .001 level of
significance, the null hypothesis that “students in the Dedicated Gifted
Schools do not differ significantly from the general United States students
in their mean IQ scores on the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive
Abilities (WJ III)” is rejected. The mean difference between the Dedicated

280
Gifted Schools students and the United States population mean on the WJ
III IQ is 32.59091 that is statistically significant. In summary, with regards
to the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities, the IQ of students
from the Dedicated Gifted Schools (M = 132.5909, SD = 13.97688, SEM =
1.72043) is significantly higher than the United States student population
mean of 100 because [t(65) = 18.943, p < .0005].
It must finally be emphasized that whenever the Lower and Upper 95%
Confidence Interval of the Difference both fall either above zero or below
zero, the pair of means under comparison statistically differ significantly.
That is, the mean difference (32.59091) between the population mean (i.e.,
the Test Value of 100) and the Sample mean of 132.5909 is significant. In
the analysis that the output is being interpreted here, both the Lower and
Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference (29.1550 and 36.0269,
respectively) fall far above zero. Therefore, the Mean Difference of
32.59091 is statistically significant.
On the contrary, whenever the Lower 95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference falls below zero and the Upper 95% Confidence Interval of
the Difference falls above zero, the pair of means under comparison do not
significantly vary. The mean difference in the scenario that zero lies
between the Lower and Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference is not significant and is totally a mere function of chance.
But the current output under interpretation in which both the Lower and
Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference fall totally above zero has
demonstrated a statistically significant difference between the sample mean
and the population mean in favour of the sample (the private Dedicated
Gifted Schools students). The private Dedicated Gifted Schools students, on
the average, have IQ that is more than 32 IQ points higher than that of the
US population IQ mean of 100. So, the students in private Dedicated Gifted
Schools are indeed gifted.

EFFECT SIZE – COHEN’S d

The output of the current analysis in which both the Lower and Upper 95%
Confidence Interval of the Difference lie above zero shows that the sample
has a significantly greater mean than the US average, and the difference has
a very “Large Effect Size” of 2.332.

281
 Recall that Effect Size, measured with Cohen’s d, is classified as:
Less than .200 is interpreted or described as “Trivial Effect
Size”;
Between .200 and .499 is described as “Small Effect Size”;
Between .500 and .799 is classified as “Medium Effect Size”; and
Up to .800 and above is interpreted as “Large Effect Size”.
These classifications corroborate the recommendations by Cohen
(1988).
Cohen’s d as the measure of Effect Size for the One-Sample t Test is
computed as the Mean Difference between the population mean and the
sample mean divided by the estimated population Standard Deviation
which is, indeed, the sample Standard Deviation in a One-Sample t Test.
In this example, while the Mean Difference is 32.59091, the sample
Standard Deviation is 13.97688. Therefore, the Effect Size, d, is as given
in Equation 4:1:

Where M1 is the sample mean, M2 is the population mean, and S is the

standard deviation of the sample. Substituting the symbols in the Equation
4:1 with their actual values, the One-Sample t Test Effect Size, measured
with Cohen’s d becomes:

Alternatively, d as the measure of the One-Sample t Test Effect Size can

be computed directly from the calculated One-Sample t Test value as the t
value multiplied by the square root of 1 divided by the sample size, N. In
equation form, therefore, the d computed directly from the t value can be
given simply as in Equation 4:2.

282
 Where t is the calculated value of the One-Sample t Test, and N is the
size of the sample. In the current illustration, the t value is 18.943 and the
sample size, N, is 66. Replacing the symbols in the Equation 4:2 with their
actual values, the Cohen’s d as the measure of Effect Size (ES) is:

Therefore, with regards to the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive

Abilities, the IQ of students from the private Dedicated Gifted Schools (M
= 132.5909, SD = 13.97688) is significantly higher than the United States
student population mean of 100 because t(65) = 18.943, p < .0005, d =
2.332, a very large effect size.
After providing the interpretation of the output, follow the remaining
routine protocols of data analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics to shut down
your system.
View output

Save the output (Chapter 4 Output 3.spv)

Print the output and the input

Exit IBM SPSS

283
 Shut down the system
That is, complete the remaining steps thus:
View the output by scrolling right, left, up and down with the arrows at
the bottom edge and right edge of the screen.
Save the output. While on the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer window,
click the Save this document icon in the Toolbar to have the Save
Output As… dialog box as exhibited in Figure 4.22 and type a suitable
name (Chapter 4 Output 3.spv) in the box beside File name as shown in
Figure 4.23, and press the Enter key on the Keyboard or click Save.

Figure 4.22 Save Output As dialog box

284
 Figure 4.23 Save Output As with the document name

Print the output and the data inputted by clicking the Print icon in
the Toolbar and clicking OK to get a copy of All visible output printed. To
print the input or data, activate the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor with
the dataset (Chapter 4 Table 2 Data.sav) on the screen. Then, click the

Print tool in the Toolbar and click OK to get the data file printed.
Exit SPSS Statistics by simply closing every SPSS document that is
open on the computer screen.
Shut down the system by clicking Start Power Shut
down. That is, move cursor to and click Start that is located at one of the
corners on the screen (left bottom corner usually as default), click Power,
and click Shut down.

285
ONE-SAMPLE t TEST WITH SYNTAX FOR
IQ_WJIII DIFFERENCE
The IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax for execution of the current analysis is
exactly like the one in Syntax 4.1 with just a little but critically important
modification of replacing the Variable Name and the Test Value as
indicated in Syntax 4.2. Whenever you are to perform One-Sample t-test
analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax method, it is this same Syntax
that should be used with the little but very crucial modification of replacing
the Test Value and the Variable Name here with the exact Test Value (the
population mean) and the exact name of the variable that your data are on.

Syntax 4.2 Chapter 4 Syntax 2.sps

T-TEST
/TESTVAL=100
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=IQ_WJIII
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).

Needless further narrative, just get the analysis done with the provided
Syntax 4.2. It is the execution of the analysis that truly matters.
Switch on the computer

Start IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data since the entry has already been made.
Retrieve the dataset earlier saved as Chapter 4 Table 2 Data.sav. The
dataset retrieval demands that when you are on the IBM SPSS Statistics
Data Editor, move the cursor to the Toolbar and click the Open this
document icon and its dialog box appears as illustrated in Figure 4.24.
In the Open Data menu, look for the name of the file you want to retrieve
(Chapter 4 Table 2 Data.sav in this case), click the name of the file and it
becomes highlighted. Then, press Enter on the Keyboard or click Open.

286
On clicking Open or pressing Enter, the document opens as shown earlier
in Figure 4.18.

Figure 4.24 Open Data dialog box

Move cursor to the Menu Bar and click Window Go to

Designated Syntax Window as shown in Figure 4.25.

Figure 4.25 Window Go to Designated Syntax Window

On clicking the Go to Designated Syntax Window, the IBM SPSS

Statistics Syntax Editor appears as epitomised in Figure 4.26. Apart from

287
clicking Window Go to Designated Syntax Window, the SPSS
Statistics Syntax Editor can also easily be made to appear by clicking File
and in the File dropdown menu, selecting New, and finally clicking Syntax
in the New dropdown menu.

Figure 4.26 SPSS Syntax Editor

Most carefully enter the Syntax provided in Syntax 4.2 into the SPSS
Syntax Editor and it will look as illustrated in Figure 4.27.

Figure 4.27 SPSS Syntax Editor with the Syntax entered

Finally, highlight the entered Syntax and click the Run icon in the
Toolbar. This action produces the results. Otherwise, do not highlight the
entered Syntax, but just click Run on the Menu Bar and in the Run
dropdown menu, click All for IBM SPSS Statistics to complete the analysis
in a split second and produce the results in the IBM SPSS Statistics
Viewer as displayed in Output 4.4.

Output 4.4 Chapter 4 Output 4.spv

288
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 4.4
The same interpretation advanced for Output 4.3 is applicable here as the
Output 4.4 and Output 4.3 are exactly the same. The same dataset (Chapter
4 Table 2 Data.sav) was analysed to produce the equivalent results that
attract the identical interpretation. The only difference between the two
Outputs (4.4 and 4.3) is the process adopted in executing the analysis.
While IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax method was used to arrive at Output
4.4, IBM SPSS Statistics Dialog Boxes Point and Click approach was
employed to arrive at Output 4.3.
Though it is necessary to learn and master both techniques for the
analysis, the decision on which of the two methods to apply in performing a
particular One-Sample t Test analysis depends on you, the user. No matter
the method that you choose to use, it is always better to know more than
one technique for execution of each statistical analysis. If ordinary mouse
will usually have more than one hole, why won’t you master more than one
approach for analysing each statistical test?
View the output by scrolling up, down, right and left, using the requisite
arrows on the screen for the purpose.

289
 Save the Output by clicking the Save this document icon on the
Toolbar as shown in Figure 4.28.

Figure 4.28 Save Output menu

Type in a suitable file name, Chapter 4 Output 4.spv, and click Save or
press the Enter key on the Keyboard.
You need to also save the Syntax. Activate the Syntax Editor
containing the Syntax with which the analysis was done. Click the Save
this document icon on the Toolbar to get its menu as given in Figure
4.29. Type in the Syntax name (Chapter 4 Syntax 2.sps) and press Enter
or click Save.

290
 Figure 4.29 Save Syntax As Chapter 4 Syntax 2

Print the Output by clicking the Print icon in the Toolbar and
clicking OK as can be seen in Figure 4.30 for one copy of the output to be
printed. The printing operation can be repeated until the desired copies of
the output are all printed. Alternatively, the desired number of copies of the
output can be printed at once by using the up-pointed arrow beside Number
of copies: to accordingly increase the number of copies before
clicking the OK.

291
 Figure 4.30 Print All visible output

Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing all opened windows, and opting to
indeed Exit SPSS Statistics.
Shut down the system by clicking Start Power Shut
down.

292
 Chapter 5
PAIRED-SAMPLES t TEST
EXECUTION

Overview
Investigations that deal with the comparison of two means from repeated
measures, dependent, correlated or matched samples demand application of
Paired-samples t Test. In a single group pretest-posttest experiment, each
subject is observed twice. The means from the repeated measures can best
be subjected to the paired-samples t Test for accurate drawing of inference
on the effect of the experimental treatment to validly cover the population
from which the representative samples were drawn. This chapter empowers
the user on execution and interpretation of correlated-samples t Test with
both SPSS dialog boxes selection and syntax methods. Spouses’
educational attainment, and self-actualization at the points of admission into
and graduation from a 3-year degree program are used for illustration.

Keywords: Paired-samples t Test, Correlated-samples t Test,

Dependent-samples t Test, Repeated measures t Test. Null
hypothesis, Research question, Self-actualization, Syntax, Effect
size, Interpretation of output.

Paired-Samples t Test is used for comparison of two means from paired,

dependent, matched, repeated or correlated samples. In a scenario that two
samples are related in some way and the mean of one of the samples is to be
compared with the mean of the other sample, Paired-Samples t Test is the
most suitable statistical test to apply. With Paired-Samples t Test, the two
samples could either be of the same individuals or elements measured on
two occasions or of related persons or elements that each is measured once
on a dependent variable at interval or ratio scale of measurement. Such

293
related individuals could be identical twins, fraternal twins, spouses
(husbands and their wives), mothers and their daughters, fathers and their
sons, first and second siblings, and chancellors and their vice-chancellors.
Chiefly, for comparison of two means from two samples that are naturally
related in some way, the Paired-Samples t Test must be used. There are
several investigations that could demand application of Paired-Samples t
Test. Two examples are provided in this chapter on how Paired-Samples t
Test is performed, using IBM SPSS Statistics dialog boxes point and click
method and IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax approach in each case.

SPOUSES’ EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT IN

CALIFORNIA
In a survey of the educational attainment of couples in California, a sample
of 3500 intact families (families that the husbands and wives are still
married) was drawn and a brief 13-point Couples’ Educational Attainment
Scale was administered to and retrieved from them with the aim of
comparing the educational attainment of the husbands with that of their
wives. Of the 3500 families that participated in the survey, only data for the
first 66 couples are used to illustrate computation of the Paired-Samples t
Test here. The data are presented in Table 5.1. The Scale was scored 10 to
130 as follows:
Education Attained Points
1st – 4th grade 10
5th – 6th grade 20
7th – 8th grade 30
9th – 10th grade 40
11th grade 50
High school graduate 60
Some college (no degree) 70
Associate degree (occupational) 80
Associate degree (academic) 90

294
 Bachelor’s degree 100
Master’s degree 110
Professional degree 120
Doctoral degree 130

Table 5.1 Chapter 5 Table 1 Data.sav [Spouses’ educational attainment]

Spouses Husband Wife
1 110 100
2 100 80
3 100 70
4 130 110
5 110 100
6 100 100
7 90 100
8 120 90
9 100 100
10 100 100
11 100 100
12 110 100
13 90 100
14 130 100
15 100 100
16 120 110
17 100 80
18 120 90
19 100 100
20 130 90

295
21 100 100
22 110 100
23 110 100
24 120 110
25 100 110
26 120 120
27 130 100
28 130 100
29 120 110
30 120 80
31 110 90
32 120 130
33 110 110
34 100 90
35 120 100
36 90 100
37 130 100
38 120 100
39 120 100
40 100 100
41 100 110
42 100 90
43 110 80
44 120 100
45 100 90
46 90 100

296
 47 90 100
48 80 110
49 110 90
50 100 80
51 120 70
52 100 110
53 100 100
54 100 100
55 130 80
56 110 100
57 100 100
58 100 130
59 90 100
60 130 100
61 80 100
62 90 110
63 120 100
64 80 90
65 120 100
66 110 120

Research Question and Hypothesis

Research question
What is the educational attainment of husbands and their wives in
California?
Alternate hypothesis
Husbands and their wives significantly differ in educational attainment.
Null hypothesis

297
 Husbands and their wives do not differ significantly in educational
attainment.

SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND CLICK FOR

PAIRED-SAMPLES t TEST
Step 1. Switch the computer on and let it boot.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking its icon .

Step 3. Enter the data. Entering of data in IBM SPSS Statistics for
performing of Paired-Samples t Test is dramatically different from how
data are inputted for execution of Independent-Samples t Test that was
treated in Chapter 3. For Paired-Samples t Test, while the participants’
first scores on the dependent variable (Spouses’ Educational Attainment
in this instance) are entered in the first column of the SPSS Data View, the
participants’ second scores are entered in the second column of the SPSS
Data View in such a careful manner that the two scores of one natural pair
(i.e., husband and wife in this example) of participants must be on the
same row. Emphatically, each couple’s two scores must be on the same row
for that particular family, without any mistake or shift for anyone.
In Paired-Samples t Test, the pairs or two sets of score are not
differentiated with codes of 1 and 2 or 0 and 1 as was done in
Independent-Samples t Test. Rather, all the scores on one category of the
respondents must be entered under the first column that IBM SPSS
Statistics default describes as Var00001, and all the scores of the other
category of respondents must be inputted under the second column that
SPSS default regards as Var00002, ensuring unmistakably that every
respondent’s two scores constitute one and the same row.
Now, you can start entering the scores, one after the other and making
sure that after typing each score, the Enter key on the Keyboard is pressed
once. After entering the data accordingly, the relative positions (order and
sequence) of the data for husbands and wives will be as serially numbered
in Table 5.1. Then, click Variable View that will be looking like Figure 5.1.

298
 Figure 5.1 Variable View with default names for the variables

Replace the Var00001 and Var00002 with their actual names, Husband
and Wife, respectively under the Name column. In the first and second
rows under Label column, type Husband and Wife, respectively. Under
Measure column, click the Unknown and select Scale for the first and
second rows. When done, the Variable View will look like the screenshot
in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Variable View with actual variables names

Click Data View at the extreme bottom and extreme right to return to
the Data View when all the data have properly been entered, named and
labeled as shown in Figure 5.3.

299
Figure 5.3 Chapter 5 Table 1 Data.sav

300
Figure 5.3 Continued

301
 Figure 5.3 Continued

Step 4. Save the data by moving cursor to the Toolbar and clicking the Save
this document icon for Save Data As dialog box to appear. In the Save
Data As dialog box, type a suitable unique name for the dataset in the File
name field. This dataset is accordingly named Chapter 5 Table 1 Data.sav
as can be seen in Figure 5.4.

302
 Figure 5.4 Save Data As dialog box

Press Enter on the Keyboard or click Save in the dialog box to

permanently save the dataset for later retrieval as at when needed.

Step 5. Analyze the data by clicking Analyze Compare Means

Paired-Samples T Test as exhibited in Figure 5.5.

303
 Figure 5.5 Analyze Compare Means Paired-Samples T Test

On clicking the Paired-Samples T Test…, its dialog box appears

instantly. All the SPSS analytical operations required for execution of the
Paired-Samples t Test will be done in the Paired-Samples T Test dialog
box as shown in Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6 Paired-Samples T Test dialog box

304
 With Husband highlighted in the left box, click the right-pointed arrow
to move the variable into the Paired Variables box at the right. Also
move the remaining variable, Wife, from the left box into the Paired
Variables box at the right by highlighting Wife and clicking the same right-
pointed arrow . When done, the Paired-Samples T Test dialog box
will look like Figure 5.7. Preferably, highlight both of the variables
(Husband and Wife) in the left box and click the right-pointed arrow
to transfer the two variables at once into the Paired Variables field at the
right to have the Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7 Paired-Samples T Test dialog box ready for production of output

Finally, click OK. With this click, the results of the Paired-Samples t
Test on Spouses’ Educational Attainment (SEA) in California will appear in
the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as presented in Output 5.1.

Output 5.1 Chapter 5 Output 1.spv

305
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 5.1: COUPLES’
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
The first part of the Output 5.1, Paired Sample Statistics, reveals the
descriptive statistics on Spouses’ Educational Attainment (SEA) for
Husband and Wife. For Husband, the Mean is 107.8788, N (number of
cases) is 66, Standard Deviation is 13.64553 and Standard Error of
Mean is 1.67965. For Wife, the Mean is 98.9394, N is 66, Standard
Deviation is 11.51972 and 1.41798 Standard Error of Mean. The
Husband’s mean tends to be higher than that of the Wife. Whether the
difference between these means is statistical and not by chance occurrence
shall be unveiled in the third part (Paired Samples Test) of the output.
The second table in the Output 5.1, Paired Samples Correlations,
shows that the Pearson correlation coefficient between the Spouses’
Educational Attainment is -.005. The Sig. for the correlation is .970,
indicating that the correlation occurred solely by chance as it is not
significant. The educational attainment of the husbands and their wives is

306
not meaningfully correlated as the correlation coefficient is very close to
zero, -.005 precisely.
The third table in Output 5.1, Paired Samples Test, displays the Paired
Differences between Husband and Wife to be 8.93939 Mean, 17.89962
Standard Deviation, 2.20329 Standard Error of Mean, 4.53912 Lower
and 13.33967 Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference, 4.057 t,
65 df (degrees of freedom) and Sig. (2-tailed) of .000 that is read as less
than .001 or less than .0005. The t of 4.057 is a function of the Paired
Mean Differences between husband and wife’s educational attainment
(8.93939) divided by the Paired Differences Standard Error Mean
(2.20329). The t of 4.057 is statistically significant because the p-value
(Sig. [2-tailed]) of .000, read as less than .001 or less than .0005, is smaller
than the chosen alpha levels of .05 and of .01. Therefore, the null
hypothesis that “husbands and their wives do not differ significantly in
educational attainment” is rejected in favor of the husbands who have a
higher mean. In other words, the alternate hypothesis that “husbands and
their wives significantly differ in educational attainment” is sustained as the
husbands have a statistically significant higher mean (107.8788) than their
wives’ mean (98.9394) at the 65 degrees of freedom and .05 as well as .01
chosen alphas. Synoptically, spouses’ educational attainment (Paired
Differences Mean of 8.93939; Paired Differences Standard Deviation of
17.89962; and Paired Differences Std. Error Mean of 2.20329) is
statistically significant as t(65) = 4.057, p < .01, d = .499.
It must be recalled that whenever the Lower and Upper 95%
Confidence Interval of the Difference both fall either above zero (0) or
below zero (0), the pair of means under comparison statistically differ
significantly. That is, the mean difference between the two means is
significant. In the analysis that the output is being interpreted here, both the
Lower and Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference (4.53912 and
13.33967, respectively) fall above zero. Therefore, the Mean Difference of
8.93939 is statistically significant. On the contrary, whenever the Lower
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference falls below zero and the Upper
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference falls above zero, the pair of
means under comparison do not significantly vary (differ). The mean
difference in the scenario that zero lies between the Lower and Upper 95%
Confidence Interval of the Difference is not significant and is totally a mere
function of chance. Haven found that there is a significant difference in the

307
educational attainment of husband and wife, what is next to do is
determination of whether the difference has a trivial, small, medium, or
large Effect Size.

EFFECT SIZE, d, IN PAIRED-SAMPLES t TEST

The Effect Size, measured with Cohen’s d for the Paired-Samples t Test is
the Paired Differences of the Mean (8.93939) divided by the Paired
Differences Standard Deviation (17.89962), which is equal to .499. The
classical conventions for trivial, small, medium, and large Effect Sizes (ES)
are respectively as presented earlier in Table 3.2 of Chapter 3 as follows in
corroboration of the recommendations by Cohen (1988):
Less than .200 is Trivial ES
Between .200 and .499 is Small ES
Between .500 and .799 is Medium ES
From .800 and above is Large ES.
Therefore, the .499 Effect Size of spouses’ educational attainment is
small; though not a function of mere chance occurrence as the computed t is
significant.
In equation form, Effect Size that is measured with Cohen’s d in Paired-
Samples t Test can be given as in Equation 5:1.

Where M1 and M2 are the respective means for the two paired samples
(husband and wife in this case). The numerator of the equation, M1 – M2, is
termed Paired Differences Mean and could as well be abbreviated as
PDM in Paired-Samples t Test. The PDS is the Paired Differences
Standard Deviation. The Paired Samples Test table in the Output 5.1 has
revealed that while the Paired Differences Mean is 8.93939, the Paired
Differences Standard Deviation is 17.89962. Therefore, the Effect Size is
as given in Equation 5:1.

308
 Since the calculated t value in the current example is already known, the
d as the measure of Effect Size can as well be computed directly from the t
value of the Paired-Samples t Test. From this perspective, d (the effect size)
can be got as the calculated t value multiplied by the square root of one
divided by the number of paired cases. That is as given in Equation 5:2.

Where t is the computed t value of the Paired-Samples t Test; and N is

the number of paired cases. With the t found to be 4.057 and the N given to
be 66, the Effect Size can be got thus.

Though the mean difference between the educational attainment of

husbands and their wives is statistically significant at .001 alpha, the said
difference has a d of .499 that is interpreted as a small effect size.

Step 6. View the output with the aid of the left, right, up and down-pointed
arrows at the bottom edge and right edge of the screen.

Step 7. Save the Output 5.1 as Chapter 5 Output 1.spv (see Figure 5.8).
Click the Save this document tool in the Toolbar to have its dialog box
in which you type Chapter 5 Output 1.spv in the File name field and
press Enter or click Save.

309
 Figure 5.8 Save Output as Chapter 5 Output 1.spv

Step 8. Print the output. Click the Print tool in the Toolbar to have its
dialog box in which you click OK to get one copy of All visible output
printed as shown in Figure 5.9. The operation can easily be repeated to have
the required number of copies. Alternatively, increase the Number of
copies in the dialog box to the needed number before clicking the
OK so that all the required copies get printed at once.

310
 Figure 5.9 Print Output dialog box

Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS by closing all opened SPSS windows. You can also
exit the SPSS by clicking File and in the File dropdown, clicking Exit as
indicated in Figure 5.10.

311
 Figure 5.10 File Exit

Step 10. Shut down the system via Start Power Shut down.

SPSS SYNTAX FOR PAIRED-SAMPLES t TEST ON

SPOUSES’ SEA

312
Paired-Samples t Test on the Spouses’ Educational Attainment can very
swiftly be executed by merely typing Syntax 5.1 into the IBM SPSS
Statistics Syntax Editor and clicking Run All.

Syntax 5.1 Chapter 5 Syntax 1.sps

T-TEST PAIRS=Husband WITH Wife (PAIRED)
/CRITERIA=CI(.9500)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS.

To perform the analysis, you must follow the basic SPSS Statistics data
analysis protocols of:
Starting the computer

Opening or launching IBM SPSS Statistics

Entering the data.

Instead of entering the data, Retrieve the data because the data in
question have been entered, named, labelled and saved. Recall that the said
dataset was saved as Chapter 5 Table 1 Data.sav earlier in this chapter. To
retrieve the dataset, click Open data document tool in the Toolbar,
look for the file name (Chapter 5 Table 1 Data.sav), click it, and click
Open or press Enter to have the Open Data menu as presented in Figure
5.11.

313
 Figure 5.11 Open Data menu

On clicking Open, the Data View Editor with the saved dataset appears
exactly as illustrated in Figure 5. 3.
Click Window in the Menu Bar and in the Window dropdown menu,
click Go to Designated Syntax Window as illustrated in Figure 5.12 to
activate the SPSS Syntax Editor that is shown in Figure 5.13. Another way
of opening the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor is by clicking File,
selecting New, and clicking Syntax.

Figure 5.12 Window Go to Designated Syntax Window

314
 Figure 5.13 IBM SPSS Statistics Editor

Most carefully enter the Syntax given in Syntax 5.1 as shown in Figure
5.14.

Figure 5.14 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor with the Paired-Samples t Test Syntax

Next, click Run All. That is, click Run in the Menu Bar of the
IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor, and in the Run dropdown menu,
click All. With this, the entire analysis gets completed and the results
produced in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as displayed in Output 5.2.

Output 5.2 Chapter 5 Output 2.spv

315
 This Output 5.2 is exactly as Output 5.1. Therefore, the same
interpretation provided for Output 5.1 suffices here. Go through the
interpretation of Output 5.1 again and apply it to the Output 5.2.
Scroll with the aid of the relevant arrows and view the Output 5.2. Save
the Output 5.2 by clicking the Save this document tool in the Toolbar
to have its menu in which you type the document name (Chapter 5 Output
2.spv) into the File name field and press the Enter key on the Keyboard or
click Save as demonstrated in Figure 5.15.

316
 Figure 5.15 Save Output As Chapter 5 Output 2.spv

Also save the Syntax by activating the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax
Editor with the Syntax in question, and click the Save this document icon
in the Toolbar for its menu to appear. In the Save Syntax As dialog
box, type in the name that is suitable for the Syntax, Chapter 5 Syntax
1.sps in this example, as exemplified in Figure 5.16), and press Enter.

317
 Figure 5.16 Save Syntax As… Chapter 5 Syntax 1.sps

Print the Output 5.2 by merely clicking the Print tool in the
Toolbar and pressing Enter on the Keyboard or click OK in the dialog box
to have one copy of the All visible output printed.
Exit SPSS by closing all IBM SPSS Statistics windows that are open on
your screen.
Shut down your computer. To do this, click Start Power
Shut down.

SELF-ACTUALIZATION IN 3-YEAR
UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMMES
One more example on execution of Paired-Samples t Test will definitely
guarantee mastery of how IBM SPSS Statistics is used to perform Paired-
Samples t Test. The data on Self-Actualization were collected from
undergraduate students in four Universities in the United Kingdom when

318
they were admitted in 2014 and when they graduated in 2017. It was a
longitudinal study that aimed at ascertaining Self-Actualization of young
men and women at the point of admission into, termed Admission Self-
Actualization (AS_A), and their Self-Actualization on graduation from,
termed Graduation Self-Actualization (GS_A), 3-year undergraduate
academic programs in four universities in the United Kingdom.
A 5-point 40-item Self-Actualization Scale (S-AS) was administered to
and retrieved from the participants via email in 2014 and 2017, respectively.
The S-AS elicited each participant’s motive to understand oneself, realize
one’s latent potentials, and establish oneself as a total person. While the
minimum possible score that a respondent could get was 40, the maximum
possible score that a respondent could get was 200 as each item on the
Scale was scored 1 to 5 in a positive direction. To ensure equality of length
of time spent in university for the first degree and to prevent unnecessary
differential maturation, students admitted into fast-track 2-year degrees and
those into 4-year sandwich programs were not eligible for the study. Each
participant had a pair of scores (Self-Actualization on Admission and Self-
Actualization on Graduation). The scores are presented in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Chapter 5 Table 2 Data.sav (Graduation Self-Actualization

(GS_A) and Admission Self-Actualization (AS_A) in UK)
Participants GS_A AS_A
1 152.00 120.00
2 182.00 124.00
3 123.00 100.00
4 182.00 130.00
5 117.00 80.00
6 117.00 90.00
7 122.00 105.00
8 122.00 100.00
9 130.00 110.00
10 156.00 120.00

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11 132.00 114.00
12 152.00 120.00
13 172.00 134.00
14 122.00 96.00
15 112.00 100.00
16 172.00 130.00
17 102.00 80.00
18 132.00 102.00
19 172.00 128.00
20 172.00 126.00
21 198.00 131.00
22 192.00 140.00
23 92.00 194.00
24 102.00 100.00
25 127.00 106.00
26 140.00 108.00
27 162.00 130.00
28 172.00 120.00
29 122.00 100.00
30 142.00 100.00
31 132.00 88.00
32 122.00 90.00
33 152.00 109.00
34 152.00 120.00
35 102.00 100.00
36 152.00 130.00

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37 132.00 100.00
38 112.00 98.00
39 122.00 108.00
40 124.00 90.00
41 138.00 105.00
42 156.00 122.00
43 172.00 140.00
44 182.00 144.00
45 112.00 86.00
46 117.00 100.00
47 112.00 90.00
48 112.00 80.00
49 108.00 78.00
50 110.00 104.00
51 112.00 110.00
52 130.00 112.00
53 132.00 116.00
54 122.00 120.00
55 112.00 102.00
56 162.00 130.00
57 142.00 122.00
58 146.00 125.00
59 130.00 102.00
60 122.00 100.00
61 132.00 102.00
62 122.00 120.00

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 63 122.00 130.00
64 102.00 100.00
65 92.00 88.00
66 122.00 108.00
67 122.00 100.00
68 152.00 120.00
69 132.00 110.00

Research question
What is the Self-Actualization on Admission (AS_A) into and Self-
Actualization on Graduation (GS_A) from 3-year undergraduate programs
in the UK as measured by the mean and Standard Deviation?

Alternate hypothesis
There is a significant difference between Self-Actualization on Admission
(AS_A) into and Self-Actualization on Graduation (GS_A) from 3-year
undergraduate programs in the UK.

Null hypothesis
There is no significant difference between Self-Actualization on Admission
(AS_A) into and Self-Actualization on Graduation (GS_A) from 3-year
undergraduate programs in the UK.

SPSS DIALOG BOXES SELECTION FOR PAIRED-

SAMPLES t TEST CASE 2
Follow the SPSS Statistics data analysis protocols.
Switch on the computer

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 Start IBM SPSS Statistics

Enter the data, name and label the variables

Enter the entire data under the GS_A and AS_A columns of Table 5.2
into the Data View of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor. Recall that
for the data entry, place cursor on the topmost and leftmost cell in the Data
View and click; after which you type the first score, 152, and press Enter,
182 and press Enter, 123 and press Enter carefully until the last score of
GS_A, 132, and press Enter. Then, move cursor to the topmost cell in the
second column of the Data View and click after which you type 120 and
press Enter, 124 and press Enter, 100 and press Enter very carefully till
you type the last score of AS_A, 110, and press Enter. Emphatically, the
data entry must be in such a manner that the pair of each respondent’s
scores constitute one row consistently.
Then, move cursor down to the bottom left and click Variable View
where you type the actual names for the Var00001 and Var00002 as GS_A
and AS_A, respectively, under the Name column. Be reminded that GS_A
stands for Graduation Self-Actualization (i.e., the Self-Actualization on
Graduation from the 3-year degree program) and AS_A denotes Admission
Self-Actualization (the Self-Actualization on admission into the 3-year
baccalaureate program). Under the Label column, also type GS_A and
AS_A, respectively for the two corresponding rows. Click Unknown under
Measure column and select Scale for each of the two rows as shown in
Figure 5.17.

Figure 5.17 Variable View with the names and labels entered

Get back to the Data View by clicking Data View at the bottom extreme
of the Variable View. This click takes you to the Data View with the
names (GS_A and AS_A) of the variables as exhibited in Figure 5.18.

323
Figure 5.18 Chapter 5 Table 2 Data.sav

324
Figure 5.18 Continued

325
 Figure 5.18 Continued

Save the data by clicking the Save this document tool in the Toolbar. In
its dialog box, type a suitable name for the document (Chapter 5 Table 2
Data.sav) in this example as shown in Figure 5.19.

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 Figure 5.19 Save Data As… Chapter 5 Table 2 Data.sav

Analyze the data. Click Analyze Compare Means Paired-

Samples T Test as shown in Figure 5.20.

Figure 5.20 Analyze Compare Means Paired-Samples T Test

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 On clicking the Paired-Samples T Test, its dialog box appears as shown
in Figure 5.21. It is in this dialog box that the statistical operations for the
analysis is done.

Figure 5.21 Paired-Samples T Test dialog box

Highlight each of the variables, GS_A[GS_A] and AS_A[AS_A], in the

box at the left and move it to the Paired Variables box at the right by
clicking the right-pointed arrow for the analysis to be ready as
indicated in Figure 5.22. It is much preferable to highlight both of the
variables in the left box and transfer them at once into the Paired Variables
box at the right.

328
 Figure 5.22 Paired-Samples T Test dialog box with variables moved right

At this point, all the necessary statistical operations for the analysis have
been done. So, move cursor to and click OK for IBM SPSS Statistics to
instantly produce the results in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as
presented in Output 5.3

Output 5.3 Chapter 5 Output 3.spv

329
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 5.3: SELF-
ACTUALIZATION
The Paired Samples Statistics table of the Output 5.3 shows that
Graduation Self-Actualization (GS_A) has a Mean of 135.0870, Standard
Deviation of 25.13595 and 3.02601 Standard Error of Mean with 69 as the
N (number of cases). Admission Self-Actualization (AS_A) has a Mean of
110.6812 that is lower than that of GS_A. The AS_A has 18.91194
Standard Deviation and 2.27673 Standard Error of Mean. The descriptive
statistics provides answer to the research question of “What is the Self-
Actualization on Admission (AS_A) into and the Self-Actualization on
Graduation (GS_A) from 3-year undergraduate programs in the UK as
measured by the mean and standard deviation?”
The Paired Samples Correlations table indicates a correlation
coefficient of .562 that is statistically significant between the participants’
self-actualization at the point of admission and at graduation time. Those
with high, medium and low self-actualization on admission respectively
maintained relatively high, medium and low self-actualization on
graduation. However, this relationship is not the main concern of the current

330
study. It is the third table of the Output 5.3, Paired Samples Test that is the
core issue of this investigation.
The Paired Samples Test table of the Output 5.3 provides the results for
the hypothesis testing. The Mean Difference between Graduation Self-
Actualization (GS_A) and Admission Self-Actualization (AS_A) is
24.40580. The Paired Differences between GS_A and AS_A has a
Standard Deviation of 21.33577, a Standard Error of Mean of 2.56853,
with 19.28038 Lower and 29.53121 Upper 95% Confidence Interval of
the Difference. The computed t is 9.502 that is statistically significant even
at .001 alpha as the p-value (Sig [2-tailed]) .000, normally written as less
than .0005, is smaller than .001 at 68 degrees of freedom (df). Since the p-
value is less than the chosen alpha, the null hypothesis that “there is no
significant difference between Self-Actualization on Admission (AS_A)
into and Self-Actualization on Graduation (GS_A) from 3-year
undergraduate programs in the UK” is rejected. The rejection is in favour of
Self-Actualization on graduation that has significantly higher mean
(135.0870). In other words, the alternate hypothesis that “there is a
significant difference between Self-Actualization on Admission (AS_A)
into and Self-Actualization on Graduation (GS_A) from 3-year
undergraduate programs in the UK” is sustained in favour of graduation
self-actualization. Kpolovie, Joe and Okoto (2014) had found similar results
in the developing world.
It must be reiterated emphatically that whenever the Lower and Upper
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference both fall either above zero or
below zero, the pair of means under comparison statistically differ
significantly. That is, the Mean Difference between the two means is
significant. In the analysis that the output is being interpreted here, both the
Lower and Upper 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference (19.28038 and
29.53121, respectively) fall above zero. Therefore, the Paired Differences
Mean of 24.40580 is statistically significant.

EFFECT SIZE, d
After ascertaining that there is a significant difference between self-
actualization at graduation from and at admission into the 3-yeear first
degree programme, it becomes very necessary for establishment of whether

331
the difference is a “trivial”, “small”, “medium”, or “large” one. To do this,
Effect Size must be computed. Cohen’s d is the measure of Effect Size in
Paired-Samples t Test. When the results are subjected to d, an Effect Size
of 1.144 is got. The Effect Size of 1.144 is interpreted as a “Large Effect
Size” in accordance with the recommendations by Cohen (1988) and
Cumming (2012).
Effect Size (ES), measured with Cohen’s d in Paired-Samples t Test is
the Paired Differences Mean (24.40580) divided by the Paired
Differences Standard Deviation (21.33577). When the division is done,
the resultant d is 1.144. A d (Effect Size) as high as 1.144 falls within
“Large Effect Size” in the classical recommendations by Cohen (1988) that:
Less than .200 is Trivial ES
Between .200 and .499 is Small ES
Between .500 and .799 is Medium ES
From .800 and above is Large ES.
Perhaps, stating the computation of d as the measure of Effect Size in
Paired-Samples t Test in equation form could allow for easier
comprehension by certain persons. Thus, the Effect Size, d, can be given as
in Equation 5:3.

Where Mpd is the Mean of the Paired Differences, Spd is the Standard
Deviation of the Paired Differences. Note that in the current example, the
Mean of the Paired Differences is 24.40580 and the Standard Deviation of
the Paired Differences is 21.33577. Substituting the symbols in the
Equation 5:3 with their actual values, the One-Sample t Test Effect Size,
measured with Cohen’s d becomes:

Another strategy for calculation of d as the measure of Effect Size in

Paired-Samples t Test is by deriving the d directly from the computed
Paired-Samples t Test. To derive d from the calculated Paired-Samples t
Test value, simply multiply the t value by the square root of 1 divided by N

332
(the sample size). In equation form, computing d directly from the t value
can thus be given as in Equation 5:2.

Where t is the calculated value of the Paired-Samples t Test, and N is

the sample size or number of cases in the investigation. In the present
example, the t value is 9.502 and the sample size, N, is 69. Let me very
quickly point out here that the t value in Paired-Samples t Test is the Paired
Differences Mean (24.40580) divided by the Paired Differences Standard
Error of Means (2.56853). That is, the t value of 9.502 is a function of
24.40580 ÷ 2.56853. Replacing the symbols in the Equation 5:2 with their
actual values, the Cohen’s d as the measure of Effect Size (ES) becomes:

In summary therefore, the results have shown that Graduation Self-

Actualization (M = 135.0870, SD = 25.13595) and Admission Self-
Actualization (M = 110.6812, SD = 18.91194) with Paired Differences (M
= 24.40580, St. Deviation = 21.33577, St. Error Mean = 2.56853) differ
significantly t(68) = 9.502, p < .001, d = 1.144 (a large Effect Size).
Therefore, the 3-year undergraduate program in the United Kingdom
overwhelmingly increases the Self-Actualization of those who successfully
pass through the program.
Now that the results of the analysis have been interpreted, follow the
remaining routine protocols of data analysis with SPSS Statistics to
eventually shut down your system.
View the output

333
 Save the output as Chapter 5 Output 3.spv

Print output

Exit IBM Statistics SPSS

Shut down the system.

If there is any unit of these protocols that you are yet to master, refer to
previous sections and rehearse it thoroughly.

SPSS SYNTAX FOR PAIRED-SAMPLES t TEST ON

SELF-ACTUALIZATION
The IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax for execution of Paired-Samples t Test
on Self-Actualization on Graduation and Self-Actualization at Admission
into the 3-year first degree programme is presented in Syntax 5.2. The
Syntax 5.2 is very much like the one given in Syntax 5.1 with very little but
critically important changes, replacement of the variable names.

Syntax 5.2 Chapter 5 Syntax 2.sps

T-TEST PAIRS=GS_A WITH AS_A (PAIRED)
/CRITERIA=CI(.9500)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS.

To perform the Paired-Samples t Test with the use of SPSS Commands

Syntax:
Switch on the computer

334
 Start IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data since the entry has already been done and saved as
Chapter 5 Table 2 Data.sav

Window

Go to Designated Syntax Window

Enter this SPSS Syntax carefully:

Run

All.
That is, start the computer, launch IBM SPSS Statistics, and retrieve the
file that has been saved as Chapter 5 Table 2 Data.sav. The retrieval can
simply be done by clicking Open data document icon in the Toolbar
of SPSS Data Editor to get its menu in which you look for and click the
file name (Chapter 5 Table 2 Data.sav) and press Enter as can be seen in
Figure 5.23. Pressing the Enter key on the Keyboard opens the Chapter 5
Table 2 Data.sav as earlier shown in Figure 5.18.

335
 Figure 5.23 Open Data menu box

In the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor containing the Chapter 5

Table 2 Data.sav dataset as shown in Figure 5.18, open the IBM SPSS
Statistics Syntax Editor by clicking Window, and clicking Go to
Designated Syntax Window as illustrated in Figure 5.24.

Figure 5.24 Window Go to Designated Syntax Window

A click on the Go to Designated Syntax Window takes you there

immediately as illustrated in Figure 5.25. The SPSS Syntax Editor could

336
as well be got by clicking File, selecting New, and clicking Syntax.

Figure 5.25 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

Most carefully enter the SPSS Statistical Commands given in Syntax

5.2. When done, the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor will look like
Figure 5.26.

Figure 5.26 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor with the Syntax

Finally, click Run and All (see Figure 5.27) to have the results displayed
instantly in the SPSS Viewer as presented in Output 5.4. Apart from
clicking Run and All, the results as presented in Output 5.4 could be got by

highlighting the correctly entered Syntax and clicking which is the

icon for Run selection in the Toolbar.

337
 Figure 5.27 Run All

Output 5.4 Chapter 5 Output 4.spv

The Output 5.4 is interpreted exactly as in Output 5.3. Go through

Output 5.3 interpretation and apply it to Output 5.4. Proceed with the
remaining routine protocols to finally shut down your system.
View the output

Save the output as Chapter 5 Output 4.spv, and the Syntax as Chapter
5 Syntax 2.sps

338
 Print the output

Exit IBM SPSS Statistics

Shut down the system

Whenever you have data, no matter how large the sample may be, for
subjection to Paired-Samples t Test analysis, just follow the simple IBM
SPSS Statistics step-by-step presentation in this chapter to get it done
accurately in an effortless manner.

339
 Chapter 6
ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Overview
An investigation of a problem that involves simultaneous comparison of
more than two groups demands subjection of the observed data to One-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). ANOVA is a much more powerful
statistical technique than the t Test, and it is very frequently required in
investigations for comparison of three or more groups. Groups to compare
in research and most real-life situations are often more than two for
determination of whether the populations from which they were accurately,
precisely and representatively drawn differ significantly on the dependent
variable. With the down-to-earth treatment of the topic, the user
automatically acquires expert knowledge of SPSS Statistics in ANOVA
execution and of the best possible interpretation of the output. Efficiency of
three types of lightbulb is used for illustration.

Keywords: Analysis of variance, ANOVA, Interpretation of

output, Post hoc tests, Eta squared, Univariate ANOVA, Partial
eta squared, Results summary, Luminous efficacy; Effect size;
Mean plots; ANOVA SPSS syntax; Pairwise comparisons.

One-Way Analysis of Variance, simply referred to as ANOVA is the best

statistical test for comparison of means from more than two independent
samples drawn from different populations. Whenever multiple comparisons
of means are to be made on a dependent variable that is measured at
interval or ratio scale with regard to one independent variable that has more
than two categories, One-Way Analysis of Variance is the most appropriate
statistical test for analysing the data. The ANOVA is like an extension of
Independent-Samples t Test to have more than two groups in the
independent variable compared simultaneously.

340
 The ANOVA is a most special statistical technique that best takes care of
the variance within the conditions under investigation while simultaneously
excluding all other sources of variation, such as extraneous, nuisance and
intruding variables from the experiment. ANOVA does this by effectively
comparing the within groups variance (i.e., the variance caused by
extraneous factors like individual differences) with the between groups
variance (i.e., the variance caused by manipulation of the independent
variable). In other words, ANOVA accurately breaks the total variance in an
experimental study, for instance, into two sources that are termed between
groups mean square and within groups mean square (Gray and Kinnear,
2012; Field, 2018; 2013), and divides the former by the latter to arrive at
the F (symbol for ANOVA), which when statistically significant, is the
exclusive effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
ANOVA when written without a prefix qualifier like “Two-Way” or
“Within-Subjects”, “Paired-Samples” or “Correlated-Samples”, refers to the
One-Way ANOVA. The One-Way ANOVA refers to One-Way Between-
Subjects ANOVA. It is clear that the ANOVA currently under consideration
is the One-Way Between-Subjects Analysis of Variance. In addition to the
assumptions for comparison of means (normal distribution of the
population, independence of observations and homoscedasticity of
variance) that were discussed in Chapter 3, ANOVA demands that:
i. there is only one independent variable that has different levels,
groups or categories;
ii. there is only one dependent variable on which data are collected at
the interval or ratio scale of measurement;
iii. the cases in each group must be independent of those in other groups
and be drawn from a totally unique population.
Data from an investigation on the effect of types of light bulb on
luminous efficacy are used to illustrate execution of ANOVA with IBM
SPSS Statistics.

EFFICIENCY OF THREE TYPES OF LIGHT BULB

Kpolovie and Ololube (2020) investigated the effect of types of light bulb
on luminous efficacy. Luminous efficacy is the extent to which a light
source produces visible light as determined by the ratio of luminous flux to

341
power consumption, and measured in lumens per watt. It is otherwise
known as lighting efficiency that is the ability of a light bulb to actually
emit visible light using a given amount of power. Three types of bulb were
used:
i. Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL): Produces light when an electric
arc passes between cathodes to excite mercury and other gases for
emission of radiant energy that is finally converted to visible light by
a phosphor coating.
ii. Light-Emitting Diode (LED): Is a chemical chip that is embedded
in a plastic capsule for the production of light when voltage is
applied to negatively charged semiconductors that cause electrons to
combine and create a unit of visible light.
iii. Incandescent Bulb (Incan.): Produces light whenever electric
current passes through its filament and causes it to brightly glow.
Two hundred 200 CFL 9W bulbs, 200 LED 8W bulbs and 200
Incandescent 40W bulbs were light up till when the first 50 (i.e., 25%) of
each type of the bulbs went off (could no longer light brightly or only
produces shaking/blinking visibility). The Luminous Efficacy of each of the
150 bulbs during its life time was measured and the data are as shown in
Table 6.1. The three classes or groups of the independent variable (Types of
Bulb) are coded thus: 1 = CFL 9W bulbs, 2 = 8W LED bulbs, and 3 =
40W Incandescent bulbs.

Table 6.1 Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav (Luminous efficacy of three types of

bulb)
9W CFL 8W LED 40W Incan.
50 56 11
64 66 13
38 60 9
30 80 8
54 82 15
34 74 6
40 81 18

342
44 52 10
46 50 12
32 46 12
36 76 15
44 86 10
50 66 12
32 70 7
42 74 4
35 65 19
43 67 22
34 68 2
51 70 12
47 66 18
49 64 10
29 82 8
31 66 20
30 67 14
51 70 9
40 58 7
44 59 5
43 70 12
34 60 3
44 61 6
61 63 13
53 65 17
54 66 15

343
 62 61 10
50 67 18
49 72 20
48 80 21
50 65 8
44 68 10
46 50 14
44 80 19
46 42 17
52 54 19
60 70 14
54 60 12
47 70 4
44 80 12
44 71 9
50 59 9
50 45 10

Research question
What is the luminous efficacy of the three types of bulb (9W CFL, 8W LED
and 40W Incandescent)?

Alternate hypothesis
There is a significant effect of the three types of bulb (9W CFL, 8W LED
and 40W Incandescent) on luminous efficacy.

Null hypothesis

344
Types of bulb (9W CFL, 8W LED and 40W Incandescent) do not have
significant effect on luminous efficacy.

SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND CLICK

METHOD OF ANOVA
Step 1. Switch the computer on and let it boot.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking on its icon on your

screen. Allow it to get ready fully and close the dialog box that is
superimposed on the IBM SPSS Data Editor.

Step 3. Enter the data in the manner that data were entered for performing
Independent-Samples t Test. That is, the entire data on the dependent
variable should be inputted under one column, Var00001, and the three
types of bulb (9W CFL, 8W LED and 40W Incandescent) should be
coded 1, 2 and 3, respectively, under the second column, Var00002. Data in
the example tends to be large. Be fully challenged motivationally to
carefully enter them correctly as every data analysis in real-life situation or
in every investigation that you will be engaged demands entering the data
accurately, which will be large in almost every scenario.
Move the cursor to and click the topmost and extreme left cell in the
Data View of the IBM SPSS Data Editor. Type the data on 9W CFL from
the first value (50) and press Enter, the second value (64) and press Enter,
the third (38) and press Enter, until the last value (50) and press Enter.
Then move cursor to the topmost cell next to the one that you have entered
data, click it and type 1 and press Enter, 1 and press Enter, until where the
data on 9W CFL ends. Press the left arrow on the Keyboard once and click
to ensure that the cursor is in the cell just after the one containing the last
value that you entered on 9W CFL; and continue with entering data on the
8W LED. Type 56 and press Enter, 66 and press Enter, until you type and
press Enter for the last value (45) on 8W LED. Move the cursor to the cell
in Var00002 just below the one that you entered the last 1 code, click it;
and start typing 2 and pressing Enter until the point that the last value on
8W LED is entered. Put cursor on and click the cell just below the one that

345
the last value on 8W LED is entered and type the values for 40W
Incandescent. Type 11 and press Enter, 13 and press Enter, 9 and press
Enter, until you enter the last value (10) and press Enter. Take cursor to
the cell that is just below where the last code of 2 is, click; and type 3 and
press Enter, 3 and press Enter, till you reach the end of all values on 40W
Incandescent.
To provide the actual name, label and value labels for the variables,
move cursor to and click Variable View at the bottom left corner of the
Data View to have the Variable View as shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1 Variable View

Click the first cell under Name that is currently bearing VAR00001 and
type the dependent variable name, LumEfficacy, and in the first cell under
Label, enter Luminous Efficacy, and in the first cell under Measure, click
Unknown and select Scale. Click the second cell under Name, where is
currently called VAR00002, and type BulbTypes; and in the second cell
under Label, enter Types of Bulb, and click Unknown and select Nominal
in the second cell under Measure. Click None in the second cell under
Values and click the small blue dotted box like ellipse in it for a Value
Labels dialog box to appear as shown in Figure 6.2.

346
 Figure 6.2 Value Labels dialog box

In the box beside Value, enter 1 and in the box beside Label, enter 9W
CFL and click Add to have Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3 Value Label dialog box with 1 and 9W CFL added

Type 2 in the box beside Value, and enter 8W LED in the box beside
Label, and click Add to have Figure 6.4.

347
 Figure 6.4 Value Labels with 2 and 8W LED added

In the box beside Value, type 3 and enter 40W Incandescent in the box
beside Label and click Add as indicated in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5 Value Labels with 40W Incandescent added

Click OK to get back to Figure 6.1. In it, click Data View to see the
Data View with all the entered data and the variable names as presented in
Figure 6.6.

348
Figure 6.6 Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav

349
Figure 6.6 Continued

350
Figure 6.6 Continued

351
Figure 6.6 Continued

352
Figure 6.6 Continued

353
Figure 6.6 Continued

354
 Figure 6.6 Continued

Step 4. Save the data. Move cursor to the Toolbar and click the Save this
document icon for the Save Data As… dialog box to appear as shown
in Figure 6.7. In it, type the name of the document, Chapter 6 Table 1
Data.sav, in the box beside File name and click Save or press Enter.

355
 Figure 6.7 Save Data As… Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav

Step 5. Analyze the data by clicking Analyze Compare Means

One-Way ANOVA… as illustrated in Figure 6.8.

Figure 6.8 Analyze Compare Means One-Way ANOA

356
 A click on the One-Way ANOVA produces the One-Way ANOVA
dialog box in which the entire statistical operations required for the analysis
are done with greatest ease as given in Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9 One-Way ANOVA dialog box

Highlight and move the dependent variable (Luminous Efficacy

[LumEfficacy]) in the left box into the Dependent List box at the right by
clicking the arrow pointing at the Dependent List box. Next, highlight
and move the independent variable (Types of Bulb [BulbTypes]) in the left
box into the Factor box at the right by clicking the arrow directly
pointing at the Factor box as displayed in Figure 6.10.

357
 Figure 6.10 One-Way ANOVA dialog box with variables transferred

To perform Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons, click Post Hoc

pushbutton for its dialog box to instantly appear. In the One-Way ANOVA:
Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons dialog box, select the Post Hoc statistical
test that you want to use for execution of the multiple pairwise
comparisons. Three of such tests (Bonferroni, Scheffe and R-E-G-W Q)

are selected by checking the small boxes beside them for illustration
here as can be seen in Figure 6.11.

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 Figure 6.11 One-Way ANOVA: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons

Click Continue and it will take you back to the One-Way ANOVA
main dialog box for you to proceed with other analytical operations.
Then, click Options pushbutton to have its dialog box. In the Options

dialog box, check Descriptive, Homogeneity of variance test and

Means plot as shown in Figure 6.12. These ticks will produce descriptive
statistics and a graph that plots the dependent variable means of the
independent variable groups as parts of the output. After that, click
Continue that returns you to the One-Way ANOVA main menu box when
all the necessary statistical operations have been done.

Figure 6.12 One-Way ANOVA: Options dialog box

Finally, click OK to have the results displayed in the IBM SPSS

Statistics Viewer as shown in Output 6.1.

Output 6.1 Chapter 6 Output 1.spv

359
360
361
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 6.1: BULB TYPES
EFFECT ON LUMINOUS EFFICACY
There are six parts of the Output 6.1 (five tables and one graph). Each of the
parts is listed and interpreted accordingly. They are Descriptives, Test of
Homogeneity of Variances, ANOVA Luminous Efficacy, Post Hoc Multiple
Comparisons, Homogeneous Subsets Luminous Efficacy, and Mean Plots.
In addition, Effect Size is calculated and interpreted as well for each
significant mean difference.

Descriptives
This section of the Output has most simply outlined the N (number of
cases), Mean, Std. Deviation, Std. Error, Lower Bound and Upper Bound of
95% Confidence Interval for Mean, the Minimum score and Maximum
score, respectively, for each of the three types of light bulb (9W CFL, 8W

362
LED and 40W Incandescent). The same statistical descriptions are also
given for the Total 150 bulbs that were observed and measured. For
instance, each of the three types of bulb has 50 cases; the Mean and Std.
Deviation respectively for 9W CFL bulbs are 44.9800 and 8.65316, for 8W
LED bulbs are 66.0000 and 10.12372, for 40W Incandescent bulbs are
12.0000 and 5.03863, and for the Total are 40.9933 and 23.74741. The
other columns of this table can easily be interpreted in like manner against
the rows. The means and standard deviations in the Descriptives table are
answers to the posed research question.

Test of Homogeneity of Variances

This table contains Levene Statistics, df1, df2 and Sig. that are significant,
indicating that the variances of Luminous Efficacy of the three types of
light bulb are not homogeneous and are therefore not assumed to be equal
across the three groups. However, the group sizes that are equal, the sample
size of each group that is fairly large, the near normal curve of each of the
distributions, and the stringent Post Hoc tests (Bonferroni and particularly
Scheffe and Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch Range [R-E-G-W Q]), in addition
to the Effect Size that will be calculated, are able to take care of this
ANOVA assumption violation.

ANOVA Luminous Efficacy

This is the main table on which testing of the postulated null hypothesis
depends. It shows the ANOVA F, Mean Square, degrees of freedom (df)
and Sum of Squares for the two sources of variation (i.e., the Between
Groups and the Within Groups) as well as the Total. For the Between
Groups, the Mean Square is 37046.007 which is a function of its Sum of
Squares (74092.013) divided by the df (2). For the Within Groups, the
Mean Square is 67.585 that is a function of its Sum of Squares (9934.980)
divided by its df of 147. The Total Sum of Squares is 84026.993 (an
addition of the Sum of Squares for Between groups and Within Groups) and
the Total df of 149 is derived from adding the df for Between Groups and
Within Groups. The F is 548.140, got as a function of Between Groups
Mean Square divided by the Within Groups Mean Square. The computed F
of 548.140 has .000 (read as less than .001 or less than .0005) Sig. (p-
value). Since the p-value (Sig.) of .001 is smaller than the chosen alpha of

363
.05 and even of .01, the null hypothesis that “the three types of bulb (9W
CFL, 8W LED and 40W Incandescent) do not have significant effect on
luminous efficacy” is rejected. Therefore, the alternate hypothesis that
“there is a significant effect of the three types of bulb (9W CFL, 8W LED
and 40W Incandescent) on luminous efficacy” is upheld. Rejection of the
omnibus null hypothesis demands that Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons be
done to ascertain the particular pairs of means that differ significantly,
which is reported in the next two parts of the interpretation of Output 6.1.

Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons

It can be discerned from the Multiple Comparisons table given for both
Scheffe and Bonferroni that each of the pairwise comparisons has
statistically significant difference as the Mean Difference (I-J) column for
each of the Mean Differences has asterisk (*) that denotes statistically
significant difference at .05 alpha level. A further look shows that indeed
the mean difference between each pair is overwhelmingly preponderant that
it is even significant at .000 (read as less than .001 or less than .0005) as
indicated in the p-value (Sig.) column. The 95% Confidence Interval of the
Mean Difference Lower Bound and Upper Bound columns have further
shown that for each pair of the means, the mean difference is significant
because for every paired means, the Lower Bound and the Upper Bound are
either completely above zero or completely below zero. Using Scheffe for
instance, the luminous efficacy Mean Difference between 9W CFL and 8W
LED bulbs is -21.02000* and has 1.64420 Std. Error, .000 Sig., plus
-25.0859 Lower Bound and -16.9541 Upper Bound at 95% Confidence
Interval. The 9W CFL and 40W Incandescent bulbs have 32.98000*
Mean Difference, 1.64420 Std. Error, .000 Sig. 28.9141 Lower Bound and
37.0459 Upper Bound at 95% Confidence Interval. In fact, the luminous
efficacy mean difference between 8W LED bulb and 40W Incandescent
bulb is as high as 54.0000*, with 1.64420 Std. Error, .000 Sig., and with
49.9341 and 58.0659 Lower Bound and Upper Bound, respectively, at 95%
Confidence Interval of the Mean Difference. Similar interpretation is
applicable to each of the paired types of bulb that constitute a row in this
table, irrespective of whether it is Scheffe’s or Bonferroni’s Post Hoc Tests
of Multiple Comparisons.

364
Homogeneous Subsets Luminous Efficacy
This table has shown that each of the three types of bulb has a luminous
efficacy mean that is significantly different from the others. For instance,
the Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch Range has revealed beyond all possible
doubts statistically that the 40W Incandescent bulbs have luminous efficacy
mean of 12.0000 that is overwhelmingly lower than the luminous efficacy
mean of 9W CFL bulbs (44.9800), which is in turn absolutely lower than
the luminous efficacy mean of the 8W LED bulbs (66.0000). Each of the
mean differences is statistically significant as no two means fall under the
same homogenous subset.

Means Plots
The Means Plots has graphically expressed the relative positions of the
Types of Bulb (9W CFL, 8W LED and 40W Incandescent) along the
horizontal axis against the Mean of Luminous Efficacy at the vertical axis.
This is a pictorial description of the significant effect of the Types of Bulb
on Luminous Efficacy to show that the 40W Incandescent is incomparably
less effective than 8W LED, and the 9W CFL. Furthermore, the 8W LED
has outstandingly more luminous efficacy than the 9W CFL bulbs. The
interpretation cannot be complete without presentation of the Effect Size
that is addressed in the final section.

EFFECT SIZE AS ETA-SQUARED IN ANOVA

Effect Size in ANOVA is measured with Eta-Squared (ɳ2) that is
calculated as Sum of Squares Between Groups divided by the Sum of
Squares Total. The Effect Size in higher models of ANOVA is measured
with Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) as shall be demonstrated later in this
chapter. Partial Eta Squared uses Sum of Squares Corrected Total as the
denominator; while Eta Squared uses Sum of Squares Total as the
denominator. In equation form, Eta-Squared can be given as in Equation
6:1.

365
 In the ANOVA Luminous Effect table of the Output 6.1, the Sum of
Squares Between Groups is 74092.013 and the Sum of Squares Total is
84026.993. Therefore, the Eta-Squared is as follows.

The conventions for trivial, small, medium, and large Effect Sizes as
measured with Eta-Squared (ɳ2) for ANOVA are .000 to .009, .010 to
.059, .060 to .139, and .140 and above, respectively, in accordance with the
recommendations of Cohen (1988) and Cumming (2012). That is,
determination of Effect Size in ANOVA is measured with Eta Squired,
and the Eta Squired (ɳ2) is interpreted as follows:
.000 - .009 = Trivial Effect Size
.010 - .059 = Small Effect Size
.060 - .139 = Medium Effect Size
.140 and above = Large Effect Size.
Therefore, the computed Eta-Squared of .8817, .882 approximately as
the effect size is better stated in three decimal places, for the null hypothesis
that has just been tested with regard to effect of Types of Bulb on
Luminous Efficacy, is a marvellously Large Effect Size. This confirms the
rejection of the null hypothesis beyond every statistical, reasonable and
practical doubts to absolutely indicate that Types of Bulb does not only
have significant effect on Luminous Efficacy; but that the effect it has on
Luminous Efficacy is also an overwhelmingly large effect size.
Furthermore, Eta-Squared can be expressed in terms of the percentage
of variance in the dependent variable that is accounted for by the
independent variable. This is done by multiplying the Eta-Squared by 100
as given in Equation 6:2.

366
 Where SSB is the Sum of Squares Between Groups and SST is the Sum
of Squares Total. Therefore, the Effect Size of 88.176, written as .882 is
wonderfully large in practice as it indicates that Types of Bulb (the
independent variable) accounts for as high as 88.2% of the variance in
Luminous Efficacy (the dependent variable).

EFFECT SIZE IN POST HOC MULTIPLE

COMPARISONS
Effect Size in ANOVA can and should further be computed for each of the
Pairwise Means Difference, particularly for every significant Pairwise
Mean Difference. This computation is done by applying Cohen’s d.
Cohen’s d for ANOVA Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons to indicate Effect
Size for each significant Pairwise Mean Difference is equal to the Means
Difference (Mean1 minus Mean2) divided by the pooled Standard
Deviations; which is the square root of the average squared Standard
Deviations of the two groups. That is, the denominator of the d as Effect
Size measure in Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons is the square root of [the
square of Standard Deviation of the first group (S12) plus the square of
Standard Deviation of the second group (S22)] divided by 2; where, the two
groups are equal in sample size. How to compute Effect Size, d, in ANOVA
Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons is very simple when put in equation form.
The d as a measure of Effect Size in Post Hoc Pairwise Multiple
Comparisons when the groups are equal in sample size is computed as the
Mean Difference (M1 – M2) divided by the square root of the average of the
Variances of group1 and group2. Note that Variance is the square of

367
Standard Deviation. Therefore, d is easily computed as provided in
Equation 6:3.

Where d is the pairwise comparison effect size, M1 and M2 are the

means for the first group and the second group, respectively; S12 and S22
are the variances (squares of the standard deviations) for the two respective
groups.

Effect Size, d, for 8W LED versus 9W CFL Bulbs

In the current pairwise comparison, the luminous efficacy of 8W LED
versus the luminous efficacy of 9W CFL types of bulb, that the N is 50, M1
is 66.0000, M2 is 44.9800, S1 is 10.12372, and S2 is 8.65316; the d can very
easily be got as shown in Equation 6:3.

368
 The d of 2.232 is a very large Effect Size in line with the
recommendations for interpretation of d as a measure of effect size that I
have much earlier given in Table 3.2 of Chapter 3. But for time saving and
instant reference, let me restate it here.
Recommendations for Interpretation of d in ANOVA Pairwise
Comparisons:
d AS EFFECT SIZE WITH DESCRIPTIVE CLASSIFICATION
0.000 to 0.199 = Trivial Effect Size
0.200 to 0.499 = Small Effect Size
0.500 to 0.799 = Medium Effect Size
0.800 and above = Large Effect Size
Where the groups are not equal in the sample size, d can still be used as
the measure of effect size, but the equation for it will rather be as given in
Equation 6:4.

369
 Where d is the effect size of the pairwise means comparison; M1 is the
mean of the first group; M2 is the mean of the second group; N1 is the
number of cases in the first group; N2 is the number of cases in the second
group; S1 is the standard deviation of the first group; S2 is the standard
deviation of the second group; S12 is the variance of the first group; and S22
is the variance of the second group.
For the pairwise comparison of the means of 8W LED (M1 = 66.0000,
S1 = 10.12372) and 9W CFL (M2 = 44.9800, S2 = 8.65316), that has N1 =
50 and N2 = 50; the d is as in Equation 6:4.

370
Effect Size, d, for 9W LED versus 40W Incandescent
Bulbs
Since the two groups are equal in sample size, (N = 50 in each group), the d
as a measure of Effect Size in ANOVA Post Hoc Tests Multiple Pairwise
Comparisons can be computed easily thus as given in Equation 6:3.

371
 The Luminous Efficacy of the 9W CFL bulbs has a Mean (M1) of
44.9800 and a Standard Deviation (S1) of 8.65316. The Luminous Efficacy
of the 40W Incandescent bulbs has a Mean (M2) of 12.0000 and a Standard
Deviation (S2) of 5.03863. Therefore, the Effect Size, d, is:

A d of 4.658 is an exceptionally Large Effect Size. The Effect Size, d, of

4.658 for the difference between 9W CFL and 40W Incandescent bulbs is
a very huge effect size; indicating that the mean difference caused by the
types of bulb on luminous efficacy is indeed very awesome.
In a situation that the comparison groups are unequal in sample size, the
equation for computation of the d will rather be as in Equation 6:4.

372
 The Pairwise Comparison of Means of the 9W CFL (M1 = 44.9800,
SD1 = 8.65316) and 40W Incandescent (M2 = 12.000, SD2 = 5.03863)
with this equation that is suitable for unequal sample size, the Effect Size, d,
is as follows.

Yes, the computed Effect Size, d of 4.658 is exactly the same with when
Equation 6:3 was used because the two groups in the example under
comparison have equal sample size of 50. So, whenever the sample sizes
are equal or about equal, just make use of the Equation 6:3. When the two
comparison groups differ in sample size, use Equation 6:4.

373
Effect Size, d, for 8W LED versus 40W Incandescent
Bulbs
The Pairwise Comparison of the Means of the 8W LED (M1 = 66.000, SD1
= 10.12372) and 40W Incandescent (M2 = 12.000, SD2 = 5.03863) when
the pairwise groups have equal sample size (N = 50 for each group) can
have the d, Effect Size, calculated as in Equation 6:3.

A d of 6.753 is an incredibly Large Effect Size. The Effect Size, d, of

6.753 between the Luminous Efficacy Means of 8W LED and 40W
Incandescent bulbs is an immensely large effect size. The overwhelmingly
large effect size (6.753) indicates that the luminous efficacy mean
difference between the two types of bulb is indeed a profound difference
that could only have been caused by the types of bulb and nothing else.
Such massive difference could not have been caused by chance or by some
other factors.

374
 Supposing that the sample size in the two groups are different, the Effect
Size could still be computed with d, but with the Equation 6:4.

Since the 8W LED bulb has M1 of 66.0000 and S1 of 10.12372 while the
40W Incandescent bulb has M2 of 12.0000 and S2 of 5.03863, the d in
accordance with the current equation will be:

SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS

375
In a most apt manner, the entire Output 6.1 can technically be written thus.
The effect of Types of Bulb on Luminous Efficacy, F(2, 147) = 548.140, p
< .001, ɳ2 = .882 (a marvellously large effect size). Scheffe, Bonferroni
and Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch Range Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons
tests indicate that 8W LED (M = 66.000, SD = 10.12372) has significantly
preponderant Luminous Efficacy than 9W CFL (M = 44.9800, SD =
8.65316), d = 2.232 (a very large effect size). In turn, the 9W CFL (M
=44.9800, SD = 8.65316) has significantly preponderant Luminous Efficacy
than 40W Incandescent (M = 12.0000, SD = 5.03863), d = 4.658 (an
exceptionally large effect size). The 8W LED (M= 66.0000, SD =
10.12372) has more overwhelmingly significant Luminous Efficacy than
the 40W Incandescent (M = 12.0000, SD = 5.03863), d = 6.753 (a
profoundly large effect size).
Either of one 8W LED bulb or one 9W CFL bulb produces
overwhelmingly greater brightness than one 40W Incandescent bulb. Yet,
the amount of wattage required to light one 40W Incandescent bulb can be
used to light as many as five 8W LED bulbs. Similarly, the wattage
demanded to light one 40W Incandescent bulb can be used to light more
than four 9W CFL bulbs. Furthermore, while 40W Incandescent bulb has
1000 hours lifespan on the average, 9W CFL bulb has an average of 10,000
hours lifespan, and the lifespan of 8W LED bulb is 25,000 hours on the
average. Therefore, the 8W LED bulb is indeed incomparably better than
9W CFL bulb, which is in turn, incomparably better than the 40W
Incandescent bulb. In addition, while the 40W Incandescent bulb generates
excessive heat as a by-product, 8W LED bulb and 9W CFL bulb produce
minimal heat.
It is little wonder that the Penn State Center for Nanoscale Sciences
(2016) after displaying and observing three types of bulbs in one
investigation, stated that “three bulbs in the display each have a light output
of 400 lumens, but they require different amounts of power. The
incandescent bulb uses 60 W, the fluorescent bulb uses 7 W, and the LED
bulb uses 6.5 W.”

Step 6. View the output by scrolling with the aid of the right, left, up, and
down-pointed arrows at the extreme bottom and extreme right edge of your
screen.

376
Step 7. Save the output by clicking Save this document tool on the
Toolbar and type the document name, Chapter 6 Output 1.spv in the box
beside File name and click Save or press Enter as given in Figure 6.13.

Figure 6.13 Save Output As Chapter 6 Output 1.spv

Step 8. Print the output by clicking the Print icon on the Toolbar to
have the Print dialog box; when no part of the output is selected, click OK
for All visible output as shown Figure 6.14.

377
 Figure 6.14 Print All visible output
Follow similar procedure to print the data too. Note that printing of the
data has to be done when the Data View of the Data Editor containing the
requisite data is open.

Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing all opened SPSS windows.

Step 10. Shut down the computer by clicking Start Power

Shut down.

SPSS SYNTAX METHOD OF ANOVA

The IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax for execution of One-Way ANOVA on the
effect of bulb types on luminous efficacy is presented in Syntax 6.1.

Syntax 6.1 Chapter 6 Syntax 1.sps

378
 To perform the ANOVA with the use of IBM SPSS Statistics Commands
Syntax:
Switch on the computer

Start IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data since the entry has already been done and saved as
Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav

Window

Go to Designated Syntax Window

Enter this SPSS Syntax carefully:

ONEWAY LumEfficacy BY BulbTypes
/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES HOMOGENEITY
/PLOT MEANS
/MISSING ANALYSIS
/POSTHOC=SCHEFFE BONFERRONI
QREGW ALPHA(0.05).

379
 Run

All
That is, start the computer, open IBM SPSS Statistics, and retrieve the
dataset file that has been saved as Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav. The
retrieval can simply be done by clicking Open data document icon in
the Toolbar of SPSS Data Editor to get its menu in which you look for, and
click the file name (Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav), and press Enter as
illustrated in Figure 6.15. Pressing the Enter key on the Keyboard opens
the Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav as earlier shown in Figure 6.6.

Figure 6.15 Open Data menu box

In the Open Data menu box, activate the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax
Editor by clicking Window and clicking Go to Designated Syntax
Window as illustrated in Figure 6.16. The IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax

380
Editor can as well be opened by clicking File in the Menu Bar, selecting
New and clicking Syntax.

Figure 6.16 Window Go to Designated Syntax Window

A click on the Go to Designated Syntax Window takes you right there

immediately as demonstrated in Figure 6.17.

Figure 6.17 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

Most carefully enter the SPSS Statistical Commands Syntax given in

Syntax 6.1. When done correctly, the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor
will look like Figure 6.18.

Figure 6.18 SPSS Syntax Editor with the Syntax entered

381
 Finally, click Run and click All as shown in Figure 6.19 to have the
output displayed instantly in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as presented
in Output 6.2.

Figure 6.19 Run All

Output 6.2 Chapter 6 Output 2.spv

382
383
384
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 6.2: ONE-WAY
ANOVA LUMINOUS EFFICACY
The Output 6.2, arrived at via application of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax, is
exactly like Output 6.1 that was reached through SPSS Dialog Boxes Point
and Click method. Therefore, exactly the same explanation that was
proffered for Output 6.1 is applicable with Output 6.2. Endeavour to go
through the interpretation offered for Output 6.1 again and replicate it with
the Output 6.2. It will enable you to better grasp and master explanation of
how One-Way ANOVA results are presented and elucidated.
Proceed with the remaining routine protocols of how IBM SPSS
Statistics is used for data analysis to finally shut down your system.
View the output

385
Save the output as Chapter 6 Output 2.spv, and the Syntax as Chapter
6 Syntax 1.sps

Print the output and the syntax

Exit IBM SPSS Statistics

Shut down the system

Whenever you have data, no matter how large the sample may be, for
subjection to One-Way Analysis of Variance, just follow the simple step-
by-step IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax method or the dialog boxes point and
click method presentation in this chapter to get the analysis done accurately
in an effortless manner.

UNIVARIATE SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND

CLICK APPROACH TO ANOVA
The One-Way ANOVA can also be executed with IBM SPSS Statistics
from the Univariate statistical approach instead of the Compare Means
method that has just been completed in the preceding section. In this
section, the Univariate technique, via General Linear Model, is applied to
perform the ANOVA on the effect of types of bulb on luminous efficacy,
using the same data.
Switch on the computer

Start IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data entered and saved as Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav

386
 Analyze, using the Univariate Method.
Now that you have activated the SPSS Data Editor containing the data
file called Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav, the analysis proper is what has to
be done. However, if you are yet to retrieve the file and is not very sure of
how to do it, move cursor to the Menu Bar and select File Open
Data (see Figure 6.20), and the Open Data dialog box will appear.

Figure 6.20 File Open Data

From the Open Data dialog box, as can be seen in Figure 6.21, click the
file name, Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav. This click highlights the name of
the file. Then, click Open in the dialog box or press Enter on the Keyboard
to have the data file as shown earlier in Figure 6.6 on your screen.
There is also another way to quickly retrieve the saved data file. While
in the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor, merely clicking Open data
document icon in the Toolbar automatically produces the Open Data
dialog box in Figure 6.21 where you select the file name, Chapter 6 Table
1 Data.sav, and click Open or press Enter for the data document to open.

387
 Figure 6.21 Open Data dialog box

Now that the dataset has opened on your screen as in Figure 6.6,
perform the analysis by clicking Analyze General Linear Model
Univariate as demonstrated in Figure 6.22.

Figure 6.22 Analyze General Linear Model Univariate

388
 On clicking Univariate, the main Univariate dialog box appears as
illustrated in Figure 6.23. It is in this Univariate main menu that the entire
statistical operations required for execution of the ANOVA are performed.

Figure 6.23 Univariate dialog box

Highlight the dependent variable (Luminous Efficacy) in the left field

and move it to the Dependent Variable panel by clicking the right-pointed
arrow that is directly facing the Dependent Variable field at the right.
Next, highlight the independent variable (Types of Bulb) and transfer it into
the Fixed Factor(s) box by clicking the right-pointed arrow that is
directly facing the Fixed Factor(s) panel at the right as shown in Figure
6.24.

389
 Figure 6.24 Univariate dialog box with the variables moved from the left box

Click Plots pushbutton to have its dialog box. In the Univariate: Profile
Plots dialog box, BulbTypes is in the Factors box at the left and is already
highlighted. So, click the arrow that is directly pointing at Horizontal
Axis. With this, the BulbTypes appears in the Horizontal Axis box at the
right as given in Figure 6.25.

390
 Figure 6.25 Univariate: Profile Plots with BulbTypes moved into Horizontal Axis

Move cursor to, and click Add for the plots operation to be completed as
demonstrated in Figure 6.26. You can observe that the BulbTypes has
disappeared from the Horizontal Axis panel and appeared in the field just
below Plots. You can equally see that Line Chart and Bar Chart have
been activated for you to choose one, though Line Chart is the default in
SPSS. Click Bar Chart for it to be used in the graphical representation of
the magnitude of the dependent variable’s (Luminous Efficacy) means as a
function of the independent variable (BulbTypes) in the eventual output.

391
 Figure 6.26 Univariate: Profile Plots with Bar Chart checked

Click Continue to return to the main Univariate dialog box. Next, click
Post Hoc pushbutton for the Univariate: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons
for Observed Means dialog box to be displayed as shown in Figure 6.27.

392
 Figure 6.27 Univariate: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons for Means menu

Click the arrow pointing at the Post Hoc Tests for box at the right
for the highlighted BulbTypes in the Factor(s) to be transferred into the
Post Hoc Tests for panel. In this dialog box, check the checkbox beside
Bonferroni, Scheffe, and R-E-G-W-Q for these Post Hoc Multiple
Comparisons tests to be done as parts of the output to be arrived at. An
example of the Univariate: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons for
Observed Means when the needful Post Hoc tests checkboxes have been
checked is shown in Figure 6.28. Next, click Continue to proceed with the
analysis.

393
 Figure 6.28 Univariate: Post Hoc dialog box with Bulb Types transferred

Click Options pushbutton for the Univariate: Options dialog box to

appear. In this dialog box, check the checkbox for Descriptive Statistics
and Estimates of effect size as exhibited in Figure 6.29. While the
Descriptive Statistics checked will eventually produce the necessary
descriptive statistics like means and standard deviations for answering the
research question(s) and for further comparative analysis, the checked
Estimates of effect size will automatically produce the overall Effect Size,
known as Partial Eta Squared, ɳp2, in ANOVA for determination of the
actual extent to which the independent variable (Types of Bulb) accounts
for the variance in the dependent variable (Luminous Efficacy).

394
 Figure 6.29 Univariate: Options dialog box

Click Continue to return to the Univariate main dialog box. To proceed

with the analysis this time, click the EM Means pushbutton to have the
Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means dialog box as shown in Figure
6.30.

395
 Figure 6.30 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Mean dialog box

The left box, called Factor(s) and Factor Interactions, contains

(OVERALL) and BulbTypes. Click BulbTypes to highlight it; and transfer
it into the Display Means for panel at the right by clicking the right-
pointed arrow that directly points at the Display Means for field. The
transfer of the BulbTypes activated Compare main effects. Next, check
the Compare main effects checkbox as illustrated in Figure 6.31, and click
Continue to get back to the Univariate main dialog box.

396
 Figure 6.31 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means with variables moved to Display
Means for

Finally, the entire statistical operations required for the ANOVA, using
SPSS Univariate method, have been completely done. So, click OK for
SPSS to produce the results in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as
presented in Output 6.3.

Output 6.3 Chapter 6 Output 3

Univariate Analysis of Variance

397
Estimated Marginal Means

398
Post Hoc Tests

399
Homogeneous Subsets

400
Profile Plots

401
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 6.3: UNIVARIATE
ANOVA ON BULB TYPES
The results presented in this Output 6.3 are not much different from those
presented and explained in Outputs 6.1 and 6.2 as the means and standard
deviations as well as the sums of squares and mean squares for between
groups and within groups are the same. The computed F in all the scenarios
are equal and the omnibus null hypothesis is rejected with equal Effect Size
in all the three outputs. Each pairwise comparison is statistically significant
with the same Effect Size in all the three outputs. However, for the fact that
the Output 6.3 tends to be more elaborate with more sub-tables, I have
presented a very brief interpretation for the very relevant aspects of the
output as an additional guide.

402
 There are nine sections in the Output, eight sub-tables and one graph.
The sections of the Output (Univariate Analysis of Variance) are: Between-
Subjects Factors, Descriptive Statistics, Test of Between-Subjects Effects,
Estimated Marginal Means for Types of Bulb, Pairwise Comparisons,
Univariate Tests, Post Hoc Tests – Types of Bulb Multiple Comparisons,
Homogeneous Subsets – Luminous Efficacy, and Profile Plots – Estimated
Marginal Means of Luminous Efficacy. One or two words of interpretation
is offered for each of these sections; and finally, Effect Size is provided as
necessary.

Between-subjects Factors
This table has presented the Value Labels and N (Number of cases) for the
three types of bulb (1.00 = 9W CFL, 2.00 = 8W LED, and 3.00 = 40W
Incandescent). The N for each type of bulb is 50.

Descriptive Statistics
The Descriptive Statistics section of Output 6.3 has presented the Luminous
Efficacy Mean, Standard Deviation and Number of cases for each of the
three Types of Bulb, and for the Total. The 9W CFL has a Mean of 44.9800
and a Std. Deviation of 8.65316. The 8W LED has 66.0000 Mean and
10.12372 Std. Deviation. The 40W Incandescent has a Mean of 12.0000
and a Std. Deviation of 5.03863. Each of the three Types of Bulb has N of
50. The Total N is therefore 150 with a Total (grand) Mean and Std.
Deviation of 40.9933 and 23.74741, respectively. The Luminous Efficacy
means and standard deviations of the three types of bulb serve as the answer
to the research question.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

The Tests of Between-Subjects Effects is the ANOVA summary table. IBM
SPSS Statistics has provided all of the output from general linear model
because the data for this particular ANOVA (Univariate Analysis of
Variance) were analysed in the General Linear Model. Three of the rows
include the output from full regression model that are not particularly
necessary for the One-Way ANOVA. These three rows are the Corrected
Model, the Intercept, and the Total. The other three rows in the Tests of

403
Between-Subjects Effects are the BulbTypes, the Error, and the Corrected
Total. These three rows are critically necessary for One-Way ANOVA
execution by all standards; and are comparable with what other ANOVA
procedures ordinarily yield.
The Type III Sum of Squares for the six rows represent the following:
a. Corrected Model that is the sum of all the between-subjects effects in
the analysis. But since there is only a single between-subjects effect
in the One-Way ANOVA, the BulbTypes in this case, the Corrected
Model sum of squares is bound to be equal to the effect of the
BulbTypes. You may wish to ask why it is called corrected model. It
is termed Corrected Model because its value totally excludes the
effect of the Intercept that is specific to regression analysis.
b. Intercept which is the regression-specific effect represents the value
of the intercept, Y, in regression model.
c. BulbTypes is the effect of the actual independent variable under
investigation (Types of Bulb) on the dependent variable (Luminous
Efficacy) in the study used for illustration of the ANOVA analysis
(see Kpolovie and Ololube, 2020).
d. Error is the Within Groups effect that estimates the measurement
error and all individual differences as well as the influence of all
other nuisance or extraneous variables on the dependent variable. The
Error Mean Square (Mean Square Within Groups) is the final
denominator of ANOVA in order to completely eliminate the
influence of probable extraneous variables from affecting the
dependent variable so that whatever that becomes of the dependent
variable is confidently the effect of the manipulated independent
variable.
e. Total is the total sum of squares including the regression-specific
Intercept effect. It is mandatorily needed in regression analysis; but
not in ANOVA and as such, it is never considered in the
determination of Effect Size in ANOVA when the Univariate
statistical approach is used.
f. Corrected Total refers to the total for the reduced model that includes
only the effects of the independent variable and the error source of
variance. That is, the Corrected Total does not include the effect of
the Intercept at all, and so guarantees that ANOVA is indeed having
only two sources of variation or variance (the Between Groups [the

404
 independent variable] and the Within Groups [the Error]).
Consequently, when computing the value of Partial Eta Squared
(ɳp2) that is used for measuring Effect Size in ANOVA that is due
exclusively to the manipulated independent variable, it is the
Corrected Total that is used to constitute the denominator in a
scenario that Univariate Analysis of Variance was the adopted
approach.
While the Sum of Squares for BulbTypes (i.e., the Between Groups)
divided by its df (degrees of freedom) is equal to the Mean Square Between
Groups, the Sum of Squares Error divided by its df is equal to the Mean
Square Error (Within Groups). The Mean Square Between Groups
(37046.007) divided by the Mean Square Error (67.585) is equal to the F
(548.140). This F is very large and is statistically significant even at .001
alpha because the p-value (Sig.) is .000, written as .001 or read as less than
.0005. Therefore, the omnibus null hypothesis that “the three types of bulb
(9W CFL, 8W LED and 40W Incandescent) do not have significant effect
on luminous efficacy” is rejected.

EFFECT SIZE IN UNIVARIATE ANOVA

Effect Size in Univariate Analysis of Variance is chiefly measured with
Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2). Partial Eta Squared is derived from Eta
Squared which is an effect size indicator that represents the actual
magnitude of variance in a dependent variable that was measured at interval
or ratio scale of measurement, that is solely accounted for or explained by
one independent variable that was measured at nominal or ordinal scale of
measurement. Eta Squared is a statistical coefficient that depicts the exact
amount of variance in a given interval or ratio scale-measured dependent
variable that is validly attributable to a specific nominal or ordinal scale-
measured independent variable. Where the nominal or ordinal scale-
measured independent variable is more than one, Eta Squared depicts both
the effect of each independent variable and the interaction effect of the
independent variables. Eta Squared in ANOVA functions like R Squared
(R2) in multiple regression by typically specifying the variance in a
dependent variable that is accounted for by each of the independent

405
variables and by the interaction of all the independent variables. However,
with increase in the number of independent variables in an ANOVA model,
the proportion of variance accounted for by each particular independent
variable becomes slightly less precise in the estimation of the dependent
variance in the population.
Partial Eta Squared is the statistical measure of Effect Size that indicates
both the main and interaction effects of one or more categorical
independent variables on a dependent variable by dividing the Sum of
Squares for the effects by the Sum of Squares for both the effects and the
associated error, such as individual differences in the dependent variable.
This denominator is referred to as Sum of Squares Corrected Total in the
Univariate ANOVA output. The size of the effect of an independent
variable on a dependent or outcome variable cannot be determined by the
probability level (p-value or Sig.) arrived at in the analysis. The magnitude
of the independent variables effect on a dependent variable can only be
determined directly by a special measure that is collectively referred to as
Effect Size. For comparison of two means as done with t Test, Cohen’s d, is
used as a standardized measurement to measure the Effect Size accurately.
For comparison of three or more groups that is computed with ANOVA, Eta
Squared, Partial Eta Squared, and R Squared could be the measure of the
Effect Size.
The Eta Squared in ANOVA is identical with R Squared in Multiple
Regression; and it measures the proportion of the Total Variance in the
dependent variable that is accounted for by the differences among the
means of the treatment groups (the categorical independent variable).
Technically, Eta Squared is the ratio of the Between Groups Sum of Squares
to the Total Groups Sum of squares in ANOVA. When the sample size is
very large, Eta Squared estimates the population variance with regard to the
variables under study without bias. Use of a truly representative sample that
is suitably large with accuracy and precision from each of the populations is
recommended for each investigation in addition to adherence to the
assumptions that underlie comparison of means as presented earlier in
Chapter 3. For a small sample size, not recommended, the square of the Eta
Squared, known in Multiple Regression as Adjusted R Squared, estimates
the population with slightly higher precision. Epsilon Squared or Omega
Squared could also be used for the purpose.

406
Partial Eta Squared, ɳp2
Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) is very popularly used as a measure of Effect
Size in Univariate ANOVA to overcome the shortcoming in Eta Squared
that addition of more variables to the ANOVA model tends to reduce the
proportion of variance in the dependent variable that is accounted for by
any one independent variable. Also, Partial Eta Squared better allows for
greater precision in the comparison of the effect of one independent
variable across many different studies with the same or similar dependent
variable.
How is Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) able to accomplish overcoming the
shortcomings in Eta Squared and gain so much popularity, you may ask.
Partial Eta Squared enables an investigator to compare the effect of a
particular treatment variable (independent variable) in different studies that
contain different covariates (other factors) because Partial Eta Squared
eliminates every variation in the dependent variable that is explained or
accounted for by other variables from the denominator. The denominator in
Partial Eta Squared is the sum of the unexplained variation in the dependent
variable and the variation in the dependent variable that is explained by just
the independent variable under study. That is, the denominator in Partial Eta
Squared is not just the total variation in the dependent variable as in Eta
Squared.
Aptly put, Partial Eta squared is the best measure of Effect Size in
ANOVA models, and it is arrived at by dividing the Sum of Squares
Between Groups by the Sum of Squares Between Groups plus the Sum of
Squares Within Groups (i.e., Sum of Squares Error) that are collectively
known in Univariate ANOVA models as Corrected Sum of Squared Total.
In equation form therefore, the Partial Eta Squared can simply be given as
in Equation 6:5.

Where SSB is the Sum of Squares Between Groups, and SSE is the Sum
of Squares Error which is otherwise referred to as Sum of Squares Within
Groups (Kpolovie, 2018).
The denominator of the ɳp2, the Partial Eta Squared, which is Sum of
Squares Between (SSB) plus Sum of Squares Error (SSE) is collectively

407
known and more popularly referred to as Corrected Sum of Squares Total.
In fact, the IBM SPSS Statistics calls it as the Sum of Squares Corrected
Total (SSCT). Substituting this name, Sum of Squares Corrected Total, in
the denominator of the preceding equation, the Partial Eta Squared becomes
as given in Equation 6:6.

Where SSB is the Sum of Squares Between Groups, and SSCT is the
Sum of Squares Corrected Total.
In One-Way ANOVA that has only one independent variable, the Partial
Eta Squared is exactly equal to the Eta Squared because the Sum of Squares
Total as the denominator in Eta Squared is made up of the Sum of Squares
Between Groups plus the Sum of Squares Within Groups, which is the Sum
of Squares Corrected Total in the Partial Eta Squared. This denotes that
either Eta Squared (ɳ2) or Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) can be used to rightly
establish the Effect Size in One-Way ANOVA as long as Sum of Squares
Corrected Total in the Univariate ANOVA is used as the denominator,
instead of the Sum of Squares Total which also contains the Intercept as a
Source of variation. But in higher models of ANOVA with more than one
independent variables, the denominator has two or more Between Sums of
Squares plus the Error Sum of Squares to better express the proportion of
variance in the dependent variable that is explained solely by each of the
independent variables, and jointly by the interaction effect of the combined
independent variables in the model.
Good a thing, there is a statistical operation in IBM SPSS Statistics that
automatically computes and provides the Partial Eta Squared as part of
the output, when checked in the process of the analysis or included in the
SPSS Univariate ANOVA Syntax. The function is “Estimates of effect
size” that is within the Univariate: Options dialog box. You can recall that
the Estimates of effect size checkbox was checked in Figure 6.29 in the
course of the analysis. Consequently, Partial Eta Squared as the measure
of Effect Size constitutes the last column in the Test of Between-Subjects
Effects table of the Output 6.3. In that column, Corrected Model has .882
Partial Eta Squared, Intercept has .962 Partial Eta Squared, and BulbTypes
has .882 Partial Eta Squared. Types of Bulb (BulbTypes) which is the
independent variable under investigation has overwhelmingly high effect on
Luminous Efficacy with .882 Effect Size (the Partial Eta Squared) that is

408
interpreted as a very Large Effect Size. Recommendations for the
interpretation of Effect Size in ANOVA that is measured with Partial Eta
Squared are the same as given earlier for Eta Squared. The Partial Eta
Squared (ɳp2) is interpreted as:
.000 - .009 = Trivial Effect Size
.010 - .059 = Small Effect Size
.060 - .139 = Medium Effect Size
.140 and above = Large Effect Size.
Perhaps one of the reasons for the popularity of Partial Eta Squared as
the best measure of Effect Size in ANOVA models is because IBM SPSS
Statistics and some other statistical software compute it automatically and
report it as part of the output. So, you do not have to worry on how to
compute Partial Eta Squared with hand calculator. With just a check on the
“Estimates of effect size” checkbox within the Univariate: Options dialog
box, SPSS automatically performs and reports the Partial Eta Squared in the
ANOVA model that is adopted in your work.

EFFECT SIZE AS R SQUARED IN UNIVARAITE

ANOVA
Effect Size in Univariate ANOVA models with one treatment variable could
be measured with R Squared, Eta Squared and Partial Eta Squared. The
IBM SPSS Statistics computes and reports Effect Size in Univariate
ANOVA automatically as R Squared and as Partial Eta Squared. The
independent variable, Types of Bulb, has preponderant effect on the
dependent variable, Luminous Efficacy, as .882 Effect Size (the R
Squared) which the Univariate Analysis of Variance has given immediately
at the bottom of the Test of Between-Subjects Effects table in the Output
6.3. The Univariate ANOVA describes the Effect Size as R Squared (R2).
That is, the R Squared of .882 given here, at the bottom of the Tests of
Between-Subjects Effects, is indeed the Eta Squared or Partial Eta
Squared that is the Effect Size which the Univariate Analysis of Variance
has provided for the analysed dataset, Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav.

409
EFFECT SIZE COMPUTION AS PARTIAL ETA
SQUARED
Effect Size in Univariate ANOVA is measured as Partial Eta Squared
(ɳp2). But do not forget the explanation that I have given that the Partial Eta
Squared in Univariate Analysis of Variance, using IBM SPSS Statistics,
automatically reports Effect Size to be exactly equal to Eta Squared in
ANOVA model that has only one independent (treatment) variable.
Therefore, the Partial Eta Squared associated with the effect of
BulbTypes on Luminous Efficacy can be calculated both with Partial Eta
Squared and with Eta Squared. The Partial Eta Squared is computed as the
Between Groups Sum of Squares (i.e., the BulbTypes Sum of Squares)
divided by the Corrected Total Sum of Squares just as has been discussed
under Output 6.1 before in which Total Sum of Squares was used in place
of the Sum of Squares Corrected Total. In the current output, while the
Between Groups Sum of Squares for BulbTypes is 74092.013, the Sum of
Squares Corrected Total is 84026.993. The Partial Eta Squared as the
Effect Size in the Univariate ANOVA can be given and calculated with this
equation in line with Equation 6:6. The Sum of Squares Between Groups
(SSB) in the current example is the Sum of Squares for BulbTypes. Thus:

This implies overtly that the Effect Size of .882 is wonderfully large in
practice as it indicates that Types of Bulb (the independent variable)
accounts for as high as 88.2% of the variance in Luminous Efficacy (the
dependent variable). If an effect size that is up to .140 is classified as a large
effect size, then this effect size of .882 is not only a large effect size, but a
profoundly large effect size that is very uncommon to find. Computation of
Eta Squared in ordinary One-Way ANOVA that is executed via Compare
Means, the denominator is the Sum of Squares Total, but if the One-Way

410
ANOVA is executed via Univariate Analysis of Variance, the denominator
is the Sum of Squares Corrected Total which harmonizes the Eta Squared
with the Partial Eta Squared. It has been emphasized enough that in
calculation of Partial Eta Squared, the denominator is the Sum of Squares
Corrected Total, and not the Sum of Squares Total as in Eta Squared that the
analysis employed the ANOVA statistical operations available in Compare
Means.

Estimated Marginal Means for Types of Bulb

The Estimated Marginal Means for Types of Bulb has provided the
Luminous Efficacy Means of 44.980 for 9W CFL, 66.00 for 8W LED, and
12.000 for 40W Incandescent bulbs. The Std. Error as well as Lower and
Upper 95% Confidence Interval are also given for the three types of bulb
(9W CFL, 8W LED and 40W Incandescent).

Pairwise Comparisons
The Pairwise Comparisons that is based on the Univariate ANOVA
Marginal Mean Difference, using Least Significant Difference (LSD),
shows a significant difference at .05 alpha for each of the pairwise
comparisons. The significant Mean Difference between 9W CFL and 8W
LED is -21.020, 9W CFL and 40W Incandescent is 32.980; 8W LED and
9W CFL is 21.020, 8W LED and 40W Incandescent is 54.000; 40W
Incandescent and 9W CFL is -32.980, and between 40W Incandescent and
8W LED is 54.000. A Std. Error of 1.644 and a P-valuer (Sig.) of .000 (read
as less than .0005) are indicated for each Pairwise Mean Difference. The
Lower as well as Upper Bounds at 95% Confidence Interval is equally
provided for each Pairwise Mean Difference in the table.

Univariate Tests
The Univariate Tests is a brief summary table that also provides the Sum of
Squares, df, Mean Square, F and Sig. against the Contrast (BulbTypes or
the Between Groups) and the Error (the Within Groups) to clearly show the
F value of 548.140 that depicts a significant effect of Types of Bulbs on
Luminous Efficacy. This F test is based directly on the linearly
independent pairwise comparisons against the estimated marginal means.

411
Post Hoc Tests on Types of Bulb Multiple Comparisons
This table is based on the observed means and the Error term (Within
Groups) Mean Square of 67.585. Multiple Comparisons were done for the
various pairwise means, using Scheffe, Bonferroni and Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-
Welsch Range. It can very clearly be seen from the Multiple Comparisons
table for both Scheffe and Bonferroni that each of the pairwise comparisons
has statistically significant difference as the Mean Difference (I-J) column
for each of the Mean Differences has asterisk (*) that denotes statistically
significant difference at .05 alpha level. A further look shows that indeed
the mean difference between each pair is overwhelmingly preponderant that
it is even significant at as low as .000 (written as .001 or less than .0005) as
indicated in the p-value (Sig.) column. The 95% Confidence Interval Lower
Bound and Upper Bound column has further shown that for each pair of the
means, the mean difference is significant because for every paired means,
the Lower Bound and the Upper Bound are either completely above zero or
completely below zero. Using Scheffe for instance, the luminous efficacy
Mean Difference between 9W CFL and 8W LED bulbs is -21.02000* and
has 1.64420 Std. Error, .000 Sig., plus -25.0859 Lower Bound and -16.9541
Upper Bound at 95% Confidence Interval. The 9W CFL and 40W
Incandescent bulbs have 32.98000* Mean Difference, 1.64420 Std. Error,
.000 Sig., 28.9141 Lower Bound and 37.0459 Upper Bound at 95%
Confidence Interval. In fact, the Luminous Efficacy Mean Difference
between 8W LED bulb and 40W Incandescent bulb is as high as 54.0000*,
with 1.64420 Std. Error, .000 Sig., and 49.9341 and 58.0659 Lower Bound
and Upper Bound, respectively, at 95% Confidence Interval. Similar
interpretation is applicable to each of the paired types of bulb that constitute
a row in this table, irrespective of whether it is Scheffe or Bonferroni’s tests
of Multiple Comparisons.

Homogeneous Subsets
The Homogeneous Subsets test was also done using Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-
Welsch Range based on the Mean Square Error of 67.585 and Harmonic
Mean Sample Size of 50.000 at .05 chosen alpha because the effect of the
independent variable (Types of Bulb) was statistically significant on the
dependent variable (Luminous Efficacy) to determine the means that fall
within the same homogeneous subset. Whenever the main effect of the

412
independent variable on the dependent variable is significant in ANOVA, it
confidently depicts that some group means or combination of group means
differ significantly from some other means or combination of group means.
The Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch Range test of Homogeneous Subsets is
suitably used for explicit specification of the means that fall inside one
subset and the means that fall inside another subset or other subsets. The
groups in the Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch Range table are shown in rows
that are ordered according to the magnitude of their means in ascending
order from the lowest to the highest mean; and according to columns that
represent subsets of means whose values significantly differ at the chosen
alpha level, .05 in this case. The means that are in one column are within
one subset, and are significantly different from the means that are in another
column or subset.
In the present example, there are three homogeneous subsets or columns,
each of which contains the mean of only one group or type of bulbs to
unquestionably show that each of the means is significantly different from
the other means. This table has shown that each of the three types of bulb
has a luminous efficacy mean that is significantly different from the others.
For instance, the Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch Range has revealed beyond all
possible statistical doubts that the 40W Incandescent bulbs have luminous
efficacy mean of 12.0000 that is overwhelmingly lower than the luminous
efficacy mean of 9W CFL bulbs (44.9800), which is in turn absolutely
lower than the luminous efficacy mean of the 8W LED bulbs (66.0000).
Each of the mean differences is statistically significant as no two means fall
under the same homogenous subset. And the Mean Difference in each case
is so large that it is significant statistically at as low as .000 Sig., read as
less than .0005 alpha.

EFFECT SIZE FOR EACH PAIRWISE MEAN

DIFFERENCE
Effect Size can and should further be computed for each of the pairwise
means difference, particularly those that have statistically significant
difference. In the current example, all the pairwise mean differences are
significant statistically. It is only Effect Size that can be used to measure
the actual magnitude of the mean difference in each pairwise comparison;

413
whether it is a trivial, small, medium, or large effect size. This computation
is done by applying Cohen’s d. Cohen’s d for ANOVA Post Hoc Multiple
Comparisons to indicate Effect Size for each pairwise means difference is
equal to the Means Difference (Mean1 minus Mean2) divided by the square
root of the average Variances of the two groups. Average Variances of the
two groups represents the Std. Deviation1 squared plus the Std. Devaiation2
squared; divided by 2. Variance is the square of standard deviation. Put in
equation form, the Cohen’s d for ANOVA Pairwise Comparisons can be
as earlier given in Equation 6:4.

Where d is the effect size of the pairwise means comparison; M1 is the

mean of the first group; M2 is the mean of the second group; N1 is the
number of cases in the first group; N2 is the number of cases in the second
group; S1 is the standard deviation of the first group; S2 is the standard
deviation of the second group; S12 is the variance of the first group; and S22
is the variance of the second group.
Therefore, for the pairwise comparison of the means of 8W LED (M1 =
66.0000, S1 = 10.12372) and 9W CFL (M2 = 44.9800, S2 = 8.65316), that
has N = 50 for each of the two groups; the Cohen’s d is:

414
 Recall from when the three types of t Test were treated that for
comparison of two means with Cohen’s d, the convention for trivial, small,
medium, and large Effect Sizes is as represented here in Table 6.2 for
instant reference. This classification corroborates the recommendations by
Cohen (1988).

Table 6.2 Recommendations for classification of d in pairwise multiple

comparisons
d AS EFFECT SIZE DESCRIPTIVE OF d
0.000 to 0.199 Trivial Effect Size
0.200 to 0.499 Small Effect Size

415
 0.500 to 0.799 Medium Effect Size
0.800 and above Large Effect Size

Therefore, the d, Effect Size, of 2.232 between 8W LED and 9W CFL is

a very large effect size, indicating that the mean difference is indeed an
overwhelming significant difference caused exclusively by the types of bulb
on luminous efficacy.
The sample size (N) in each of the two groups is 50. When there is
equality of sample size, the d can be calculated with perhaps a simpler
equation. The d as a measure of Effect Size in Post Hoc Pairwise Multiple
Comparisons when the groups are equal in sample size is computed as the
Mean Difference (M1 – M2) divided by the square root of the average of the
Variances of the two groups. Note that Variance is the square of Standard
Deviation. That is, the d can easily be computed thus as shown earlier in
Equation 6:3.

Where d is the pairwise comparison effect size, M1 and M2 are the

means for the first group and the second group, respectively; S12 and S22
are the variances (squares of the standard deviations) for the two respective
groups. In the current pairwise comparison (luminous efficacy of 8W LED
versus luminous efficacy of 9W CFL types of bulb) that the N is 50, M1 is
66.0000, M2 is 44.9800, S1 is 10.12372, and S2 is 8.65316; the d can very
easily be got as:

416
 Exactly the same value of d is arrived at when the two equations are
used. So, when there is equal sample size in the groups under comparison,
this last equation that is easier to apply, should be used to get the effect size,
d in ANOVA Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons of the dependent
variable with regard to the independent categorical variable.
For Pairwise Comparison of Means of the 9W CFL (M1 = 44.9800, SD1
= 8.65316) and 40W Incandescent (M2 = 12.000, SD2 = 5.03863), the
effect size, d is:

417
 The Effect Size, d, of 4.658 for the difference between 9W CFL and
40W Incandescent bulbs is a very huge effect size; indicating that the
mean difference caused by the types of bulb on luminous efficacy is indeed
very awesome.
Again, the two samples are equal (N = 50 in each group), therefore the d
as a measure of Effect Size in ANOVA Post Hoc Tests Multiple Pairwise
Comparisons can be computed with great ease as:

418
 Luminous Efficacy of the 9W CFL bulbs has a Mean (M1) of 44.9800
and a Standard Deviation (S1) of 8.65316. The Luminous Efficacy of the
40W Incandescent bulbs has a Mean (M2) of 12.0000 and a Standard
Deviation (S2) of 5.03863. Therefore, the Effect Size, d, is:

As can be seen, any of the two d equations used in the analysis, the
effect size remains exactly the same, 4.658. Use your discretion to apply
any of the two equations in analysing your research data for establishment
of Effect Size in ANOVA Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons. But
always remember that having mastery of two approaches for execution of
any given statistical test, is typically more advantageous than knowing only
one method (Kpolovie, 2018; 2011). Try and master both techniques.
For Pairwise Comparison of the Means of the 8W LED (M1 = 66.000,
SD1 = 10.12372) and 40W Incandescent (M2 = 12.000, SD2 = 5.03863), d,
the Effect Size is:

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 The Effect Size, d, of 6.753 between the Luminous Efficacy Means of
8W LED and 40W Incandescent bulbs is an immensely large effect size.
The overwhelmingly large effect size (6.753) indicates that the luminous
efficacy mean difference between the two types of bulb is indeed a
profound difference that could only have been caused by the types of bulb
on luminous efficacy. Such massive difference could not have, in any way,
been caused by chance or some other factors.
Again, the two samples are equal in size (8W LED N = 50 and 40W
Incandescent N = 50). Therefore, the d as a measure of Effect Size in Post

420
Hoc Multiple Pairwise Comparisons of the luminous efficacy means of the
two types of bulb (8W LED and 40W Incandescent) can be computed with
great ease, using Equation 6:3.

Luminous Efficacy of the 8W CFL bulbs has a Mean (M1) of 66.0000

and a Standard Deviation (S1) of 10.12372. The Luminous Efficacy of the
40W Incandescent bulbs has a Mean (M2) of 12.0000 and a Standard
Deviation (S2) of 5.03863. Therefore, the Effect Size, d, is:

Each of the two equations (Equation 6:4 and Equation 6:3) that was used
to compute the d, produced exactly the same Effect Size of 6.753 for the
difference between the luminous efficacy of 8W LED bulbs and 40W
Incandescent bulbs solely as a function of types of bulb. Use your discretion
to apply any of the two equations in analysing your research data whenever
you want to determine effect size for Post Hoc Tests Multiple Pairwise
Comparisons in Univariate ANOVA models. Mastering both of the

421
approaches has been my recommendation for students (Kpolovie, 2018;
2011).

Profile Plots for the Estimated Marginal Means of

Luminous Efficacy
The Profile Plots for the Estimated Marginal Means of Luminous Efficacy
has graphically expressed the relative positions of the Types of Bulb (9W
CFL, 8W LED and 40W Incandescent) along the horizontal axis against the
Mean of Luminous Efficacy at the vertical axis. This is a pictorial
description of the significant effect of the Types of Bulb on Luminous
Efficacy to show very clearly that the 40W Incandescent is incomparably
less effective than 8W LED, and the 9W CFL. Furthermore, the 8W LED
has outstandingly more luminous efficacy than the 9W CFL bulbs. It is used
as a visual pictographic illustration of the answer to the research question in
the study.

SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS

In a most apt manner, the entire Output 6.3 can technically be written thus.
The effect of Types of Bulb on Luminous Efficacy, F(2, 147) = 548.140, p
< .001, ɳp2 = .882, a marvellously large effect size. Scheffe, Bonferroni
and Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch Range Post Hoc Tests Multiple
Comparisons indicate that 8W LED (M = 66.000, SD = 10.12372) has
significantly preponderant Luminous Efficacy than 9W CFL (M = 44.9800,
SD = 8.65316), d = 2.232, an incredibly large effect size. In turn, the 9W
CFL (M =44.9800, SD = 8.65316) has significantly preponderant Luminous
Efficacy than 40W Incandescent (M = 12.000, SD = 5.03863), d = 4.658, an
exceptionally large effect size. The 8W LED (M= 66.0000, SD = 10.12372)
has more overwhelmingly significant Luminous Efficacy than the 40W
Incandescent (M = 12.0000, SD = 5.03863), d = 6.753, a profoundly large
effect size. Lastly, Bar Chart Profile Plots was used as a pictographic
representation of the findings.
Either of one 8W LED bulb or one 9W CFL bulb produces
overwhelmingly greater brightness than one 40W Incandescent bulb. Yet,
the amount of wattage required to light one 40W Incandescent bulb can be

422
used to light as many as five 8W LED bulbs. Similarly, the wattage
demanded to light one 40W Incandescent bulb can be used to light more
than four 9W CFL bulbs. Furthermore, while 40W Incandescent bulb has
1000 hours lifespan averagely, 9W CFL bulb has 10,000 hours lifespan on
the average, and the average lifespan of 8W LED bulb is 25,000 hours.
Therefore, the 8W LED bulb is indeed incomparably better than 9W CFL
bulb, which is in turn, incomparably better than the 40W Incandescent bulb.
In addition, while the 40W Incandescent bulb generates excessive heat as a
by-product, 8W LED bulb and 9W CFL bulb produce minimal heat.
An earlier study by the Pennsylvania State Centre for Nanoscale
Sciences arrived at similar findings when after displaying and observing
three types of bulbs in an investigation, stated that the “three bulbs in the
display each have a light output of 400 lumens, but they require different
amounts of power. The incandescent bulb uses 60 W, the fluorescent bulb
uses 7 W, and the LED bulb uses 6.5 W” (Penn State Center for Nanoscale
Sciences, 2016). Consequently, the use of high Watt incandescent light
bulbs has since 2012 been discontinued in the United States and in other
developed nations, but it is still the most popularly used bulb in many
Third-World countries, Nigeria in particular (Kpolovie and Ololube, 2020).
Haven completed the analysis and interpreted it, follow the remaining
routine protocols in IBM SPSS Statistics for data analysis to eventually shut
down your system.
View output

Save the output as Chapter 6 Output 3.spv

Print the output

Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system

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UNIVARIATE SPSS SYNTAX APPROACH FOR
ANOVA
The IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax for execution of the Univariate ANOVA
on effect of types of bulb on luminous efficacy is as given in Syntax 6.2.

Syntax 6.2 Chapter 6 Syntax 2.sps

To perform the analysis, do as follows.

Switch on the computer

Start IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data already saved as Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav

Select Window

424
 Select Go to Designated Syntax Window

Enter the SPSS Syntax in Syntax 6.2 very carefully:

Click Run

Click All
That is, start the computer, open IBM SPSS Statistics, and retrieve the
file that has been saved as Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav. The retrieval is
done by clicking Open data document icon in the Toolbar of SPSS
Data Editor to get its menu in which you look for and click the file name
(Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav) and press Enter (see Figure 6.32). Pressing
the Enter key on the Keyboard opens the Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav as
earlier shown in Figure 6.6.

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 Figure 6.32 Open Data menu box

When the dataset, saved as Chapter 6 Table 1 Data.sav is open in the

SPSS Data Editor, activate the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor by
clicking Window and selecting Go to Designated Syntax Window as
illustrated in Figure 6.33.

Figure 6.33 Window Go to Designated Syntax Window

A clicking on the Go to Designated Syntax Window immediately

opens the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor as illustrated in Figure 6.34.

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 Figure 6.34 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

Most carefully enter the SPSS Statistical Commands Syntax given in

Syntax 6.2. When done correctly, the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor
will look like Figure 6.35.

Figure 6.35 SPSS Syntax Editor with the Univariate ANOVA Syntax entered

Finally, click Run and click All (see Figure 6.36) to have the Output
displayed instantly as presented in Output 6.4.

427
 Figure 6.36 Run All

Output 6.4 Chapter 6 Output 4.spv

428
429
430
431
432
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 6.4
The Output 6.4 is exactly the same as Output 6.3. Therefore, the
interpretation of Output 6.3 is equally applicable for the Output 6.4.
Carefully attempt the interpretation of Output 6.4, using that of Output 6.3
as exemplary.
When done with the interpretation, the next thing to do is as follows.
View output

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Save the output as Chapter 6 Output 4.spv and the Syntax as Chapter 6
Syntax 2.sps

Print the output, syntax and data

Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system.

434
 Chapter 7
TWO-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Overview
When the possible effects of two independent variables on a dependent
variable are to be studied, Two-way ANOVA is the most appropriate
statistical test to adopt. It is a most powerful parametric inferential test for
simultaneous unquestionable establishment of two main effects and an
interaction effect of the categorical variables on the dependent variable.
Two-way ANOVA is a much more powerful statistical test than performing
double analysis of variance, one for each of the independent variables. With
the complete step by step screenshot illustrations, every user can
professionally apply two-way analysis of variance with SPSS syntax and
dialog boxes point and click. Effects of instructional techniques and partial
reinforcement schedules on students’ meta-mathematics achievement are
used for exemplification.

Keywords: Two-way ANOVA, Main effect, Interaction effect,

Between-subjects effects, Pairwise comparisons, Estimated
marginal means, Partial reinforcement schedules, Univariate tests,
Output interpretation, Two-way ANOVA syntax; Research
questions; Null hypotheses, Summary of findings.

Two-Way Analysis of Variance, simply referred to as Tow-Way ANOVA,

is a factorial statistical design for explicit establishment of the main effects
with an interaction effect of two independent variables on one dependent
variable. Execution of a Two-Way ANOVA is more than twice economical
than two One-Way ANOVAs because each of the main effects in Two-Way
ANOVA is equal to the possible effect in a One-Way ANOVA; and in
addition, Two-Way ANOVA produces the interaction effect of the two
manipulated independent variables in an experiment. A single Two-Way

435
ANOVA quantitatively and qualitatively produces three effects, two main
effects and one interaction effect, with each of the effects representing a
separate partition of the variance of the dependent variable, as each of them
is separately tested for possible statistical significance. Each of the two
main effects in Two-Way ANOVA is a main effect of one of the two
independent variables on the dependent variable. The interaction effect is
the combined effect of the two independent variables on the dependent
variable (Vogt and Johnson, 2016; Landau and Everitt, 2004). In fact, the
interaction effect in Two-Way ANOVA is a higher order effect than the
main effects because it carries more information, and if the interaction
effect is significant statistically, it supersedes the main effects. The Two-
Way Analysis of Variance treated in this chapter is the Two-Way Between-
Subjects ANOVA.
Two-Way ANOVA demands two between-subjects independent
variables. The levels of the two independent variables are factorially
combined (combined in all possible ways) with each of the combinations
representing an independent group of cases. For instance, a Two-Way
ANOVA that one of the independent variables has three levels (categories)
and the other one has four levels, necessarily involves 12 independent
groups that are combined across the two variables as follows:
a1b1, a1b2, a1b3, a1b4;
a2b1, a2b2, a2b3, a2b4;
a3b1, a3b2, a3b3, a3b4.
This type of factorial design is commonly referred to as 3 x 4 (three by
four) Two-Way ANOVA. An example of the effects of Instructional
Techniques (with three levels) and Partial Reinforcement Schedules
(with four levels) on Meta-Mathematics achievement (the dependent
variable) will make this point more clearly.

EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES

AND PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES
ON META-MATHEMATICS
Suppose that the United States Department of Education wanted to
determine the effect of:

436
 i. Instructional techniques on students’ meta-mathematics achievement
ii. Partial reinforcement schedules on students’ meta-mathematics
achievement
iii. Interaction effect of instructional techniques and partial
reinforcement schedules on students’ meta-mathematics
achievement.
It engaged a small team of curriculum developers and psychologists for
the purpose. To accomplish the task, the team carried out an experiment on
the effects of instructional techniques and partial reinforcement schedules
on students’ meta-mathematics achievement. The team developed a meta-
mathematics curriculum content and delivered it to 60 randomly sampled
students who were further randomized into 12 groups of 5 each. The 12
groups of students were exposed to the following combination of treatment
conditions as in Table 7.0.

Table 7.0 Two-way combination of 3 x 4 treatment conditions

At the end of the 120 days experimental exposition to the randomized

treatment conditions, a content valid and reliable achievement test on Meta-
Mathematics was administered to the students and scored. Their scores
indicating Meta-Mathematics achievement are as tabulated in Table 7.1.

437
Table 7.1 Chapter 7 Table 1 Data.sav (Effects of InsTec and PRS on
MetMath)
Studs MetMath InsTec PRS
1 50 1 4
2 60 1 4
3 40 1 4
4 50 1 4
5 40 1 4
6 60 1 5
7 50 1 5
8 70 1 5
9 70 1 5
10 70 1 5
11 80 1 6
12 60 1 6
13 50 1 6
14 60 1 6
15 55 1 6
16 65 1 7
17 60 1 7
18 60 1 7
19 50 1 7
20 60 1 7
21 90 2 4
22 70 2 4
23 60 2 4

438
24 80 2 4
25 70 2 4
26 75 2 5
27 75 2 5
28 55 2 5
29 85 2 5
30 95 2 5
31 85 2 6
32 90 2 6
33 70 2 6
34 60 2 6
35 70 2 6
36 80 2 7
37 90 2 7
38 60 2 7
39 50 2 7
40 70 2 7
41 60 3 4
42 65 3 4
43 40 3 4
44 45 3 4
45 60 3 4
46 50 3 5
47 50 3 5
48 60 3 5
49 55 3 5

439
 50 65 3 5
51 60 3 6
52 50 3 6
53 50 3 6
54 70 3 6
55 60 3 6
56 50 3 7
57 60 3 7
58 40 3 7
59 50 3 7
60 50 3 7

Research questions
i. What is the effect of instructional techniques on students’ MetaMaths
achievement as measured by their means and standard deviation?
ii. What is the effect of partial reinforcement schedules on students’
Meat-Maths achievement as measured by their means and standard
deviations?
iii. What is the interaction effect of instructional techniques and partial
reinforcement schedules on students MetaMaths achievement as
measured by their means and standard deviations?

Alternate hypotheses
i. Instructional techniques have significant effect on students’
MetaMaths achievement.
ii. Partial reinforcement schedules have significant effect on students’
MetaMaths achievement.
iii. Instructional techniques and partial reinforcement schedules have
significant interaction effect on students’ MetaMaths achievement.

Null hypotheses

440
 i. Instructional techniques have no significant effect on students’
MetaMaths achievement.
ii. Partial reinforcement schedules have no significant effect on
students’ MetaMaths achievement.
iii. Instructional techniques and partial reinforcement schedules have no
significant interaction effect on students’ MetaMaths achievement.

SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT AND CLICK

METHOD FOR TWO-WAY ANOVA
Step 1. Start the computer

Step 2. Open SPSS by clicking the icon of IBM SPSS Statistics version that
is installed in your computer. The SPSS icon looks like this, , or with
the name of the version like this, , depending on
the version installed in the computer. Allow it to fully get ready. Close the
Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics dialog box that is superimposed on the
IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor to have only the latter on your screen.

Step 3. Most carefully enter the data as they are shown in Table 7.1. The
entire data are to be entered in three columns just as was done for One-Way
ANOVA, just that the Two-Way ANOVA incudes a third column. The data
on the dependent variable (MetMath) are entered in the first column; the
data on the first independent variable (InsTec) which are the codes for the
three levels of Instructional Techniques (1 for Discovery, 2 for Inquiry
and 3 for Simulation) are entered in the second column; and data on the
second independent variable (PRS) that are the codes for the four levels of
Partial Reinforcement Schedules (4 for Fixed ratio, 5 for Variable ratio,
6 for Fixed interval and 7 for Variable interval) are entered in the third
column of the SPSS Data Editor.
After the careful data entry, the variables have to be named, given label
and provided values for the different levels of each of the independent
variables. Click Variable View at the bottom extreme left of the IBM SPSS
Statistics Data Editor, just beside Data View. This opens the Variable

441
View of the SPSS Data Editor for naming of the variables. In the first row
under Name column that is currently bearing VAR00001, type MetMath;
in the first cell under Label, type MetaMaths; and select Scale under
Measure.
In the second row under Name column that is currently bearing
VAR00002, type InsTec; in the cell of that row under Label, type
Instructional Techniques and under Measure, select Nominal. Then click
None under Values to see ellipsis (a small blue dotted box) , click the
ellipsis and Value Labels dialog box will appear. In it, type the code 1 in
the box beside Value and type Discovery in the box beside Label (see
Figure 7.1), and click Add.

Figure 7.1 Value Labels 1 = Discovery

Type the code 2 in the box beside Value, type Inquiry in the box beside
Label as shown in Figure 7.2, and click Add.

442
 Figure 7.2 Value Labels 2 = Inquiry

Type the code 3 in the box beside Value, type Simulation in the box
beside Label, as in Figure 7.3, and click Add.

Figure 7.3 Value Labels 3 = Simulation

With this, the Value Labels for Instructional Techniques have been
completed as can be seen in Figure 7.4. Click OK that takes you back to the
starting point of the Variable View of the IMB SPSS Statistics Data
Editor.

443
 Figure 7.4 Value Labels for Instructional Techniques completed

In the third row under Name column that is currently bearing

VAR00003, type PRS that is the actual name for the second independent
variable. Under Label column of this row, type Partial Reinforcement
Schedules, and under Measure, select Nominal. Click None under Values
and an ellipsis (small blue dotted box) will appear. Click the ellipsis for
it to display Value Labels dialog box. Type the code 4 in the box beside
Value, type Fixed Ratio in the box beside Label as in Figure 7.5 and click
Add.

444
 Figure 7.5 Value Labels 4 = Fixed ratio

Type the code 5 in the box beside Value, type Variable Ratio in the box
beside Label, exemplified in Figure 7.6, and click Add.

Figure 7.6 Value Labels 5 = Variable ratio

Type the code 6 in the Value box, type Fixed Interval in the Label box
as can be seen in Figure 7.7, and click Add.

Figure 7.7 Value Labels 6 = Fixed interval

445
 Type the code 7 in the Value field, type Variable Interval in the Label
field as shown in Figure 7.8 and click Add.

Figure 7.8 Value Labels 7 = Variable interval

With this, the Value Labels for the second independent variable (Partial
Reinforcement Schedules) is completed as presented in Figure 7.9.

Figure 7.9 Value Labels for Partial Reinforcement schedules completed

Finally, click OK to get back to the starting point of the Variable View
of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor that has been completed as

446
depicted in Figure 7.10.

Figure 7.10 Completed SPSS Variable View with variables labelled

Return to the Data View of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor by
moving cursor to the bottom extreme left in the Variable View, and click
Data View. This shows the Data View of the SPSS Data Editor with all
the entered data and named variables as presented in Figure 7.11.

447
Figure 7.11 Chapter 7 Table 1 Data.sav

448
Figure 7.11 Continued

449
 Figure 7.11 Continued

Step 4. Save the data by clicking the Save this document icon in the
Toolbar. In the box beside File name, type a suitable name for the data
document, Chapter 7 Table 1 Data.sav in this case, as can be seen in
Figure 7.12, and click Save or press Enter for the data to be securely saved
for subsequent retrieval and use whenever there is need for the dataset.

450
 Figure 7.12 Save Data As… Chapter 7 Table 1 Data.sav

Step 5. Analyze the data. Click Analyze General Linear Model

Univariate. That is, after clicking Analyze, its dropdown dialog box
will appear, and when you select General Linear Model, its dropdown
dialog box appears. In the General Linear Model dropdown menu, move
cursor to and click Univariate as shown in Figure 7.13.

451
 Figure 7.13 Analyze General Linear Model Univariate

The click on the Univariate instantly produced the Univariate main

dialog box as exhibited in Figure 7.14. It is in the Univariate dialog box
that the entire statistical operations required for execution of the Two-Way
ANOVA will be done.

Figure 7.14 Univariate main dialog box

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 Highlight and transfer MetaMaths from the left box into the Dependent
Variable box at the right by clicking the arrow that is facing the
Dependent Variable panel directly. Also highlight Instructional
Techniques and Partial Reinforcement Schedules in the left box and
move them into the Fixed Factor(s) box at the right by clicking the arrow
that is pointing at the Fixed Factor(s) as shown in Figure 7.15.

Figure 7.15 Univariate dialog box with variables transferred

Click Plots pushbutton to have its dialog box called Univariate: Profile
Plots that is presented in Figure 7.16. In the Univariate: Profile Plots,
highlight PRS, the independent variable with more levels, and move it into
the Horizontal Axis field at the right by clicking the arrow pointing
directly at Horizontal Axis. Also, highlight InsTec, the independent
variable with fewer levels, and move it into the Separate Lines panel by
clicking the arrow directly facing the Separate Lines field.

453
 Figure 7.16 Univariate: Profile Plots dialog box

Move cursor to and click Add for the two independent plots to actually
be added into the analysis in such a manner that will also allow for
interaction to be included. When they get added, PRS*InsTec appears in
the panel under Plots to show that the interaction effect of the two variables
will equally be provided in the Profile Plots as illustrated in Figure 7.17.

454
 Figure 7.17 Univariate: Profile Plots with PRS*InsTec added

Click Continue to get back to the Univariate main dialog box. In it,
select Post Hoc pushbutton. With this, the Univariate: Post Hoc Multiple
Comparisons for Observed Means appears as indicated in Figure 7.18.

455
 Figure 7.18 Univariate: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons for Observed Means

In the Univariate: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons for Observed

Means, highlight InsTec and PRS in the Factor(s) box at the left and
transfer them into the Post Hoc Tests for panel at the right by clicking the
arrow that is directly facing the Post Hoc Tests for field as illustrated
in Figure 7.19.

456
Figure 7.19 Univariate: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons with variables moved to Post Hoc
Test for

Select R-E-G-W-Q for its checkbox to be checked as shown in

Figure 7.20. Then, click Continue to return to the Univariate main dialog
box.

457
 Figure 7.20 Univariate: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons with R-E-G-W-Q Pairwise tests
checked

In the Univariate main dialog box this time, select Options pushbutton
for its dialog box to be displayed as in Figure 7.21.

458
 Figure 7.21 Univariate: Options dialog box

In the Univariate: Options dialog box, check the checkbox beside

Descriptive statistics and Estimates of effect size as shown in Figure 7.22.

459
Figure 7.22 Univariate: Options with checked Descriptive statistics and Estimates of effect
size

Click Continue to return to the main Univariate dialog box. From the
main Univariate dialog box, select EM Means pushbutton for Univariate:
Estimated Marginal Means dialog box to appear as shown in Figure 7.23.

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 Figure 7.23 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means dialog box

Under Factor(s) and Factor Interactions box at the left, highlight

InsTec, PRS and InsTec*PRS and transfer them into the Display Means
for panel at the right by clicking the arrow pointing at the Display
Means for, illustrated in Figure 7.24.

Figure 7.24 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means with variables transferred

461
 Select Compare main effects to get its checkbox checked. Next,
click the small downward-pointed arrow and the names of some tests
(LSD, Bonferroni and Sidak) appear. Of the three tests, select Bonferroni
for the Confidence interval adjustment as shown in Figure 7.25.

Figure 7.25 Univariate: Estimate Marginal Means with Compare main effects checked and
Bonferroni chosen for Confidence interval adjustment

Then, click Continue to return to the Univariate main dialog box this
time when all the necessary statistical operations have been done (see
Figure 7.26).

462
 Figure 7.26 Univariate main menu box when all the Two-Way ANOVA statistical
operations have been done

Finally, move cursor to and click OK for IBM SPSS Statistics to

instantly run the analysis and display the results in the IBM SPSS Statistics
Viewer window as exemplified in Output 7.1.

Output 7.1 Chapter 7 Output 1.spv

463
464
Estimated Marginal Means

465
466
467
468
Post Hoc Tests

469
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 7.1 –
METAMATHS ACHIEVEMENT
The Two-Way ANOVA Output is very elaborate with 13 parts:
1. Univariate Analysis of Variance Between-Subjects Factors
2. Descriptive Statistics
3. Test of Between-Subjects effects
4. Estimated Marginal Means for Instructional Techniques
5. Pairwise Comparisons
6. Univariate Tests for Instructional Techniques
7. Estimated Marginal means for Partial Reinforcement Schedules
8. Pairwise Comparisons

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 9. Univariate Tests for Partial Reinforcement Schedules
10. Instructional Techniques*Partial Reinforcement Schedules
11. Post Hoc Tests for Instructional Techniques Homogeneous Subsets
12. Post Hoc Tests for Partial Reinforcement schedules
13. Profile Plots.
Each of these sections of the Output is very briefly interpreted.

Univariate Analysis of Variance Between-Subjects

Factors
This is an outline of the two independent variables (Instructional
Techniques and Partial Reinforcement Schedules), indicating the code and
Value Label for each level as well as the N (number of cases) for each of
the levels in each of the independent variables.

Descriptive Statistics
This section of the Output has provided the Mean and Standard Deviation
of Meta-Mathematics Achievement for each of the Instructional Techniques
by Partial Reinforcement Schedules factorial combinations that serve as
answers to the research questions. It also shows the sample sizes (N) for the
various combinations of the independent variables. Recall that the example
in question is a 3 by 4 (3 x 4) factorial design that I had said will become
clearer as illustrated with this example. Perhaps, putting the means and
standard deviations in the cells of the 3 by 4 Two-Way ANOVA factorial
design as in Table 7.2 could clarify the descriptive statistics tabulated in the
second part of the Output7.1.

Table 7.2 Means and Standard Deviations for answering the research
questions

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 By putting the means and standard deviations into the 3 x 4 Two-Way
ANOVA factorial combinations has very clearly shown the mean and
standard deviation (in parenthesis) of the students’ MetaMaths achievement
in their respective cells across the two independent variables. The Marginal
Total (written in italics) mean and standard deviation for each of the three
levels of Instructional Techniques, and for the four levels of Partial
Reinforcement Schedules are also in the table. For the three levels of
Instructional techniques for instance, the Marginal Total mean and standard
deviation for Discovery are respectively 58.0000 and 10.18254, for Inquiry
are 74.0000 and 12.83499, and for Simulation are 54.5000 and 8.25578.
Similarly, for the four levels of Partial Reinforcement Schedules, the
Marginal Total mean and standard deviation respectively for Fixed ratio are
58.6667 and 14.93637, for Variable ratio are 65.6667 and 13.34523, for
Fixed interval are 64.6667 and 12.60197, and for Variable interval are
59.6667 and 12.88225. The Grand Mean and Standard Deviation, written in
bold italics, are 62.1667 and [13.47838], respectively.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

The Tests of Between-Subjects Effects are most crucial because testing of
each of the null hypotheses for tenability at the appropriate degrees of
freedom under the chosen alpha depends on information in this table of the
Output. The table has listed the Type III Sum of Squares, df, Mean Square,
F, p-value (Sig.) as well as the Partial Eta Squared for the possible sources
of variation. Of the listed sources of variation, four (the main effect 1 =
InsTec, main effect 2 = PRS, Interaction effect = InsTec*PRS, and the

472
Within-Subjects effect = Error) are the main concern in this Two-Way
ANOVA.

i) InsTec: has shown that Instructional Technology has Sum of

Squares (SSInsTec) of 4323.333, df of 2 (number of levels on
InsTec -1 or simply K-1), Mean Square (MSInsTec) of 2161.667
(SS/df = 4323.333/2 =2161.667), F of 19.358 (MSInsTec/ MSError
= 2161.6667/111.667 = 19.358), p-value (Sig.) of .000, read as
.001 or less than .0005, and a Partial Eta Squared (Effect Size) of
.446. Since the p-value (Sig.) of .001 is less than the chosen alpha
of .05, the null hypothesis that “Instructional techniques have no
significant effect on students’ MetaMaths achievement” is
rejected. The alternate hypothesis is upheld. Therefore,
Instructional Techniques has statistically significant effect on
students’ Meta-Mathematics achievement with a .446 Effect Size
measured with Partial Eta Squared [M = 62.1667, SD = 13.47838,
F(2, 48) = 19.358, p < .05, ɳp2 = .446, a large effect size]. Partial
Eta Squared (ɳp2) that indicates Effect Size in Two-Way ANOVA
and higher ANOVA models ranges between 0 (minimum) and 1
(maximum) (Cohen, 1988; Cumming, 2012). Precisely, Partial
Eta Squared, ɳp2 as the measure of Effect Size in Two-Way
ANOVA and in other ANOVA models is classified and
interpreted as:
.000 - .009 = Trivial Effect Size
.010 - .059 = Small Effect size
.060 - .139 = Medium Effect Size
.140 and above = Large Effect Size.
Therefore, the ɳp2 of .446 is indeed, a substantially Large
Effect Size. The Partial Eta Squared ɳp2 is computed as the Sum
of Squares Effect (SSEffect) of one independent variable divided
by the Sum of Squares Effect (SSEffect) of that particular
independent variable plus the Sum of Squares Error (SSError). In
equation form, Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) which is the Effect Size
measure in Two-Way ANOVA and other higher ANOVA models
can be calculated easily as in Equation 7:1.

473
 Thus, in the current example that the Sum of Squares InsTec is
4323.333 and the Sum of Squares Error is 5360.000, the Partial
Eta Squared (ɳp2) is:

The levels of Instructional Techniques that is significantly

higher than the others shall be made known shortly by the
Pairwise Comparisons in the fifth section and by the Homogenous
Subsets in the eleventh section of the interpretation of the Output
7.1.

ii) PRS: has revealed that the Partial Reinforcement Schedules

has 555.000 Sum of Squares (SSPRS), 3 df, 185.000 Mean Square
(MSPRS) that is derived via SSPRS/df (555.000/3 =185.000), F of
1.657 that was got from MSPRS/MSError (185.000/111.667 =
1.657), p-value of .189, and Partial Eta Squared of .094. Since the
Sig. or p-value of .189 is greater than the chosen alpha of .05, the
second null hypothesis that “Partial reinforcement schedules have
no significant effect on students’ MetaMaths achievement” is
retained. That is, the alternate hypothesis that “Partial
reinforcement schedules have significant effect on students’
MetaMaths achievement” is discarded [M = 62.1667, SD =
13.47838, F(3, 48) = 1.657, p > .05, ɳp2 = .094, a medium effect
size]. Because the effect of Partial Reinforcement on students’
MetaMaths achievement is not significant, Pairwise Comparisons
and Homogenous Subsets tests on this independent variable could
be needless as there cannot be any significant mean difference in
such tests as it will soon be seen in sections 8 and 12
interpretation of the Output 7.1.

474
 The Effect Size, ɳp2 of .094 for the Partial reinforcement
schedules, a medium effect size, was arrived at by dividing the
Sum of Squares Partial Reinforcement Schedules (SSPRS) by the
Sum of Squares Partial Reinforcement Schedules (SSPRS) plus the
Sum of Squares Error (SSError). In this example that the SSPRS is
555.000 and the SSError is 5360.000, the Effect Size is

iii) InsTec*PRS: is the Interaction effect of Instructional

Techniques and Partial Reinforcement Schedules that has Sum of
Squares of 480.000, 6 df (dfInsTec + dfPRS + 1), 80.000 Mean
Squares (SSInsTec*PRS/df = 480.000/6 = 80.000) and .716 F
(MSInsTec*PRS/MSError = 80.000/111.667 = .716), .638 Sig. and
.082 Partial Eta Squared. The p-value (Sig.) of .638 is greater than
the chosen alpha of .05. Therefore, the null hypothesis that
“Instructional techniques and partial reinforcement schedules
have no significant interaction effect on students’ MetaMaths
achievement” is retained. Rather, the alternate hypothesis of
“Instructional techniques and partial reinforcement schedules
have significant interaction effect on students’ MetaMaths
achievement” is discarded [M = 62.1667, F(6, 48) = .716, p >
.05, ɳp2 = .082, a medium effect size].
Note that the Effect Size in Two-Way ANOVA, measured with
Partial Eta Squared for the interaction effect is calculated as
SSInsTec*PRS divided by SSInsTec*PRS plus SSError. That is, for the
interaction effect of Instructional Techniques and Partial
Reinforcement Schedules on Meta-Mathematics that has 480.000
as the SSInsTec*PRS and 5360.000 as the SSError, the Effect Size is

475
 Though the interaction effect of Instructional techniques and
Partial reinforcement schedules on MetaMaths is not significant
statistically, its Partial Eta Squared of .082 is interpreted as a
medium effect size. This additional information accounts for why
it is good to indicate the effect size, irrespective of whether the
independent variable’s effect on the dependent variable is
significant or not.

iv) Error: is the Within-Subjects effect that constitutes the

denominator for each F. The Error has 5360.00 Sum of Squares,
48 df [N – (C) (R) = 60 – (4) (3) = 60 – 12 = 48], and the Mean
Square (MSError) is 111.667 (SSError/dfError = 5360.00/48 =
111.667). The Mean Square of 111.667 served as the denominator
for obtaining each of the F in this Two-Way ANOVA.
Other sources of variation listed in the Tests of Between-
Subjects Effects are Corrected Model and Intercept that are not
particularly relevant in interpretation of the Two-Way ANOVA
output.

Estimated Marginal Means for Instructional

Techniques Estimates
The Estimates provided are the Mean, Std. Error, Lower Bound and Upper
Bound at 95% Confidence Interval for the three levels or categories of
Instructional techniques (Discovery, Inquiry and Simulation). It provides
the same Marginal mean information reported earlier under Descriptive
Statistics that Discovery has a marginal (Total) Mean of 58.00 with 2.363
Std. Error, Inquiry has a Marginal Mean of 74 with 2.363 Std. Error, and
Simulation has a Marginal Mean of 54.500 with a 2.363 Std. Error.

Pairwise Comparisons for Instructional Techniques

476
This table has compared the Pairwise Means and shown that Discovery and
Inquiry have 16.000* Mean Difference that is statistically significant as the
.000 p-value (written as .001 or read as less than .0005) is lower than the
chosen .05 alpha in favour of Inquiry Instructional Technique, both Lower
and Upper Bounds (-24.290 and -7.710, respectively) falling below 0 (zero)
at 95% Confidence Interval of Difference. Discovery and Simulation have
3.500 Mean Difference, 3.342 Std. Error and .910 p-value that is not
significant, p > .05. Inquiry and Simulation have 19.500* Mean Difference
that is significant statistically, 3.342 Std. Error, p-value of .000 (read as less
than .0005) that is lower than .05 alpha. The Lower and Upper Bounds of
11.210 and 27.790, respectively, are both above 0 to further indicate the
overwhelming preponderant difference in favour of Inquiry Instructional
Technique. The other pairwise comparisons are interpreted in like manner;
and no other pair of the means differ significantly. Note that every Pairwise
Mean Difference that is significant has an asterisk. For all the Pairwise
Comparisons, Bonferroni Adjustment for multiple comparisons was used.

Univariate Tests
The Univariate Tests has further performed confirmatory F for the effect of
Instructional Techniques on students’ MetaMaths achievement on the basis
of the linearly independent pairwise comparisons among the estimated
marginal means. While the Contrast (i.e., the instructional techniques) has
4323.333 Sum of Squares, 2 df, and 2161.667 Mean Square; the Error
(Within-subjects differences) has 5360.000 Sum of Squares, 48 df and
111.667 Mean Square. The computed F is 19.358 that is statistically
significant even at p (Sig.) that is as low as .0005, and the Partial Eta
Squared that depicts Effect Size is as high as .446. Reject the null
hypothesis of no significant effect of Instructional Techniques on students’
MetaMaths achievement [F(2, 48) = 19.358, p < .05, ɳp2 = .446, a large
effect size]. This indicates that with all other factors held constant or under
complete control, only the Instructional Techniques accounts for at least
44.6% of the variance in students’ Meta Mathematics achievement.

Estimated Marginal Means for Partial Reinforcement

Schedules Estimates

477
This table has presented the Mean, Std. Error, and Lower and Upper
Bounds at 95% Confidence Interval for Fixed ratio, Variable ratio, Fixed
interval and Variable interval levels of Partial Reinforcement Schedules.
For instance, Fixed ratio has 58.667 Mean, 2.2728 Std. Error, 53.181 Lower
Bound and 64.153 Upper Bound at 95% Confidence Interval. Each of the
other three levels of Partial Reinforcement Schedules can simply be
interpreted in like manner.

Pairwise Comparisons
All the 12 possible Pairwise Comparisons on Partial Reinforcement
Schedules are presented in this table, showing the Mean Difference, Std.
Error, Sig., and the Lower and Upper Bounds at 95% Confidence Interval
for Difference based on estimated marginal means with Bonferroni
Adjustment for multiple comparisons. There is no Mean Difference that is
marked with asterisk to depict statistical significance. None of the 12
Pairwise Comparisons has a significant Mean Difference. That is, the
tabulated Mean Differences that range from 7.000 to 1.000 are better seen
as a function of chance like individual differences and measurement errors.
If the investigation is replicated 100 times with different samples (sized 60
each) drawn randomly from the same population of students, the results will
consistently indicate lack of significant difference in at least 95 times.

Univariate Tests
Special F tests were performed to further assess the effect of Partial
Reinforcement Schedules based on the linearly independent pairwise
comparisons among the estimated marginal means of MetaMaths
achievement. The one closest to reaching significant difference has 555.000
Contrast (Between-Groups, i.e. PRS) Sum of Squares, 5360.000 Error Sum
of Squares, 3 df for Contrast, 48 df for Error, 185.000 Contrast Mean
Square, 111.667 Error Mean Square, Sig. of .189, and F of 1.657 that is not
significant statistically. The Partial Eta Squared (Effect Size) is .094. Aptly,
the results of the effect of Partial Reinforcement Schedules on student’s
Meta-Mathematics achievement can technically be written as F(3, 48) =
1.657, p > .05, ɳp2 = .094, a medium effect size.

478
Instructional Techniques*Partial Reinforcement
Schedules
This table of the Output 7.1 has presented the Mean, Std. Error, Lower
Bound and Upper Bound at 95% Confidence Interval for the Interaction
effect of Instructional Techniques and Partial Reinforcement Schedules to
all the 12 possible factorial combinations. It could serve as part of the
answers to the research questions. For instance, Discovery combined with
Fixed Ratio has a Mean of 48.000, Std. Error of 4.726, Lower Bound of
38.498 and Upper Bound of 57.502 at 95% Confidence Interval.

Post Hoc Instructional Techniques Homogeneous

Subsets
In this table of the Output, the Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch Range
(QREGW) tests of MetaMaths Means for groups in homogeneous subsets
are displayed on the basis of observed means. The Error term is the Mean
Square(Error) that is equal to 111.667 and a .05 alpha on Instructional
Techniques. The levels of the independent variable (Instructional
Techniques) are listed from the one with the lowest MetaMaths Mean to the
one with the highest MetaMaths Mean as Simulation (54.5000), Discovery
(58.0000) and Inquiry (74.0000) on MetaMaths achievement. There are two
Subsets. The first Subset contains the Means for Simulation and Discovery
instructional techniques, to absolutely indicate that the two Means do not
differ significantly; but that each of the two means is significantly different
from the Mean of the Inquiry instructional technique that falls in the second
Subset. That is, the second Subset has the Mean of Inquiry alone.
Therefore, Inquiry Instructional Technique positively ensured significantly
better MetaMaths achievement than each of Simulation and Discovery
Instructional Techniques.
Accordingly, the team of curriculum developers and psychologists
engaged to carry out the research can therefore recommend correctly to the
United States Department of Education that the use of Inquiry
Instructional Technique has overwhelming preponderance in guaranteeing
significantly better Meta-Mathematics achievement in comparison with
Discovery and Simulation Instructional Techniques. The newly developed
Meta-Mathematics curriculum should better be delivered with application

479
of inquiry instructional technique on the average rather than discovery and
simulation instructional techniques.

Partial Reinforcement Schedules Homogeneous

Subsets in MetaMaths
The Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch Range (QREGW) tests for Means of
groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed on the basis of observed
means, error term in Mean Square(Error) that is equal to 111.667 and a .05
alpha on MetaMaths in this table of the Output 7.1. Based on all possible
criteria, the MetaMaths Means of the four levels of Partial Reinforcement
Schedules: Fixed Ratio (58.6667), Variable Interval (59.6667), Fixed
Interval (64.6667) and Variable Ratio (65.6667) fall under a single Subset to
confidently specify that these four groups do not significantly differ in their
MetaMaths achievement. This implies that Partial Reinforcement Schedules
do not have significant main effect on students’ Meta-Mathematics
performance.

Profile Plots
This graph is a pictorial illustration of the relative position of the Univariate
3 by 4 Two-Way ANOVA design Estimated Marginal Means of MetaMaths.
Discovery has marginal mean of 48.00 at Fixed ratio schedule, 64 at
Variable ratio schedule, 61 at Fixed interval schedule and 59 at Variable
interval schedule of reinforcement. Inquiry instructional technique has an
estimated marginal mean of 74 at Fixed ratio schedule, 77 at Variable ratio
schedule, 75 at Fixed interval schedule and 70 at Variable interval schedule
of reinforcement. The Inquiry instructional technique estimated marginal
means are very far above the means of other instructional techniques at all
levels of partial reinforcement schedules. Lastly, Simulation Instructional
Technique has estimated marginal mean of 54 at Fixed ratio schedule, 56 at
Variable ratio schedule, 58 at Fixed interval schedule and 50 at Variable
interval schedule of reinforcement. It is crystal clear from the graphic
illustration that the Inquiry Instructional Technique has overwhelmingly
positive effect on students’ MetaMaths achievement at each of the four
levels Partial Reinforcement Schedules with very high mean that ranges
from 70 and above. Each of the other two instructional techniques

480
(Simulation and Discovery) has MetaMaths achievement mean that is
smaller than 65 at each of the four levels of Partial Reinforcement
Schedule.
Haven completed interpretation of the findings, the Output 7.1, the next
thing to be done is adherence to the remaining six steps in the IBM SPSS
Statistics data analysis protocols as follows.

Step 6. You have already viewed the entire Output as the interpretation was
being done.

Step 7. Save the output by clicking the Save this document tool on the
Toolbar to have the Save Output As dialog box. In the box beside File
name, type a most suitable name for the document, Chapter 7 Output
1.spv, in this example and click Save as shown in Figure 7.27.

Figure 7.27 Save Output As… Chapter 7 Output 1.spv

Step 8. Print the output. Move cursor to the Toolbar and click the Print tool

for its dialog box to appear. In the Print dialog box, confirm that All

481
visible output is checked (see Figure 7.28), and click Print for one copy of
the Output 7.1 to be printed. Repeat the action to get the required copies
printed.

Figure 7.28 Print All visible output

Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing all opened SPSS windows on
the system. When you click Close for the last Data Editor window on the
screen, SPSS will prompt you to confirm that you indeed want to exit the
software as shown in exhibit 7.29. Click Yes to proceed with exiting.

Figure 7.29 Exit SPSS prompting

Step 10. Shut down the computer by clicking Start Power

Shut down.

482
SPSS STATISTICS SYNTAX METHOD OF TWO-
WAY ANOVA
Application of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax method is a very fast and
direct technique for execution of Two-Way Analysis of Variance. It simply
requires you to know the right Command Syntax and to correctly enter it
into the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor. You do not need to worry on
how and where to find the Syntax. The Syntax, like the ones for other
statistical tests, is provided readily in this book. The Syntax for execution of
Two-Way ANOVA is presented in Syntax 7.1.

Syntax 7.1 Chapter 7 Syntax 1.sps

This method for analysing the data requires starting the computer,
opening the IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking its icon on your computer. It
looks like this , or more fully with the name and the particular version,
looks like , depending on the version installed in
your system. When it fully comes up, close the superimposed dialog box
(Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics) for you to actually activate the IBM
SPSS Statistics Data Editor.

483
 In the SPSS Data Editor, retrieve the data file that was saved as
Chapter 7 Table 1 Data.sav by clicking File Open Data as
shown in Figure 7.30.

Figure 7.30 File Open Data

Your last action, a click on Data, instantly made the Open Data menu
box to appear as in Figure 7.31.

Figure 7.31 Open Data menu box

484
 In the Open Data menu, look for the needed file, Chapter 7 Table 1
Data.sav, click it and press Enter key on the Keyboard. Once this is done,
the dataset file opens as displayed earlier in Figure 7.11.
Move cursor to and click Window to have its dropdown menu, and in
the Window dropdown, click Go to Designated Syntax Window,
illustrated in Figure 7.32.

Figure 7.32 Window Go to Designated Syntax Window

On clicking the Go to Designated Syntax Window, the IMB SPSS

Statistics Syntax Editor opens immediately as given in Figure 7.33. It is in
this Syntax Editor that the Syntax 7.1 must correctly be entered.

Figure 7.33 IBM SPSS Syntax Editor

Without any mistake, enter the Syntax provided in Syntax 7.1. As you
begin typing a word, SPSS will prompt you to make sure that no mistake is
made by producing some words that begin with the same alphabet(s) as the
one that you want to type. Just select the particular word that you have just
started typing. Selecting the words in this way will surely prevent mistakes
even if you have never personally typed any document before. When you
finish entering the Syntax, the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor will
look like the one demonstrated in Figure 7.34.

485
 Figure 7.34 IBM SPSS Syntax Editor with the Syntax entered

After checking to ensure that the entire Syntax is correctly entered,

request SPSS to perform the analysis by clicking Run and then All as
depicted in Figure 7.35.

Figure 7.35 Run All

Just in a split second, IBM SPSS Statistics completes the analysis and
produces the results in the IBM SPSS Viewer window as exhibited in
Output 7.2.

Output 7.2 Chapter 7 Output 2.spv

486
487
Estimated Marginal Means

488
489
490
491
Post Hoc Tests

492
493
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 7.2
The Output 7.2 is equivalent to Output 7.1 and has the same interpretation
as the one provided for Output 7.1. Both Outputs were arrived at from
analysis of the same data in Table 7.1 that is saved as Chapter 7 Table 1
Data.sav. The only difference is that while IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax
method was applied on the data to produce Output 7.2, IBM SPSS Dialog
Boxes Point and Click method was employed in analysing the data that
resulted in Output 7.1. Carefully compare the Output 7.2 with Output 7.1 to
see if there are areas that they have different values.
After viewing the output, save it by clicking the Save this document
icon on the Toolbar. Then, type a suitable name for it (Chapter 7

494
Output 2.spv) in the box beside File name (see Figure 7.36) and press the
Enter key on the Keyboard.

Figure 7.36 Save Output As… Chapter 7 Output 2.spv

Activate the Syntax Editor with the relevant Syntax in it and replicate
the actions for saving documents to save it as Chapter 7 Syntax 1.sps as
illustrated in Figure 7.37.

495
 Figure 7.37 Save Syntax As… Chapter 7 Syntax 1.sps

Print the output and the syntax after which you close all opened SPSS
windows and exit the software. Click Start, click Power and click Shut
down.

496
 Chapter 8
ONE-WAY REPEATED MEASURES
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Overview
Nature is replete with recurrent events. Countless things occur repeatedly in
life. Majority of drugs, for instance, have to be taken several times for the
treatment of a disease. One-way repeated measures analysis of variance is
applied when each member of a sample received three or more measures on
the same dependent variable or on different related variables and the
concern is to ascertain whether observations taken after the treatments
yielded results that statistically differ significantly as the effects of the
experimental interventions, and nothing else, in the population. Effects of
nursing interventions on patients’ comprehensive health, and scholarly
progression in 5-year direct PhD engineering program are used for
demonstrations.

Keywords: Repeated measures ANOVA, Multivariate tests, Partial

eta squared, Univariate tests, Within-subjects effects, Effect size;
Multivariate tests; Test of paired differences; Follow-up pairwise
comparisons; Nursing interventions; Comprehensive health;
Engineering program; Scholarly progression; Interpretation of
output; One-way within-subjects ANOVA syntax.

One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA, fully called One-Way Repeated

Measures Analysis of Variance, is also referred to as One-Way Within-
Subjects Analysis of Variance or One-Way Correlated-Samples ANOVA
because each of the participants is observed repeatedly and has more than
two scores which the analysis compares for relative statistical difference.
That is, One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA is applied when each

497
member of the sample received three or more measures on the same
dependent variable or on different variables and the concern is to ascertain
whether the different sets of scores for the same sample truly differ
significantly. In experimental design that the subjects are matched correctly
into groups after which the same measure is taken of them, the One-Way
Within-Subjects ANOVA could be used particularly when the scores
correlate very highly. One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA is required for
analysis of data collected from longitudinal survey investigations that the
same measure is taken of the sample repeatedly over time (Kpolovie, 2017;
2016; 2010). In a One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA, the means of an
independent variable are compared on a continuous dependent variable in
such a special manner that the independent variable is treated exclusively as
a within-subjects factor with three or more levels, and every of the
participants receives all the levels of the independent variable.
One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA is employed as a most suitable
test of significant difference between means when multiple measures are
taken from the same group of participants. One-Way Within-Subjects
ANOVA breaks the sources of variation in the data into three: the variance
due to the difference in the means of the group (that is treated as between
groups mean square); the variance due to the fact that the measures are
correlated (such as individual uniqueness); and the variance due to the
residual or the remaining error. The Repeated Measures ANOVA
statistically puts the last two sources of variation together and treats it as the
residual and completely eliminates its influence on the difference due to the
means of the group’s different measures. This, One-Way Repeated
Measures ANOVA dose by dividing the between groups variance (the
between measures mean square) by the residual variance (error mean
square) to arrive at the F-ratio. When the different scores of the single
sample correlate substantially, the One-Way Between-Subjects ANOVA is
most efficient and remains the best possible test for establishment of
difference between the group’s means where such difference does exist. An
example will clarify the application of One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA.

EFFECTS OF NURSING INTERVENTIONS ON

PATIENTS’ COMPREHENSIVE HEALTH

498
Suppose that the World Health Organization wanted to expand
breakthroughs in medicine and decided to engage the National Institute of
Nursing Research (NINR), Bethesda, Montgomery County, Maryland,
United States of America to conduct a research. And that the research was
aimed at determination of the Effects of Nursing Interventions on patients’
Comprehensive Health (total well-being). The National Institute of Nursing
Research decided to use Within-Subjects (Repeated Measures or
Correlated-Samples) Analysis of Variance design for the study. The NINR
structured three experimental treatment conditions, called Nursing
Interventions, for the investigation. The three Nursing Interventions are:
Physiological well-being
Social well-being
Psychological well-being.
Fifteen Nursing Doctors (5 for each intervention) were trained in
administration of Physiological well-being intervention, Social well-being
intervention, and Psychological well-being intervention conditions to the
participants. Execution of the experiment lasted for 210 days (seven
months). In the first month, measurements of Comprehensive Health were
taken and the average score for each of the participants was used as the
Baseline data. After that, all the 44 participants were exposed to the three
experimental treatment conditions (i.e., the Nursing Interventions) on
Physiological well-being, Social well-being, and Psychological well-being
during the same session in each of the remaining six months to control for
variations in their Comprehensive Health. To prevent possible or probable
influence of order (sequencing) effects and carry-over effects, the three
Nursing Interventions or treatment conditions were completely
counterbalanced in the administration. That is, taking Physiological well-
being intervention as A, Social well-being intervention as B, and
Psychological well-being intervention as C, these treatment conditions were
administered as exhibited in Table 8.0.

Table 8.0 Counterbalancing of nursing interventions

499
 Apart from the Baseline data, the average of each participant’s six scores
on a given experimental intervention was taken as his or her score on that
particular treatment condition or intervention.
Further suppose that Biomedical Instruments were mainly used for the
measurement of Comprehensive Health of the 44 randomly sampled
participants (all aged 30) who had the same health conditions from the
onset. The Biomedical Instruments used are as enumerated.
Mechanical Waves – sound or ear waves and heart sounds.
Temperature – core, surface and ear.
Nucleic Acids – DNA and RNA.
Electrical Potentials – electrocardiogram (EKG) for heart,
electroencephalogram (EEG) for millivolt brain changes, and
electromyogram for muscle.
Gases – oxygen, carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
for lungs; arterial concentrations of oxygen (PaO2), carbon monoxide
(PaCO) and carbon dioxide (PaCO2).
Cellular – hormones, cytokines and cellular proteins with enzymes.
Pressure – veins (CVP), systolic and diastolic pressure plus MAP for
arteries; ICP for brain; uterus pressure monitor; esophagus (Eos);
lungs (Paw with intrapleural pressure).
Psychological well-being scale.
Social well-being scale.
To ensure that the various Biomedical Instruments plus the two self-
report scales yield comparable results, the measures obtained on each of the
instruments were transformed or standardized to T Score with a common
mean of 50 and a common standard deviation of 10. The average of each
participants’ T Score finally indicated his or her Comprehensive Health

500
after administration of each of the three Nursing Interventions monthly and
at the end of the experimental period as presented in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1 Chapter 8 Table 1 Data.sav – Effects of Nursing Interventions on

patients’ Comprehensive Health
Pat. * Base. Phys. Social Psyc.
1 60 80 70 60
2 40 60 50 40
3 50 60 60 60
4 70 80 80 70
5 30 40 30 40
6 50 60 60 40
7 40 60 50 50
8 80 90 70 80
9 20 30 30 30
10 30 40 40 40
11 50 60 60 60
12 60 70 60 50
13 30 60 30 40
14 40 60 50 40
15 60 70 60 50
16 70 80 70 70
17 50 60 60 50
18 40 60 50 40
19 20 50 20 20
20 70 80 80 70
21 10 20 20 10

501
 22 10 20 10 20
23 90 90 90 90
24 70 80 70 70
25 80 80 70 60
26 40 30 50 50
27 90 90 90 100
28 40 60 50 50
29 60 70 70 60
30 50 60 60 50
31 50 70 50 50
32 60 70 70 60
33 50 60 60 50
34 20 40 40 30
35 50 70 60 50
36 50 70 50 60
37 40 50 40 50
38 70 80 70 70
39 40 50 50 40
40 30 50 30 30
41 60 70 60 60
42 30 40 40 40
43 80 90 80 80
44 60 80 60 60
Notation: *Pat. = Patients, Base. = Baseline, Phys. = Physiological, and
Psyc. = Psychological.

Research question

502
What is the effect of Nursing Interventions on patients’ Comprehensive
Health as measured by their means and standard deviations?

Alternate hypothesis
Nursing interventions have significant effect on patients’ Comprehensive
Health.

Null hypothesis
Nursing interventions do not have significant effect on patients’
Comprehensive Health.

ONE-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA WITH

SPSS DIALOG BOXES SELECTION
Step 1. Boot the computer.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics and close the superimposed Welcome
to IBM SPSS Statistics dialog box.

Step 3. Enter the data in the Data View of the IBM SPSS Data Editor
exactly as they are in Table 8.1. All the four scores of each participant must
constitute one row. The data entry for One-Way Repeated Measure is very
much like how data were entered for Paired-Samples t Test. The only
difference is that in One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA, there are at least
three columns instead of the two columns in Paired-Samples t Test.
On completion of entering the data, click Variable View at the bottom
extreme left to have the Variable View of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor. In the Variable View of the Data Editor, type the actual names of
the four variables (each of the Nursing Interventions is treated as a
variable). Under Name column, type Baseline, Physiological, Social and
Psychological in place of VAR00001, VAR00002, VAR00003 and
VAR00004, respectively. Under Label, type Baseline well-being,
Physiological well-being, Social well-being and Psychological well-
being, respectively, in the four rows. Then select Scale for each of the

503
variables in the Measure column for the Variable View of the SPSS Data
Editor to look like Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1 Variable View of the Data Editor

At the bottom extreme left of the SPSS Data Editor, click Data View to
return to the entered data when the variables have been named and labelled
as shown in Figure 8.2.

504
Figure 8.2 Chapter 8 Table 1 Data.sav

505
 Figure 8.2 Continued

Step 4. Save the data by clicking the Save this document icon in the
Toolbar and type in a suitable name for the document in the box beside File
name as shown in Figure 8.3. In this example, Chapter 8 Table 1 Data.sav
is entered as the File name.

506
 Figure 8.3 Save Data As Chapter 8 Table 1 Data.sav

Step 5. Analyze the data by clicking Analyze General Linear

Model Repeated Measures (see Figure 8.4) to have Repeated
Measures Define Factor(s) dialog box as shown in Figure 8.5.

Figure 8.4 Analyze General Linear Model Repeated Measures

507
 Figure 8.5 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) dialog box

In the Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) dialog box, type the name
of the Within-Subjects Factor in the box beside Within-Subject Factor
Name, which in this example is Interventions. The Factor Name should
ideally be a single word or phrase without spacing and that is why
Interventions is entered instead of Nursing Interventions. Also, in this
dialog box, provide the number of levels in the Within-Subject Factor in
the small box beside Number of Levels. Type the number, 4, in the small
box as shown in Figure 8. 6. In addition, type Comprehensive_Health, the
name of the dependent variable, in the field for Measure Name. Again, the
dependent variable name must be a single word or phrase without space.
So, underscore is used to make Comprehensive Health as a single word.

508
Figure 8.6 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with the Factor Name, Number of Levels
and Measure Name

Click Add under Number of Levels so that the Factor Name

(Interventions) provided and number of levels in the Factor
(Interventions) will be added into the analysis as shown in Figure 8.7.
Furthermore, click Add under the Measure Name for the
Comprehensive_Health to be added into the big panel for the analysis as
exhibited in Figure 8.7.

509
 Figure 8.7 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with name and level added

Click Define for the main Repeated Measures dialog box to appear as
in Figure 8.8 for further statistical operations to be done. Most of the
required statistical operations are done in the Repeated Measures dialog
box.

510
 Figure 8.8 Repeated Measures dialog box

Move each of the variables from the left box into the Within-Subjects
Variables (Interventions) box at the right by highlighting it and clicking
the right-pointed arrow according to the numbered order. When done,
the dialog box will look as shown in Figure 8.9. You can also move all of
the variables at once by pressing and holding down the Ctrl key on the
Keyboard and selecting all the four variables and then clicking the right-
pointed arrow that is directly facing the Within-Subjects Variables
(Interventions) panel.

511
 Figure 8.9 Repeated Measures dialog box with levels of the Factor moved to the right

Select the Options pushbutton for its dialog box to appear. The
Repeated Measures: Options dialog box, shown in Figure 8.10, has a list
of several possible statistical operations that could be opted for, depending
on types and volume of information you want in the specific statistical test
(One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA in this case) that you are executing.

512
 Figure 8.10 Repeated Measures Options

Check the checkbox for Descriptive statistics and for Estimates of

effect size as shown in Figure 8.11. The Estimates of effect size is
critically important because selecting it will make SPSS to compute and
provide the Effect Size known as Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) for the
Univariate Analysis.

513
Figure 8.11 Repeated Measures: Options with Descriptive statistics and Estimate of effect
size checked

Click Continue to return to the Repeated Measures main dialog box. In

it, select EM Means (Estimated Marginal Means) pushbutton, presented
in Figure 8.12, to have its dialog box in which some fundamental statistical
operations will be done.

514
 Figure 8.12 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means

Highlight Interventions in the Factor(s) and Factor Interactions box

at the left and move it to the right under Display Means for, shown in
Figure 8.13. Transfer of the Interventions into the Display Means for
panel is done by highlighting it and clicking the right-pointed arrow.

515
 Figure 8.13 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means with Interventions moved
under Display Means for

Check the Compare main effects checkbox. Then, click the

downwards-pointed small black arrow and select Bonferroni as shown
in Figure 8.14.

516
 Figure 8.14 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means with Compare main effects
and Bonferroni selected

Click Continue to get back to the main menu for Repeated Measures.
Select Plots pushbutton for the Repeated Measures: Profile Plots dialog
box to appear as shown in Figure 8.15.

517
 Figure 8.15 Repeated Measures: Profile Plots

In the Repeated Measures: Profile Plots, move Interventions from the

left box (Factors) into the Horizontal Axis panel at the right by
highlighting it and clicking the right-pointed arrow that is facing the
Horizontal Axis. With that click, the independent variable, Interventions,

518
appears in the Horizontal Axis field. Then, click Add. On clicking Add,
the Interventions disappears from the Horizontal Axis box and appears in
the big panel under Plots. Select Bar Chart and check Include reference
line for grand mean as shown in Figure 8.16.

Figure 8.16 Repeated Measures: Profile Plots with Interventions added, Bar Chart and
Include reference line for grand mean checked

519
 Click Continue to return to Repeated Measures main dialog box when
all the necessary statistical operations have been completed. Finally, click
OK for IBM SPSS Statistics to complete running the analysis and
displaying the results in the IBM SPSS Viewer window as shown in Output
8.1.

FURTHER FOLLOW-UP PAIRWISE

COMPARISONS TESTS
There may also be a need for further follow-up confirmatory tests that is
done with Paired-Samples t Test for the paired comparisons, particularly
when the Compare main effects and Bonferroni statistical operations
done in Figure 8.14 were not performed. To perform the Paired-Samples t
Test for such purpose, activate the SPSS Data Editor with the dataset
(Chapter 8 Table 1 Data.sav) as in Figure 8.2 and select Analyze
Compare Means Paired-Samples t Test to have the Paired-
Samples t Test dialog box that is presented in Figure 8.17. Before
continuing, let me reiterate that once you have done the One-Way
Repeated Measures ANOVA as earlier demonstrated with the Compare
main effects and Confidence interval adjustment test chosen, Bonferroni
in this case, within the Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means
dialog box as illustrated in Figure 8.14; doing a follow-up pairwise
comparisons test is not necessary.

520
 Figure 8.17 Paired-Samples T Test

In the Paired-Samples T Test dialog box, transfer the variables in the

box at the left into the Paired Variables box at the right according to all the
required possible pairwise comparisons as shown in Figure 8.18.

Figure 8.18 Paired-Samples T Test as follow-up for the One-Way Repeated Measures
ANOVA according to the required pairwise comparisons

521
 Finally, move cursor to and click OK for IBM SPSS Statistics to
complete the analysis and present the results in the IBM SPSS Statistics
Viewer window as exhibited in the further follow-up pairwise comparisons
part of the Output 8.1.

Output 8.1 Chapter 8 Output 1.spv

522
523
524
525
Further Pairwise Tests using Paired-Samples t Test

526
527
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 8.1: EFFECTS OF
NURSING INTERVENTIONS
The One-Way Repeated Measures Analysis of variance results presented in
Output 8.1 has 11 parts. They are the Within-Subjects Factor, Descriptive
Statistics, Multivariate Tests, Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity, Tests of Within-
Subjects Effects, Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts, Tests of Between-
Subjects Effects, Estimated Marginal Means Interventions, Pairwise
Comparisons, Multivariate Tests, and Profile Plots. In addition to these,
there are three sections (Paired Samples Statistics, Paired Samples
Correlations and Paired Samples Test) in the Further Pairwise Comparisons
done with Correlated t Test as a follow-up analysis.

528
Within-Subjects Factors
This part of the Output simply lists the four Nursing Interventions (Baseline
coded 1, Physiological coded 2, Social coded 3, and Psychological coded 4)
to show that the means compared were got from the dependent variable
(Comprehensive Health) scores on each of these four levels of the
independent variable, Nursing Interventions).

Descriptive Statistics
This section is a display of the Mean, Std. Deviation and N for each of the
four Interventions levels. The N is 44 across board as only one sample of 44
participants was studied and every of the participants experienced the
Baseline observations, as well as the monthly observations after exposure to
the experimental treatment conditions. For instance, Baseline well-being
has 49.7727 Mean and 20.05674 Std. Deviation, Physiological well-being
has 62.2727 Mean and 18.28249 Std. Deviation, Social well-being has
55.0000 Mean and 18.36326 Std. Deviation, and for Psychological well-
being, the Mean is 52.0455 and the Std. Deviation is 18.11841. These
Descriptive Statistics information serve as the answer to the posed research
question.

Multivariate Tests
This section of the Output shows that the null hypothesis of ‘no significant
effect of nursing interventions on participants’ comprehensive health’ can
be tested either with univariate test (One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA) or
with a Multivariate test (One-Way Within-Subjects Multivariate Analysis of
Variance [MANOVA]). The Multivariate Tests presented results for four
different tests (Pillai’s Trace, Wilks’ Lambda, Hotelling’s Trace, and Roy’s
Largest Root) (Hair Jr., Black and Anderson, 2010; Johnson and Wichern,
2014) on the effect of the nursing Interventions on patients’ comprehensive
health. The F (44.723) for each of these tests is statistically significant at
even .001 alpha as the Sig. is .000 (i.e., less than .001, also written as less
than .0005); and with as high as .766 Partial Eta Squared (the Effect Size).
However, it is not this Multivariate tests results that are the concern of the
example; the MANOVA results merely happen to be part of the output of

529
the One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA that is the issue under
consideration.

Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity

This test has provided information on the sphericity assumption of the
Within-Subjects ANOVA that the variance in the repeated measures is
spherical. It has .731 Mauchly’s W, 13.058 Approximate Chi-Square, and 5
df with .023 Sig., indicating statistical significance at .05 alpha. However,
authors like Howell (2006) have pointed out that the Mauchly’s Test of
Sphericity is inaccurate and that it tends to be better to provide two reports
for the One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA, one for Sphericity Assumed and
another for Sphericity not assumed. Double results of the One-Way Within-
Subjects ANOVA shall therefore be presented in this example. Ordinarily,
when the sphericity assumption is not met, the standard ANOVA F test
given for Sphericity Assumed inaccurately yields results that tend to reject
a true null hypothesis slightly more often than is true in the population; and
therefore one of the alternative F tests (Greenhouse-Geisser, Huynh-Feldt
or Lower-bound) should rather be reported because these other tests adjust
the df (degrees of freedom) to accurately accommodate the sphericity
violation issue. Of the three alternative F tests when sphericity assumption
is violated or when Sphericity Assumed F is to be bypassed due to
elements of inaccuracy in Mauchly’s test, the best and most appropriately
cautious alternative F test to report is the Greenhouse-Geisser. The reason
being that while the Lower-bound F test makes adjustment that is slightly
more cautious and which might reject the null hypothesis a little too
infrequently (i.e., fail to reject the null hypothesis occasionally) due to its
conservativeness, the Huynh-Feldt F test makes adjustment that is slightly
more liberal (rejecting the null hypothesis a little more often than is
warranted by the population from which the sample was drawn).

Tests of Within-Subjects Effects

The Tests of Within-Subjects Effects is the most crucial of all the sections
of the Output 8.1 because it is with this test that the null hypothesis under
investigation is tested for tenability. The Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
provides the needed F test as the ratio of the two variances that are each
represented as a Mean Square (MS). The F is the Mean Square for

530
Interventions between measures divided by the Mean Square for
Interventions error on the basis of any of the four tests (Sphericity
Assumed, Greenhouse- Geisser, Huynh-Feldt or Lower-bound). In equation
form F is arrived at thus in Equation 8:1.

Substituting the numerator and denominator with their actual values for
Sphericity Assumed, F is:

Substituting the numerator and denominator with their actual values for
Greenhouse-Geisser (that is when Sphericity is not assumed), F is:

In both tests and situations, the obtained F is 41.502 as provided in the

Tests of Within-Subjects Effects table.
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects has provided the Type III Sum of
Squares, df, Mean Square, F and Sig. for each of the four statistical tests
(Sphericity Assumed, Greenhouse-Geisser, Huynh-Feldt and Lower-bound)
for variances to both Interventions (the between measures) and the Error.
Taking Sphericity Assumed, Type III Sum of Squares is 3904.545, df is 3,
Mean Square is 1301.515, F is 41.502, and p-value (Sig.) is .000 (read
either as less than .001 or less than .0005). Since the Sig. is lower than the
classical chosen alpha of .05, the null hypothesis is rejected; and the Effect
Size as measured by Partial Eta Squared is .491. The decision is rejection
of the null hypothesis [F(3, 129) = 41.502, p < .05, ɳp2 = .491].
Based on the alternative test, Greenhouse-Geisser, that Sphericity
Assumption is not met, the Type III Sum of Squares is 3904.545, df is
2.518, Mean Square is 1550.727, F is 41.502, and the Sig. is .000 (less than
.0005 or less than .001). The p-value (Sig.) of .000 is less than the chosen
alpha of .05, therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected; and the Effect Size
measured by Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) is .491. The null hypothesis is
rejected because [F(3, 108.269) = 41.502, p < .05, ɳp2 = .491]. In both
Sphericity assumed and Sphericity not assumed, the Sig. is less than the

531
chosen alpha of .05 and consequently, the null hypothesis of “Nursing
interventions have no significant effect on patients’ Comprehensive Health”
is rejected. In other words, Comprehensive Health significantly differ
across the four levels of types of Nursing Interventions (Baseline well-
being, Physiological well-being, Social well-being, and Psychological well-
being) in the population. That is, the Comprehensive Health means of the
four repeated measures, based on the Nursing Interventions, significantly
differ. The experimental intervention conditions directly and singly account
for as much as 49.1% of the variance in Comprehensive Health in the
population as the Effect Size (Partial Eta Square) is .491.

Effect Size
The Effect Size that is computed with Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) is equal
to the Type III Sum of Squares for Interventions (or Effect) divided by the
Type III Sum of Squares for Intervention plus Type III Sum of Squares for
Error. In equation form, Partial Eta Squared is as in Equation 8:2.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects and Tests of Within

Subjects Contrast
In this output, the Tests of Within-subjects Contrasts and the Tests of
Between-Subjects Effects are not required in reporting or interpreting the
One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA. They may be reported for some other
tests where they necessarily play important role.

Estimated Marginal Means for Interventions

This table of the Output has presented the Mean and Std. Error as well as
the 95% Lower Bound and Upper Bound for each of the four Nursing

532
Interventions. The Means shown here are the same as provided by the
Descriptive Statistics. In the Estimated Marginal Means, Std. Error is
provided unlike in the Descriptive Statistics section where Std. Deviation
instead was given for each of the Interventions. For instance, the fourth
nursing intervention (Psychological well-being intervention) has a mean of
52.045, Std. Error of 2.731, Lower Bound of 46.537 and Upper Bound of
57.554 at 95% Confidence Interval. Each row in the Estimated Marginal
Means for Interventions is interpreted in like manner.

Pairwise Comparisons
The Pairwise Comparisons table has presented the Mean Difference (I-J),
Std. Error, Sig., and 95% Confidence Interval for Difference Lower Bound
and Upper Bound for each of the Pairwise Comparisons. Under the Mean
Difference (I-J) column, each Mean Difference that is statistically
significant has an asterisk. To show the direction that the Mean Difference
favours, where the mean of the (I) Interventions is smaller than the mean of
the (J) Interventions, a minus sign (-) is put as the prefix of the given Mean
Difference because the (J) mean is subtracted from the (I) mean to arrive at
the Mean Difference. Where the mean of the (I) Interventions is greater
than the mean of the (J) Interventions, there is no minus sign as prefix of
the Mean Difference.
`The participants’ Comprehensive Health mean at the Baseline (coded 1)
is significantly lower than the Comprehensive Health mean at Physiological
well-being Intervention (coded 2) with [p < .001], and at Social well-being
(coded 3) with [p < .001]; but does not differ significantly from the
Comprehensive Health mean at the Psychological well-being (coded 4) with
[p > .05]. The Comprehensive Health mean at Physiological well-being
Intervention is significantly greater than the Comprehensive Health mean at
each of the other three Interventions (Baseline well-being, Social well-
being and Psychological well-being) with p < .001 in each case. Social
well-being has Comprehensive Health mean that is significantly greater
than that at the Baseline (p < .001), and significantly smaller than that at
Physiological well-being Intervention; but does not significantly differ from
that at Psychological well-being Intervention. Lastly, the Comprehensive
Health mean at Psychological well-being Intervention does not differ
significantly from that at the Baseline well-being Intervention and Social

533
well-being Intervention; but is significantly smaller than the
Comprehensive Health mean at Physiological well-being Intervention.
Of the four Nursing Interventions, the Physiological well-being
Intervention is the most effective with overwhelming preponderance,
followed by the Social well-being Intervention. The fourth well-being
Intervention, Psychological, does not differ from the Baseline well-being
Intervention; and is significantly lower than the Physiological well-being
Intervention.

Multivariate Tests
The Multivariate Tests results here are exactly as those reported under the
third section of the Output 8.1. Each of the F for the four tests (44.723) is
statistically significant with p < .001, and has .766 Partial Eta Squared
(Effect Size). Each of the F tests the multivariate effect of Nursing
Interventions on the basis of linearly independent pairwise comparisons
among the estimated marginal means.

Profile Plots
This has graphically illustrated the magnitude and relative position of each
Nursing Intervention’s effect on Comprehensive Health as shown pictorially
by the Mean as well as the extent to which each of the Means differs from
the Observed Grand Mean (the horizontal dark line). Recall that scores
yielded by each of the various measuring instruments were standardized to
T Score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. This accounts for
why the Profile Plots has shown some sort of closeness of the
Comprehensive Health mean for each Nursing Intervention to 50. The Bar
Chart bar for Baseline well-being is approximately 50, Physiological well-
being Intervention is approximately 62, Social well-being Intervention is
55, and Psychological well-being Intervention is approximately 52. The
Observed Grand Mean which is the mean for all the Nursing Interventions
put together is approximately 55.

Paired Samples Statistics

The Paired Samples Statistics table is part of the Further Pairwise Tests that
used Paired-Samples t Tests and it has presented the Mean, N, Std.

534
Deviation and Std. Error Mean for each Intervention in the six Pairwise
comparisons. The statistical information is the same with those shown
under Descriptive Statistics section of the General Linear Model Output.

Paired Samples Correlations

This table has revealed the Correlation between each of the six pairwise
comparisons and indicated that they are all significant as the p < .001 for
each pair. The Correlation between Baseline well-being and Physiological
well-being Interventions is .927; Baseline well-being and Social well-being
Interventions is .950; Baseline well-being and Psychological well-being
Interventions is .942; Physiological well-being and Social well-being
Interventions is .873; Physiological well-being and Psychological well-
being Interventions is .863; and Social well-being and Psychological well-
being Interventions is .912.

Paired Samples Test of Paired Differences

This Paired Samples Test of Paired Differences is used as a further follow-
up test to determine which of the Nursing Interventions are significantly
different from one or some other Nursing Interventions; and it is used
particularly when the Pairwise Comparisons in section 9 of the General
Linear Model Output based on Estimated Marginal Means with Bonferroni
for Adjustment of multiple comparisons was not done.
When Paired-Samples t Test is used for follow-up pairwise comparisons
of means in One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA, the alpha level of .05 must
be adjusted to have the Appropriate Alpha Level Per Comparison so that
the entire set of follow-up tests does not exceed the .05 chosen alpha. The
Appropriate Alpha Level Per Comparison is arrived at by diving the overall
alpha level for the set of tests (.05) by the number of pairwise follow-up
tests. In the current example with 6 pairwise comparisons, divide .05 by 6
to have .0083 (i.e. .05 ÷ 6 = .0083) so that the sum of the six pairwise tests
does not exceed .05. That is, instead of evaluating each pairwise
comparison Sig. against .05, the p-value to use for each test will be
evaluated against an alpha level of .0083. For each paired comparison,
when the p-value (Sig.) is equal to or less than .0083, the null hypothesis on
the paired Interventions will be rejected; and when the p-value is greater

535
than .0083, the null hypothesis of no significant mean difference between
the two Interventions will be retained.
Simply put, .0083 is to be used as the chosen alpha in testing the
tenability of each of the six pairwise comparisons. This is to ensure that the
probability of committing Type I error (false rejection of a null hypothesis
that should by right have been retained) does not become greater than .05
for the entire set of the follow-up tests. The implication is that if no
adjustment was made and each of the six follow-ups pairwise tests was
conducted at .05, the experimental eta, the overall alpha for the set of tests
would have been increased to the sum of the .05 alphas for the six tests,
which is .300.
The Paired Samples Test of Paired Differences has shown the Mean
Difference, the Difference in Std. Deviation, Std. Error Mean, and the
Lower and Upper 95% Confidence Interval of Difference, the t, df and Sig.
(2-tailed) for each of the six pairwise comparisons thus:
1. Baseline well-being and Physiological well-being interventions has a
Mean Difference of -12.500, t of -11.041 that is significant
statistically as p < .0083.
2. Baseline well-being and Social well-being interventions has a Mean
Difference of -5.227, t of -5.518 that is significant statistically as p <
.0083.
3. Baseline well-being and Psychological well-being interventions has a
Mean Difference of -2.273, t of -2.226 that is not significant
statistically as p > .0083.
4. Physiological well-being and Social well-being interventions has a
Mean Difference of 7.273, t of 5.220 that is significant statistically
because p < .0083.
5. Physiological well-being and Psychological well-being interventions
has a Mean Difference of 10.227, t of 7.125 that is significant
statistically because p < .0083.
6. Social well-being and Psychological well-being interventions has a
Mean Difference of 2.955, t of 2.562 that is not significant
statistically because p > .0083.

These six pairwise results are exactly like the results arrived at with the
Pairwise Comparisons in section 9 of the Output 8.1. That is, the pairwise
comparisons that have significant difference in the Paired Samples Test of

536
Paired Differences are exactly the ones that were significantly different in
the General Linear Model Pairwise Comparisons.

Step 6. View the entire output scrolling up and down, right and left.

Step 7. Save the output. Click the Save this document icon to have its
dialog box. Type the name, Chapter 8 Output 1.spv, for the document in
the box beside File name (see Figure 8.19) and click Save.

Figure 8.19 Save Output As… Chapter 8 Output 1.spv

Step 8. Print the output after which you print the data. Follow the print

command to get this done. You simply click the Print tool in the
Toolbar to have its dialog box in which you click Ok when the All visible
output is checked (see Figure 8.20) for one copy of All visible output to be
printed.

537
 Figure 8.20 Print dialog box

Step 9. Exit SPSS by closing all opened IBM SPSS Statistics windows.

Step 10. Shut down the system be clicking Start, followed respectively by
clicking Power and clicking Shut down.

ONE-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA WITH

SPSS SYNTAX
With IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax method, One-Way Repeated Measures
ANOVA plus the additional follow-up pairwise analysis can be performed
very easily. The SPSS Syntax for the purpose is as given in Syntax 8.1.

Syntax 8.1 Chapter 8 syntax 1.sps

538
 Boot the computer. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking its icon
. When it fully comes up, close the superimposed
Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics dialog box. Move cursor to the Toolbar
and click the Open data document tool to have its menu as given in
Figure 8.21. In the Open Data menu, look for and click the name with
which the data document was saved (Chapter 8 Table 1 Data.sav) and
press Enter key on the Keyboard.

539
 Figure 8.21 Open Data

With the pressing of Enter, the document opens exactly as much earlier
presented in Figure 8.2. Click Window and from its dropdown menu, click
Go to Designated Syntax Window (see Figure 8.22).

Figure 8.22 Window Go to designated Syntax window

By selecting the Go to Designated Syntax Window, the IBM SPSS

Statistics Syntax Editor appears as shown in Figure 8.23. The IBM SPSS

540
Statistics Syntax Editor can also be opened by clicking File New
Syntax.

Figure 8.23 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

Most carefully enter the Syntax that is provided in Syntax 8.1. When
done, it will look like Figure 8.24.

Figure 8.24 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor with the requisite syntax

Crosscheck to confirm that the Syntax is correctly typed in. Finally,

select Run and in the Run dropdown menu, select All. With this, IBM
SPSS Statistics instantly completes the analysis and presents the results in
the SPSS Viewer window as displayed in Output 8.2.

541
Output 8.2 Chapter 8 Output 2.spv

542
543
544
545
Further Pairwise Tests with Paired-Samples t Test

546
547
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 8.2
Compare every table in Output 8.2 with its corresponding table in Output
8.1 and list the differences. At the end, how many differences were you able
to spot and list? Zero difference. Right, if there is no difference at all in the
two outputs, then the interpretation provided for Output 8.1 cannot be
different from how Output 8.2 should be interpreted. Apply the
interpretation of Output 8.1 to the Output 8.2.
Follow the remaining IBM SPSS Statistics protocols to eventually shut
down your system.
View output

548
Save the output as Chapter 8 Output 2.spv and the Syntax as Chapter 8
Syntax 1.sps

Print output and syntax

Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system.

Congratulations. You are most fully equipped now to expertly analyse
data of any investigation that made use of One-Way Within-Subjects or
Repeated Measures Research Design (Kpolovie, 2016), and lucidly
interpret the output impeccably. Either SPSS Syntax method or SPSS
Dialog Boxes Selection method, depending on which is more convenient
for you could be adopted for analysis of such data for the establishment of
significant effect of repeated treatments on a dependent variable, it does
exist. But before moving on to another topic, perform one more rehearsal,
using scholarly performance in a 5-year Direct Ph.D. engineering program
as an example.

SCHOLARLY PERFORMANCE IN 5-YEAR

DIRECT Ph.D. ENGINEERING PROGRAM
A second illustration of One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA is with
contrived data on scholarly progression in 5-year Direct Ph.D. Engineering
program in Indian Institute of Science. The Indian Institute of Science is the
best university in India and ranked among the 251-300 top universities in
the world (Times Higher Education World University Rankings, 2018), and
it is highly renowned in Engineering Programs. Direct Ph.D. program in the
Institute has a 5-year duration. Interested candidates who have a minimum
of B.E. or B.Tech. are admitted after excellent performance in Graduate
Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) plus an admission interview. The

549
Indian Institute of Science is one of the best universities in the world to do a
Ph.D. in Engineering. There are several options for it but this example is on
the 5-Year Direct program alone.
Imagine that a researcher wanted to ascertain his conjecture that the
scholarly performance of the admitted students in Indian Institute of
Science significantly improved over the 5-year duration of the Ph.D.
program in engineering. He was particularly concerned with whether the
students’ scholarly performance significantly changed positively or
negatively across the five years. Suppose that the students’ annual
performance was in scale data that were transformed into T Score as
presented in Table 8.2. It was suspected that the students’ scholarly
performance would either improve over the years as they become more
acclimated to the technicalities of their subject matter and
instructors/supervisors’ approach; or decrease as they become overwhelmed
by the increased complexity of the subject matter and fieldwork.

Table 8.2 Chapter 8 Table 2 Data.sav – Scholarly performance in 5-year

Direct Ph.D. engineering program

550
551
Research question
How is the students’ scholarly performance across the 5-year Direct Ph.D.
engineering program as measured by their means and standard deviations?

Alternate Hypothesis

552
The students significantly differ in their scholarly performance over the 5-
year Direct Ph.D. engineering program.

Null Hypothesis
The students do not differ significantly in their scholarly performance over
the 5-year Direct Ph.D. engineering program.

ONE-WAY WITHIN-SUBJECTS ANOVA WITH

SPSS DIALOG BOXES SELECTION
To execute the analysis, follow the IBM SPSS Statistics protocol.

Step 1. Boot the computer.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics.

Step 3. Enter the data exactly the way they are in Table 8.2, just the same
way that Table 8.1 data were typed in. Make sure that each person’s five
scores are consistently in one row without any mistake. When done, click
Variable View and type in the actual names, Year1SP, Year2SP, Year3SP,
Year4SP and Year5SP respectively in place of Var00001, Var00002,
Var00003, Var00004 and Var00005 rows under Name column. Type in the
same five names for the variables in the Label column. On completion, the
Variable View of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor will look like
Figure 8.25.

Figure 8.25 Completed Variable View for the One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA

553
 Move the cursor to and click Data View to have the Data View of the
SPSS Data Editor with the entire data and names for the variables
(Scholarly Performance [SP] for each year is treated as a variable) as
presented in Figure 8.26.

Figure 8.26 Data Editor with the data and named variables

554
Figure 8.26 Continued

555
 Figure 8.26 Continued

Step 4. Save the data by clicking the Save this document tool in the
Toolbar and typing the document name, Chapter 8 Table 2 Data.sav in the
File name box, and clicking Save (see Figure 8.27).

556
 Figure 8.27 Save Data As… Chapter 8 Table 2 Data.sav

Step 5. Analyze the data by clicking Analyze General Linear

Model Repeated Measures as illustrated in Figure 8.28.

Figure 8.28 Analyze General Linear Model Repeated Measures

557
 With the last click, Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) dialog box
appeared as shown in Figure 8.29.

Figure 8.29 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) dialog box

Type Year which is the independent variable name, referred to here as

Factor, in the Within-Subject Factor Name box. Type the number of
repeated measures, 5, in the Number of Levels box. Also type the name of
the dependent variable, Performance, which is referred to here as Measure
in the Measure Name box as shown in Figure 8.30.

558
 Figure 8.30 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with the names and number of levels
entered

Click Add, for both the Levels and Name so that the Factor and its
Levels as well as the Measure Name (the dependent variable,
Performance as short form for Scholarly Performance) will be added into
the analysis. When added, the names for the Factor Name and Measure
Name will respectively appear in the upper and lower big boxes beside
as shown in Figure 8.31.

559
 Figure 8.31 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) when the Factor (Year) and Measure
(Performance) have been added

Click Define so that the actual Repeated Measures main dialog box
will appear as given in Figure 8.32.

560
 Figure 8.32 Repeated Measures dialog box

Highlight and move all the variables, Year1SP, Year2SP, Year3SP,

Year4SP and Year5SP in the left box into the Within-Subjects Variables
(Year) box at the right by clicking the right-pointed arrow that is
directly pointing at the Within-Subjects Variables (Year) panel. When
done, the Repeated Measures main dialog box will be as exhibited in Figure
8.33.

561
 Figure 8.33 Repeated Measures dialog box with the factor levels moved to the right

Select Plots pushbutton to have Repeated Measures: Profile Plots as

shown in Figure 8.34.

562
 Figure 8.34 Repeated Measures: Profile Plots dialog box

The Year under Factors box is highlighted. So, click the right-pointed
arrow next to it in order to move it into the Horizontal Axis box at the
right as demonstrated in Figure 8.35.

563
 Figure 8.35 Repeated Measures: Profile Plots with Year moved under Horizontal Axis

Click Add, so that the Profile Plots can be completed. After that click,
the Year will appear in the big box just under Plots instead of remaining in
the Horizontal Axis field. Next, select Bar Chart, and check the checkbox
for Include reference line for grand mean so that the relative variation of
each of the Factor Means from the Grand Mean can be visualized in the
results (see Figure 8.36).

564
 Figure 8.36 Repeated Measures: Profile Plots with Year added, Bar Chart and Include
reference line for grand mean checked

Click Continue to return to the Repeated Measures main dialog box. In

it, select EM Means for Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means
dialog box to appear for more statistical operations to be done as shown in
Figure 8.37.

565
 Figure 8.37 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means dialog box

Highlight Year in the Factor(s) and Factor Interactions panel at the

left and transfer it into the Display Means for panel at the right as shown in
Figure 8.38.

Figure 8.38 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means with Year moved

Check the Compare main effects checkbox. Then click the small black
arrow that is pointing downwards to have its dropdown menu in which

566
you click Bonferroni for the Confidence interval adjustment as can be
seen in Figure 8.39.

Figure 8.39 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means with Compare main effects
checked and Bonferroni selected for Confidence interval adjustment

Click Continue to get back to the Repeated Measures main dialog box.
In it this time, select Options. This produces Repeated Measures: Options
dialog box as depicted in Figure 8.40.

Figure 8.40 Repeated Measures: Options

567
 In the Repeated Measures: Options dialog box, check the small boxes
beside Descriptive statistics and Estimates of effect size for the results of
these analysis to be part of the eventual output (see Figure 8.41). The
Estimates of effect size performs the much-needed Partial Eta Squared to
automatically show the Effect Size of the independent variable (Year of
study) on the dependent variable Scholarly Performance) of students in
Indian Institute of Science 5-year Direct Ph.D. program.

Figure 8.41 Repeated Measures: Options with Descriptive statistics and Estimates of effect
size checked.

Lastly, click Continue to return to the Repeated Measures main dialog

box when all the requisite statistical operations have been completed. Click
OK to have IBM SPSS Statistics to run the entire analysis and produce the
results in the SPSS Viewer window as presented in Output 8.3.

FOLLOW-UP PAIRWISE COMPARISONS TESTS

To run a further follow-up pairwise analysis, using Paired-Samples t Test,
activate the SPSS Data Editor containing the dataset that was saved as
Chapter 8 Table 2 Data.sav for it to appears as shown earlier in Figure
8.26. Then, click Analyze Compare Means Paired-Samples
T Test (see Figure 8.42).

568
 Figure 8.42 Analyze Compare Means Paired-Samples T Test

The clicking of Paired-Samples T Test produced the Paired Samples T

Test dialog box. In it, move all the variables (Year1SP, Year2SP, Year3SP,
Year4SP and Year5SP) from the left box into the Paired Variables box at
the right according to the 10 necessarily needed pairwise comparisons as
shown in Figure 8.43, Finally, click OK to have the results as presented in
Output 8.3.

569
Figure 8.43 Paired-Samples T Tests as follow-up pairwise comparisons for the One-Way
Repeated Measures ANOVA

Output 8.3 Chapter 8 Output 3.spv – Years of study

and scholarly performance

570
571
572
573
Pairwise Tests as Follow-up

574
575
576
INTERPRETATION OF THE OUTPUT 8.3 –
INFLUENCE OF YEARS OF STUDY
There are 14 sections in the robust output that IBM SPSS Statistics has
produced for the One-Way Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance as
briefly examined herein. While the first 11 parts of the output are purely for
the One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA, the additional three sections are for
Paired-Samples t Test as a follow-up analysis.

Within-Subjects Factors
The five years that observation of the Scholarly Performance was done are
listed in this table, and accordingly coded as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively.

Descriptive Statistics
This table has given descriptive statistics (Mean, Std. Deviation and N) of
the Scholarly Performance for each of the five years. The N (number of
students or scholars) for each of the years is 68. The Mean and Std.
Deviation in Year1 are respectively 59.1765 and 9.10624; in Year2 are
64.9559 and 9.18375, respectively; in Year3 are 75.3971 and 8.77435,
respectively; in Year4 are respectively 80.8676 and 9.36316; and in Year5
are 90.7206 and 9.91583, respectively. There is an incremental trend in the
means over the years.

Multivariate Tests
This table shows that the null hypothesis that “the students do not differ
significantly in their scholarly performance over the 5-year Direct Ph.D.
engineering program” can be tested either with univariate test (One-Way
Within-Subjects Analysis of Variance [ANOVA]) or with a multivariate test
(One-Way Within-Subjects Multivariate Analysis of Variance [MANOVA]).
With the Multivariate Tests, results for the four different tests (Pillai’s
Trace, Wilk’s Lambda, Hotelling’s Trace, and Roy’s Largest Root) on the
influence of years of study on the students’ scholarly performance is
statistically significant in each case (in each of the four tests) as the F is
1453.813 with df Hypothesis of 4.000 and df Error of 64.000; and Sig. of
.000 that is less than .0005; plus a very high Effect Size measured with

577
Partial Eta Squared to be .989. However, it is not the Multivariate tests
results that are the overall concern of this example. The MANOVA results
merely happen to be part of the comprehensive output produced by SPSS
for the One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA that is the main issue under
consideration in this example.

Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity

Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity provides information on the sphericity
assumption of the Within-Subjects ANOVA that the variance in the
repeated measures is spherical. It has .286 Mauchly’s W, 81.824
Approximate Chi-Square, and 9 df with .000 Sig., which indicates statistical
significance at .05 alpha. That is, the sphericity assumption is violated.
Whenever the sphericity assumption is not met as in this case, the standard
ANOVA F test given for Sphericity Assumed inaccurately yields results
that slightly tend to reject a true null hypothesis more often than is true in
the population from which the sample was randomly drawn; and therefore
one of the alternative F tests (Greenhouse-Geisser, Huynh-Feldt or
Lower-bound) should rather be reported because each of these other tests
adjust the df (degrees of freedom) to accurately accommodate the sphericity
violation issue. Of the three alternative F tests when sphericity assumption
is violated or when Sphericity Assumed F is to be bypassed due to probable
elements of inaccuracy in Mauchly’s test, the best and the most
appropriately cautious alternative F test to report is the Greenhouse-
Geisser. The reason is that while Lower-bound F test makes adjustment
that is overly cautious and that might reject the null hypothesis a little too
infrequently (i.e., fail to reject the null hypothesis occasionally) due to its
conservativeness, the Huynh-Feldt F test makes adjustment that is slightly
more liberal (rejecting the null hypothesis a little more often than warranted
by the population under investigation). Howell (2006) has however
suggested that it is better to provide two reports for the One-Way Repeated
Measures ANOVA, one based on Sphericity Assumed and another that is
based on Sphericity not Assumed because the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity
may not be yielding results with finality of accuracy. For this reason,
particularly when the sample size is fairly large, and for the purpose of
illustration, double results of the One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA shall
be presented in this example.

578
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
The most critical and completely indispensable to report and interpret of all
the sections in the One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA output is the
part that is called Tests of Within-Subjects Effects for testing the tenability
of the postulated null hypothesis. The Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
provides the much-needed F test as the ratio of the two sources of variance,
each represented as a Mean Square (MS), that make up the General Linear
Model Univariate Analysis of Variance whenever repeated measures are
taken. The F is the Mean Square for Effect (Year between measures)
divided by the Mean Square for Error (Residual) across the years for each
of the four F tests (Sphericity Assumed, Greenhouse-Geisser, Huynh-Feldt
and Lower-bound). In equation form, F is arrived at as in Equation 8:1.

For the Greenhouse-Geisser (as the sphericity is not assumed), when the
numerator and denominator are substituted with their actual values, F is:

For Sphericity Assumed (if the sphericity were actually assumed), when
the numerator and denominator are substituted, F is:

In both tests and situations, the obtained F of 2931.393 is as provided in

the F column of the Tests of Within-Subjects Effects table and is
statistically significant as the Sig. (probability of obtaining such rear result)
is .000 that is less than the chosen alpha of .05; it is even less than .0005;
and the Effect Size as measured with Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) is as high
as .978, that is very close to perfection or totality (1). Therefore, years of
study in the Direct Ph.D. Engineering program significantly affects the
students’ Scholarly Performance. In other words, Scholarly Performance in
the program differ significantly from one year to another, in a progressive
fashion. The scholarly performance keeps increasing annually from the first
year to the fifth year.

579
 The Tests of Within-Subjects Effects has provided the Type III Sum of
Squares (SS), df, Mean Square, F, Sig. and Partial Eta Squared (Effect
Size) for each of the four statistical test (Sphericity Assumed, Greenhouse-
Geisser, Huynh-Feldt and Lower-bound) that are due to variance between
the different years’ scholarly performance on the one hand, and due to the
residual or error (variance in each year’s scholarly performance) of the
students in the Direct 5-year Ph.D. Engineering program in the Indian
Institute of Science.
Taking Greenhouse-Geisser, as the Sphericity Assumption is not met,
the Type III Sum of Squares for Effect is 42838.482 and for Error is
979.118; df for Effect is 2.622 and for Error or Residual is 175.643; Mean
Square for Effect is 16340.988 and for Error is 5.574; the F is 2931.393; the
Sig. is .000 (read as less than .0005); and the Partial Eta Squared is .978.
The computed F of 2931.393 is statistically significant because the Sig.
(.0005) is lower than the chosen alpha of .05; therefore the null hypothesis
that “the students do not differ significantly in their scholarly performance
over the 5-year Direct Ph.D. engineering program” is rejected; and the
Effect Size measured rightly with Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) is .978.
Rejection of the null hypothesis is because [F(2.622, 175.643) = 2931.393,
p < .05, ɳp2 = .978, a profoundly large effect size]. The students in the
program significantly differ in their scholarly performance over the 5-year
duration of the program. Pairwise Comparisons to be examined shortly
from now will unveil the nature, pattern or direction of the difference.
Based on Sphericity Assumed (in case the Sphericity Assumption were
met), Type III Sum of Squares for Effect is 42838.482 and for Error is
979.118; df for Effect is 4 and for Error is 268; Mean Square for Effect is
10709.621 and for Error is 3.653; F is 2931.393; Sig. is .000 (read as less
than .0005); and Partial Eta Squared (Effect Size) is .978. Since the Sig. of
.0005 is lower than the classically chosen alpha of .05, the null hypothesis
that “the students do not differ significantly in their scholarly performance
over the 5-year Direct Ph.D. engineering program” is rejected; and the
Effect Size as measured by Partial Eta Squared is .978. The F of 2931.393
is statistically significant because the null hypothesis is rejected for the
reason that [F(4, 268) = 2931.393, p < .05, ɳp2 = .978, a profoundly large
effect size].
In both Sphericity Assumed and Sphericity not Assumed, the Sig. is less
than the chosen alpha of .05 and even of .01 (if this were to be the chosen

580
level of significance). Consequently, “the null hypothesis that the students
do not differ significantly in their scholarly performance over the 5-year
Direct Ph.D. engineering program” is rejected. In other words, the students’
scholarly performance significantly differs across the 5-year duration of the
Direct Ph.D. engineering program in the Indian Institute of Science. That is,
the scholarly performance means in the 5 years duration of the program are
significantly different, denoting that the 5 years have statistical effect on the
program, accounting for as much as 97.8% of the variance in scholarly
performance, as the Effect Size (Partial Eta Squared) is .978.

Effect Size
The Effect Size that is computed with Partial Eta Squared is derived by
dividing the Type III Sum of Squares for Effect (SSEffect) of Year by Type
III Sum of Squares for Effect (SSEffect) of Year plus the Type III Sum of
Squares for Error (SSError)of a given F test. In the form of equation, Partial
Eta Squared for Greenhouse-Geisser F test is as given in Equation 8:2.

The Partial Eta Squared for Sphericity Assumed F test is still as in the
Equation 8:2.

581
Test of Between-Subjects Effects and Test of Wuthin-
Subjects Contrast
These two tests (Test of Within-Subjects Contrast and Tests of Between-
Subjects Effects) are not required in the reporting and interpretation of One-
Way Repeated Measures ANOVA. They may be required in some other
statistical tests where they necessarily play important roles.

Estimated Marginal Means for Year

In this table, Scholarly Performance Mean, Std. Error, and 95% Lower
Bound and Upper Bound Confidence Interval for each of the 5 Years are
given. The Means here are the same as those provided earlier under
Descriptive Statistics. While in Estimated Marginal Means for Year, Std.
Error is given; in the Descriptive Statistics table, it is Std. Deviation that is
provided. For instance, while the Year 1 has 59.176 Mean, 1.104 Std. Error
and 56.972 Lower and 61.381 Upper 95% Confidence Interval Bounds;
Year 5 has 90.721 Mean, 1.202 Std. Error, 88.320 Lower Bound and 93.121
Upper Bound 95% Confidence Interval.

Pairwise Comparisons
The Pairwise Comparisons section of the Output 8.3 is crucially essential in
reporting the results. It has presented the Scholarly Performance Mean
Difference (I-J), Std. Error, Sig., and 95% Confidence Interval for
Difference Lower Bound and Upper Bound for each of the Pairwise
Comparisons across the Years. Under the Mean Difference (I-J) column,
each Mean Difference that is statistically significant has an asterisk (*) and
the Sig. for each pair of Means is less than .0005 (p < .0005). The asterisk
runs across all the Pairwise Comparisons in favour of the higher Year.
Therefore, for each of the Comparisons, the Mean Difference is statistically
significant with each of the higher Years having greater Mean.
To show the direction that the Mean Difference favours, where the mean
of the (I) Year is smaller than the mean of the (J) Year, a minus sign (-) is
put as the prefix of the given Mean Difference because the (J) mean is
subtracted from the (I) mean to arrive at the Mean Difference. Where the
mean of the (I) Year is greater than the mean of the (J) Year, there is no
minus sign as prefix of the Mean Difference. The evidence of statistical

582
significance in each Mean Difference can also be seen in the 95%
Confidence Interval for Difference Lower Bound and Upper Bound because
wherever the Mean Difference is positive, both the Lower Bound and Upper
Bound are totally above zero; and wherever the Mean Difference is having
a negative sign, both the Lower Bound and Upper Bound are completely
below zero.
The participants’ Scholarly Performance Mean at the Year 1 is
significantly lower than their Scholarly Performance Mean at each of the
other four Years with [p < .0005]. The Scholarly Performance Mean at Year
2 is significantly higher than that at Year 1 and significantly smaller than
the Mean in each of the higher years [p < .0005] in each comparison. Year 3
Scholarly Performance is significantly greater than the Means at Year 1 and
Year 2, but significantly lower than the Mean at each of Years 4 and 5 [p <
.0005] in each case. Scholarly Performance Mean at Year 4 is significantly
lower than that at Year 5, but statistically greater than the Mean at each of
Years 3, 2 and 1 [p < .0005]. Finally, the Scholarly Performance Mean at
Year 5 is greater than the Mean at each of Years 4, 3, 2 and 1 with
overwhelming significance [p < .0005] in each comparison. In summary, of
the five Years, the Year 5 is the most effective with overwhelming
preponderance of Scholarly Performance Mean, followed by Year 4, and
then Year 3, and Year 2. Year 1 has the least Scholarly Performance Mean.

Multivariate Tests
The Multivariate Tests results here are exactly as those reported under the
third section of the Output 8.3. Each of the F for the four tests (1453.813) is
statistically significant with p < .0005, and has .989 Partial Eta Squared
(Effect Size). Each of the four (Pillai’s trace, Wilk’s lambda, Hotelling’s
trace and Roy’s largest root) F tests the multivariate influence of Year on
the basis of linearly independent pairwise comparisons among the estimated
marginal means.

Profile Plots
The Profile Plots is a graphic illustration of the magnitude and relative
position of each Year’s influence on the Scholarly Performance of students
in the 5-year Direct Ph.D. engineering program at the Indian Institute of
Science as shown pictorially by the Mean as well as the extent to which

583
each of the Means differs from the Observed Grand Mean (the horizontal
dark line at approximate Estimated Marginal Mean of 74). It has pictorially
visualized how effective the program was in significantly improving
scholarly Performance yearly throughout its 5-year duration. On the
average, the 5-year Direct Ph.D. engineering program effectively improved
the engineering proficiency of each admitted candidate from a Scholarly
Mean of approximately 59 in Year 1 to approximately 65 in Year 2, 75 in
Year 3, 81 in Year 4 and 91 in Year 5 as depicted pictorially by the Bar
Chart.

Paired Samples Statistics

The Paired Samples Statistics table is part of the Further Pairwise Tests that
used Paired-Samples t Tests. It has very clearly presented the Mean, N, Std.
Deviation and Std. Error Mean of Scholarly Performance for each Year in
the 10 Pairwise comparisons. The statistical information is the same with
those shown under Descriptive Statistics section and Estimated Marginal
Means section of the General Linear Model Univariate output for the One-
Way Within-Subjects ANOVA.

Paired Samples Correlations

This table has revealed the Correlation between each of the 10 pairwise
comparisons and indicated that they are all significant as the p < .0005 for
each of the Correlations. The Correlation between Scholarly Performance in
Year1 and Year2 is .958; Year1 and Year3 is .945, Year1 and Year4 is .946,
and Year1 and Year5 is .938. The Correlation coefficient between Year2 and
Year3 is .958, Year2 and Year4 is .956, Year2 and Year5 is .944. The
Correlation between Year3 and Year4 is .989, Year3 and Year5 is .975.
Lastly, the Correlation between Year4 and Year5 is .986.

Paired Samples Test of Paired Differences

Paired Samples Test of Paired Differences is used as a follow-up test to
determine which of the Years’ Scholarly Performance that are significantly
different from the Scholarly Performance in one or some other Years; and it
is used particularly when the Pairwise Comparisons in the ninth section of

584
the General Linear Model Output based on Estimated Marginal Means with
Bonferroni for Adjustment of multiple comparisons was not done.
When Paired-Samples t Test is used for follow-up pairwise comparisons
of means in One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA, the alpha level of .05 must
be adjusted downward to have the Appropriate Alpha Level Per
Comparison so that the entire set of follow-up tests does not exceed the .05
chosen alpha. The Appropriate Alpha Level Per Comparison is arrived at
by diving the overall alpha level for the set of tests (.05) by the number of
pairwise follow-up tests. In the current example with 10 pairwise
comparisons, divide .05 by 10 to have .005 (i.e. .05 ÷ 10 = .005) so that the
sum of the 10 pairwise tests does not exceed .05 alpha. That is, instead of
evaluating each pairwise comparison Sig. against .05, the p-value to use for
each test will be evaluated against an alpha level of .005. For each paired
comparison, when the p-value (Sig.) is equal to or less than .005, the null
hypothesis on the paired Years will be rejected; and when the p-value is
greater than .005, the null hypothesis of no significant mean difference
between the two Years will be retained.
Simply put, it is .005 that must be used here as the chosen alpha in
testing the tenability of each of the 10 pairwise comparisons. This is to
ensure that the probability of committing Type I error (false rejection of a
null hypothesis that should by right have been retained) does not become
greater than .05 for the entire set of the follow-up tests. The implication is
that if no adjustment were made and each of the 10 follow-up pairwise tests
are conducted at .05, the experimental Alpha Level, the overall alpha for
the set of tests would have been increased to the sum of the .05 alphas for
the 10 tests which is .500.
The Paired Samples Test of Paired Differences has shown the Mean
Difference, the Difference Std. Deviation, Std. Error Mean, and the Lower
and Upper 95% Confidence Interval of Difference, the t, df and Sig. (2-
tailed) for each of the 10 pairwise comparisons thus:
i. Year1 and Year2 Scholarly Performance (SP) has a Mean Difference
of -5.77941, t of -18.038 that is significant statistically as p < .005.
ii. Year1 and Year3 Scholarly Performance (SP) has a Mean Difference
of -16.22059, t of -44.934 that is significant statistically as p < .005.
iii. Year1 and Year4 SP has a Mean Difference of -21.69118, t of -58.587
that is significant statistically as p < .005.

585
 iv. Year1 and Yaer5 SP has a Mean Difference of -31.54412, t of -75.425
that is significant statistically because p < .005.
v. Year 2 and Year3 SP has a Mean Difference of -10.44118, t of
-32.691 that is significant statistically because p < .005.
vi. Year2 and Year4 SP has a Mean Difference of -15.91176, t of -47.771
that is significant statistically as p < .005.
vii. Year2 and Year5 SP has a Mean Difference of -25.76471, t of -64.711
that is significant statistically because p < .005.
viii. Year3 and Year4 SP has a Mean Difference of -5.47059, t of -30.671
that is significant statistically as p < .005.
ix. Year3 and Year5 SP has a Mean Difference of -15.32353, t of -53.420
that is significant statistically because p < .005.
x. Year4 and Year5 SP has a Mean Difference of -9.85294, t of -46.964
that is significant statistically as the p < .005.

These 10 pairwise comparison results are exactly like the results arrived
at with the Pairwise Comparisons in the ninth section of the Output 8.3.
That is, the pairwise comparisons that have significant difference in the
Paired Samples Test of Paired Differences are exactly the ones that were
significantly different in the General Linear Model Pairwise Comparisons.
The minus signs simply show the direction that the significant Mean
Difference favours. The Mean Differences here were all arrived at by
consistently subtracting the Scholarly Performance Mean of the higher year
from that of the lower year; and since in each pairwise comparison the
mean of the higher year was greater that the Scholarly Performance mean of
the lower year, the minus sign in each case demonstrates that the significant
Mean Difference is in favour of the Scholarly Performance of the higher
year. The Scholarly Performance in Year5 was significantly better than that
in Year4, which was significantly better than that in Year3, which was itself
better significantly than that in Year2, and which was in turn significantly
better than the Scholarly Performance in Year1.

Step 6. View the entire Output by scrolling right, left, up and down the
screen. This, you have already done in the course of going through and
interpreting the output.

586
Step 7. Save the Output by clicking File and clicking Save As… or by
clicking the Save this document icon in the Toolbar to have the Save
Output As dialog box. In it, type the suitable name (Chapter 8 Output
3.spv) for the Output in the box beside File name as shown in Figure 8.44
and click Save or press Enter.

Figure 8.44 Save Output As… Chapter 8 Output 3.spv

Step 8. Print the Output. Click Print icon in the Toolbar or click File
and click Print to have the Print dialog box (see Figure 8.45). Confirm that
All visible output is checked and click OK for one copy of the entire
Output 8.3 to be printed. For more copies, simply repeat the printing
operations.

587
 Figure 8.45 Print dialog box

Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing all SPSS windows that are open
on the screen.

Step 10. Shut down the system. Click Start, click Power, and click Shut
down.

ONE-WAY WITHIN-SUBJECTS ANOVA WITH

SPSS SYNTAX
A much easier, faster and interesting technique for performing One-Way
Within-Subjects ANOVA is the application of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax.
Once you activate the SPSS Syntax Editor while the data for analysis is
open on the screen and you key in the right Syntax as given in Syntax 8.2, a

click on (the Run selection tool in the Toolbar) when the entered
syntax is highlighted, gets the whole analysis done and results produced in
the SPSS Viewer window. Just try it out and be convinced of another and
perhaps, a better technique for execution of One-Way Repeated Measures
ANOVA.

588
Syntax 8.2 Chapter 8 Syntax 2.sps

Switch the computer on. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking its
icon on your screen, let it get ready fully and close the superimposed
menu on the Data Editor. Retrieve the data file that is called Chapter 8
Table 2 Data.sav by clicking the Open data document icon in the
Toolbar to have the Open Data dialog box (see Figure 8.46). In it, look for
and click the document name, Chapter 8 Table 2 Data.sav and press
Enter. This opens the data file as shown earlier in Figure 8.26.

589
 Figure 8.46 Open Data menu

Alternatively, simply enter the data in Table 8.2 very quickly and name
as well as label the variables as was done earlier.
Click Window Go to Designated Syntax Window (see Figure
8.47); or click File New Syntax to have the Syntax Editor as
demonstrated in Figure 8.48).

Figure 8.47 Window Go to Designated Window

590
 Figure 8.48 SPSS Syntax Editor

Most carefully and accurately key in the Syntax as provided in Syntax

8.2 as shown in Figure 8.49. Use the IBM SPSS Statistics prompts as much
as possible in entering the Syntax. In fact, once you are through with
entering the Syntax, the One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA analysis is
ready for display of the results.

Figure 8.49 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor with the Syntax 8.2 entered

Highlight all the entered Syntax and click the Run Selection tool
in the Toolbar to have the Output displayed in the IBM SPSS Statistics
Viewer window as presented in Output 8.4. If you are not comfortable with

591
highlighting the entire entered Syntax, no problem. Just click Run
All and SPSS will complete the analysis instantly and produce the Output
as shown in Output 8.4.

Output 8.4 Chapter 8 Output 4.spv – Years of study

and scholarly performance

592
593
594
595
596
Pairwise Follow-up Tests

597
598
599
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 8.4
Very carefully compare every unit of Output 8.4 with Output 8.3 to discern
doubtlessly that they are exactly equal. Consequently, apply the
interpretation offered for Output 8.3 to the Output 8.4.

COMPARISON OF THE TWO ONE-WAY

REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA SYNTAX
One of the reasons why for a statistical test two examples are given is for
you to learn that in the use of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax method for data
analysis, what changes are the names and descriptions of your variables.
The SPSS crux of the Syntax for each statistical analysis remains the same.
To use Syntax for analysing your data for a particular statistical test, replace
the names and labels of the variables in this book with the ones in your
investigation. For instance, apart from the names and labels of the variables,
the two syntax for One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA are the same as
placed side by side in Table 8.3. Names and labels of the variables are
underlined here for easier identification.

Table 8.3 Comparison of Syntax 8.1 and Syntax 8.2

600
 Follow the remaining protocols for data analysis with the use of IBM
SPSS Statistics to eventually shut down your system.
View output

Save the output as Chapter 8 Output 4.spv and the Syntax as Chapter 8
Syntax 2.sps

Print the output and the syntax

601
 Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system.

Indeed, never has data analysis been as illustratively simplified as
excellently presented in this book. By following the examples in the book,
every person who practically desire to personally subject data to the several
statistical tests herein, can accurately do so with the greatest ever possible
ease.

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 Chapter 9
TWO-WAY REPEATED MEASURES
ANOVA

Overview
Correct inference of causal-and-effect relationship between the independent
and dependent variables demands covariation of the events. Covariation
could either be deterministic or probabilistic. While deterministic
covariation is when manipulation of only one independent variable
produces a significant effect on the dependent variable; probabilistic
covariation occurs when two or more independent variables are
manipulated simultaneously to cause a significant effect on the dependent
variable. Very often, researchers manipulate two independent variables
simultaneously and repetitively for observation of probable deterministic
and probabilistic covariations between the independent and dependent
variables. Whenever data on one dependent variable are collected
repeatedly from a sample that is randomly drawn from a population for
determination of possible simultaneous effects of two independent
variables, the most appropriate inferential parametric statistical test for
analysing the data is Two-Way Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance.
This chapter guarantees that the user attains expert practical knowledge of
automated analysis of such data with SPSS syntax and dialog boxes point
and click methods. Equally guaranteed, is mastery of how the output can
meticulously be interpreted with most excellent ease. Effects of a new
memory drug and learning strategy on long-term memory is used for
demonstration.

Keywords: Two-way within-subjects ANOVA, Two-way repeated

measures ANOVA, Research questions, Null hypotheses,
Interaction effect, Main effect, Mauchly’s test of sphericity,

603
 Within-subjects effects, Estimated marginal means, Pairwise
comparisons, Two-way repeated measures ANOVA syntax,
Output interpretation, Profile plots, Memory drug, Learning
strategy, Long-term memory, Results summary.

Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA, fully termed Two-Way Repeated

Measures Analysis of Variance or Two-Way Within-Subjects Analysis of
Variance is a very special statistical test that is used for data analysis for
establishment of the effects of two different independent variables on one
dependent variable when the data are collected repeatedly from a single
sample randomly drawn from the population. It produces one F as the main
effect for the first independent variable, one F as the main effect of the
second independent variable, and one F as the interaction effect of the two
independent variables on the dependent variable all at once (American
Psychological Association, 2014). Whenever all the members of a randomly
drawn sample are to be exposed to all the specified levels of treatment in
two independent variables for determination of their distinct and joint
effects on a single dependent variable, if the effects do exist, Two-Way
Repeated Measures ANOVA is the most appropriate statistical test to apply.
A single Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA is much more effective
than double One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA (one for each of the two
independent variables) because the Two-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA will
in addition to yielding two main effects, respectively for the two
independent variables, successfully elicit a third effect, that is popularly
referred to as interaction effect of the two independent variables on the
dependent variable. The effects of a newly manufactured memory drug,
called MemDrug, and learning strategy on Long-Term Memory shall be
used to illustrate execution of Two-Way Repeated Measures Analysis of
Variance.

EFFECTS OF A NEW MEMORY DRUG AND

LEARNING STRATEGY ON LONG-TERM
MEMORY

604
Suppose that as part of the relentless efforts towards guaranteeing improved
Long-Term Memory and preventing forgetting, a company in Germany
manufactured a new memory enhancement drug, called MemDrug. The
German Psychological Society has equally been working relentlessly on the
possible use of some Learning Strategies to improve Long-Term Memory.
So, a team of three pharmacists and three psychologists was engaged by the
Government to carry out an experiment on the effects of the Memory Drug
(MemDrug) and Learning Strategy on Long-Term Memory. The team
randomly draw a sample of 20 participants for the experiment and
administered three different milligrams of MemDrug (20mg, 40mg and
60mg) as well as training on three different Learning Strategies (Dual
Coding, Retrieval Practice and Elaboration) to each of the 20 subjects for
60 days.
The administration of the MemDrug and Learning Strategy were paired
in a forward and backward order (A B C C B
A) to prevent sequencing effect and carry-over effect from
confounding the results. The pairing of the three MemDrug levels and three
Learning Strategy levels was: 20mg and Dual Coding, 20mg and Retrieval
Practice, 20mg and Elaboration; 40mg and Dual Coding, 40mg and
Retrieval Practice, 40mg and Elaboration; 60mg and Dual Coding, 60mg
and Retrieval Practice, 60mg and Elaboration. Nine measurements of Long-
Term Memory were taken, one after completion of each A B
C C B A experimental exposition session; and the Long
Term-Memory results are as tabulated in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1 Chapter 9 Table 1 Data.sav – Effects of MemDrug and Learning

Strategy (LearnStrategy) on Long-Term Memory (LTMemory).

605
Research Questions
What is the effect of the new memory drug (MemDrug) on Long-Term
Memory as measured by the subjects’ means and standard deviations?
What is the effect of the Learning Strategy on Long-Term Memory as
measured by the subjects’ means and standard deviations?
What is the combined effect of Memory Drug and Learning Strategy on
Long-Term Memory as measured by the subjects’ means and standard
deviations?

606
Alternate Hypotheses
The newly manufactured memory drug (MemDrug) has a significant main
effect on Long-Term Memory.
Learning Strategy has a significant main effect on Long-Term Memory.
The MemDrug and Learning Strategy have statistically significant
interaction effect on Long-Term Memory.

Null Hypotheses
The MemDrug has no significant main effect on Long-Term Memory.
Learning Strategy has no significant main effect on Long-Term Memory.
The MemDrug and Learning Strategy have no statistically significant
interaction effect on Long-Term Memory.

SPSS TWO-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA

VIA DIALOG BOXES POINT AND CLICK
Step 1. Boot the computer.

Step 2. Launch SPSS Statistics by clicking its icon on the computer

screen and when it is fully ready, close the superimposed dialog box on the
Data Editor.

Step 3. Key in the data as contained in Table 9.1 with the nine scores of
each subject constituting one row. When done, click Variable View and
type in Name and Label for the variables (treating each column of the
scores as a variable) and selecting Scale for each row under Measure
column as shown if Figure 9.1.

607
 Figure 9.1 Variable View with the variables named and labelled

On completion of the Variable View, click Data View to have the entire
entered data with the actual names of the variables as presented in Figure
9.2.

Figure 9.2 Data View with the data and variables named

608
Step 4. Save the data by clicking Save this document tool in the
Toolbar to have the Save As… dialog box in which you type the File name
as illustrated in Figure 9.3, and click Save.

Figure 9.3 Save Data As… Chapter 9 Table 1 Data.sav

Step 5. Analyze the data by clicking Analyze General Linear

Model Repeated Measures as demonstrated in Figure 9.4.

609
 Figure 9.4 Analyze General Linear Model Repeated Measures

On clicking the Repeated Measures, something happens, the Repeated

Measures Define Factor(s) dialog box appears as in Figure 9.5.

Figure 9.5 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) dialog box

610
 In it, type the name of the first independent variable, MemDrug, in the
Within-Subject Factor Name. Then type 3 in the Number of Levels small
box, and click Add. This action produces the screenshot in Figure 9.6.

Figure 9.6 Repeated Measures define Factor(s) with MemDrug(3) added

Next, type the second independent variable, LearnStrategy, in the

Within-Subjects Factor Name box; and type 3 in the small box for
Number of Levels and click Add, to have the screenshot in Figure 9.7.

611
 Figure 9.7 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with MemDrug(3) and LearnStrategy(3)
added

In the box for Measure Name, type the dependent variable name,
LTMemory, shown in Figure 9.8, and click Add to have the screenshot in
Figure 9.9.

612
Figure 9.8 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with the Measure Name typed

613
 Figure 9.9 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with the Measure Name added

With this, the Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) has been

completed. Proceed by clicking Define, . A click on Define produces
the main Repeated Measures dialog box, presented in Figure 9.10, where
the entire statistical operations will be performed.

614
 Figure 9.10 Repeated Measure main dialog box

Highlight all the variables in the large box at the left by holding the Ctrl
key down and pressing the down-pointed arrow on the Keyboard. Then,
move them at once into the big box at the right just under Within-Subjects
Variables (MemDrug,LearnStrategy) by clicking the right-pointed arrow
that is directly facing the Within-Subjects Variables
(MemDrug,LearnStrategy). With this action, the dialog box will look like
the illustrated screenshot in Figure 9.11.

615
 Figure 9.11 Repeated Measures main dialog box with variables moved to the right

Select Plots pushbutton and Repeated Measures: Profile Plots dialog

box will appear as given in Figure 9.12.

616
 Figure 9.12 Repeated Measures Profile: Plots

Highlight and move MemDrug under Factors panel at the left into
Horizontal Axis box at the right by clicking the right-pointed arrow
that is directly facing the Horizontal Axis. Next, highlight and move
LearnStrategy under the Factors field at the left into Separate Lines box
at the right by clicking the right-pointed arrow facing the Separate
Lines to have Figure 9.13.

617
 Figure 9.13 Repeated Measures: Profile Plots dialog box with variables moved
accordingly

Now, you can see that near Plots has shown very clearly. Click
the that is near Plots to have the screenshot in Figure 9.14 where the
two independent variables with which the Profile Plots will be drawn have
actually been added to the analysis, and Line Chat under Chart Type has
been checked.

618
 Figure 9.14 Repeated Measures: Profile Plots dialog box with variables added

Click Continue to return to the main Repeated Measures dialog box. In

it select Options pushbutton for its dialog box to be displayed as shown in
Figure 9.15.

619
 Figure 9.15 Repeated Measures: Options

Two statistical operations (Descriptive statistics and Estimates of

effect size) in this dialog box are critically crucial in Two-Way Within-
Subjects ANOVA. For each of them, check its checkbox as demonstrated
in Figure 9.16.

Figure 9.16 Repeated Measures Options with the two crucial operations checked

Proceed with the analysis by clicking Continue that returns you to the
Repeated Measures main dialog box. This time in the Repeated Measures
dialog box, select EM Means (Estimated Marginal Means) to have its
dialog box, visualized in Figure 9.17.

620
 Figure 9.17 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means dialog box

Highlight MemDrug, LearnStrategy and MemDrug*LearnStrategy

either collective or individually and move them from the Factor(s) and
Factor Interactions box at the left into the Display Means for box at the
right by clicking the right-pointed arrow that is facing it as show in
Figure 9.18.

Figure 9.18 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means with independent variables
plus their interaction transferred

621
 Check the Compare main effects checkbox and Confidence
interval adjustment will show very legibly as exemplified in Figure 9.19.

Figure 9.19 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means with Compare main effects
checked

Click the small black downward arrow to have its drop-down dialog
box that contains three different tests (LSD, Bonferroni and Sidak) as
shown in Figures 9.20. Of the three tests, select Bonferroni and click it as
presented in Figure 9.21 for the Confidence interval adjustment.

622
Figure 9.20 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means small black downward arrow
for Confidence interval adjustment selected

Figure 9.21 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means with Bonferroni chosen for
the Confidence interval adjustment

At this point, all necessary statistical operations for the Two-Way

Repeated Measures ANOVA are completely done. It is just waiting for
Continue and OK to be clicked for the results to be displayed in the SPSS
Viewer window. So, click Continue to return to the Repeated Measures

623
main dialog box; and click OK for IBM SPSS Statistics to run the analysis
and produce the output in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as displayed in
Output 9.1.

Output 9.1 Chapter 9 Output 1.spv

624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 9.1 – MEMORY
DRUG AND LEARNING STRATEGY

632
IBM SPSS Statistics has done elaborate analysis and provided enormous
results for the Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA. There are 15 sections
in the Output, 14 tables and 1 graph. Not all of these parts that are
necessarily required in the interpretation and reporting of the Two-Way
Within-Subjects ANOVA. A very brief comment is made on each of the
sections, particularly the requisite parts for answering the research
questions and mainly for testing tenability of the null hypotheses.

Within-subjects Factors
Shows a list of the 9 combinations, made up of the 3 MemDrug levels and
the 3 LearnStrategy levels of the independent variables (Factors =
MemDrug and LearnStrategy) against dependent variable (Measure =
LTMemory). Take note of the serial numbering of the pairs or combinations
and what they stand for as some of the tables will use only these pairwise
numberings. That is: 1 and 1 = Dual20mg, 1 and 2 = Retrieval20mg, and 1
and 3 = Elaboration20mg; 2 and 1 = Dual40mg, 2 and 2 = Retrieval40mg,
and 2 and 3 = Elaboration40mg; 3 and 1 = Dual60mg, 3 and 2 =
Retrieval60mg, and 3 and 3 = Elaboration60mg.

Descriptive Statistics
This table has outlined the Mean, Std. Deviation and N for each of the 9
combinations in a most easy to understand form. The Mean and Std.
Deviation respectively for Dual20mg are 43.2500 and 11.38732, for
Retrieval20mg are 39.5000 and 13.85071, for Elaboration20mg are 34.7500
and 16.01603; for Dual40mg are 47.2500 and 14.99781, for Retrieval40mg
are 45.5000 and 12.23670, for Elaboration40mg are 45.0000 and 14.86784;
and for Dual60mg are 45.0000 and 10.25978, for Retrieval60mg are
46.2500 and 11.57072, and for Elaboration60mg are 47.2500 and 10.32052.
The N for each pair is 20. The Descriptive Statistics could serve as answers
to the research questions.

Multivariate Tests
It is not mandatory for information in this table to be reported in the Two-
Way Repeated Measures results. However, reporting it cannot be said to be
outrightly out of place as it tends to indicate that both multivariate tests and

633
univariate tests could be applied for testing tenability of the null hypothesis
in question. The table has shown the Value, F, Hypothesis df, Error df, Sig.
and Partial Eta Squared arrived at on the basis of four different Multivariate
Tests (Pillai’s Trace, Wilk’s Lambda, Hotelling’s Trace and Roy’s Largest
Root) for first, MemDrug; second, LearnStrategy; and third,
MemDrug*LearnStrategy interaction in the Within-Subjects Design Exact
statistic. MemDrug has a statistically significant F of 10.802, Hypothesis df
of 2.000, Error df of 18.000, Sig. of .001, and Partial Eta Squared of .545
for each of the four Multivariate Tests. For Learning Strategy
(LearnStrategy), each of the four Multivariate Tests has an insignificant F
of 1.333, Hypothesis df of 2.000, Error df of 18.000, Sig. of .288, and
Partial Eta Squared of .129. MemDrug*LearnStrategy (the interaction effect
of MemDrug and Learning Strategy) has an insignificant F of 2.207,
Hypothesis df of 4.000, Error df of 16.000, Sig. of .114, and Partial Eta
Squared of .356. It is crystal clear that only the MemDrug that has
statistically significant effect on Long-Term-Memory (LTMemory), F =
10.802, p < .01, ɳp2 = .545, a large effect size for each of the four
Multivariate tests (Pillai’s Trace, Wilk’s Lambda, Hotelling’s Trace and
Roy’s Largest Root).

Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity

This test should be reported as a necessary part of the Two-Way Repeated
Measures ANOVA output because it indicates whether the Tests of Within-
Subjects Effects F to be used finally for rejecting or retaining each of the
null hypotheses should be based on Sphericity Assumed or on one of the
other three tests (Greenhouse-Geisser, Huynh-Feldt or Lower-bound) when
the Sphericity Assumption is violated for each of the two main effects
(MemDrug and LearnStrategy), and for the interaction effect
(MemDrug*LearnStrategy) on Long-Term Memory. For each of the three
possible effects (two main effects and one interaction effect), the Sphericity
Assumed row of results in the Tests of Within-Subjects Effects should be
used when the Mauchly’s W is not significant as in this example. But when
the Mauchly’s W is significant, the results in the row for one of the three
other tests, referred to as Epsilon (Greenhouse-Geisser, Huynh-Feldt and
Lower-bound), should rather be used because they ably adjust the degrees

634
of freedom for the average tests of significance in the Test of Within-
Subjects Effects.
The Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity has shown that for MemDrug main
effect, Sphericity Assumed should be used because Mauchly’s W (.918) is
not significant (Sig. = .463) as this p > .05. For LearnStrategy main effect,
Sphericity Assumed should be used because Mauchly’s W (.866) is not
significant (Sig. = .275) because this p > .05. Similarly, for
MemDrug*LearnStrategy interaction effect, Sphericity Assumed should be
used because Mauchly’s W (.541) is not significant (Sig. = .299) because
this p > .05. However, as I have commented earlier, when Mauchly’s Test of
Sphericity was interpreted in the previous chapter, it is safer to also provide
results based on Greenhouse-Geisser as an additional alternative test in
reporting the Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA Tests of Within-
Subjects Effects.

Tests of Within-Subjects Effects

This is the most important of all the tables in Tow-Way Repeated Measures
ANOVA, containing the Type III Sum of Squares, df, Mean Square, F, Sig.,
and the Partial Eta Squared for directly testing the tenability of each of the
null hypotheses at an appropriately chosen alpha level and providing the
Effect Size. For Sphericity Assumed, MemDrug has 1892.500 Type III Sum
of Squares, 2 df, 946.250 Mean Square,13.173 F, .000 (i.e., less than .0005)
Sig., and .409 Partial Eta Squared. The Sphericity Assumed
Error(MemDrug) has 2729.722 Type III Sum of Squares, 38 df and 71.835
Mean Square. The F of 13.173 is statistically significant because the Sig.
(less than .0005) is lower than .05 alpha, also less than .01 alpha; and this
MemDrug main effect has very large Effect Size of .409 that was measured
with Partial Eta Squared. In other words, since the Sig. (.000) is less than
the classically chosen alpha of .05 as well as .01 alpha, the null hypothesis
that “The new Memory Drug (MemDrug) has no significant main effect on
Long-Term Memory” is rejected. The newly manufactured memory drug
(MemDrug) has a statistically significant main effect on Long-Term
Memory [F(2, 38) = 13.173, p < .01, ɳp2 = .409 (a large effect size)]. The
large Effect Size of .409 denotes that the newly manufactured Memory
Drug (MemDrug) accounts for as much as 40.9% of the variance in the

635
Long-Term-Memory of individuals in the population from which the
representative sample was drawn for the study.
Using Greenhouse-Geisser (if the Sphericity Assumption had been
violated), MemDrug has Type III Sum of Squares of 1892.500, df of 1.849,
Mean Square of 1023.777, F of 13.173, Sig. of .000 (i.e., less than .0005),
and Partial Eta Squared (Effect Size) of .409. The Error(MemDrug) has
Type III Sum of Squares of 2729.722, df of 35.122, and 77.720 Mean
Square. Since the Sig. or p-value is less than the chosen alpha (be it at .05
or .01), the null hypothesis that “the new Memory Drug (MemDrug) has no
significant main effect on Long-Term Memory” is rejected [F(1.849,
35.122) = 13.173, p < .01, ɳp2 = .409 (a large effect size)]. The rejection of
this null hypothesis assuredly shows that Long-Term Memory significantly
differs across the three MemDrug dosage conditions (20mg, 40mg, and
60mg). Another test known as Pairwise Comparisons will clarify this main
effect shortly.
It should be recalled from the previous three chapters that Partial Eta
Squared (ɳp2) is the measure of Effect Size in ANOVA models. Also, that
classification of the Partial Eta Squared as the measure of Effect Size in
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) models has been given as follows:
.000 - .009 = Trivial Effect Size
.010 - .059 = Small Effect Size
.060 - .139 = Medium Effect Size
.140 and above = Large Effect Size.
Using Sphericity Assumed, LearnStrategy has 240.833 Type III Sum of
Squares, 2 df, 120.417 Mean Square, 1.921 F, .160 Sig., and .092 Partial
Eta Squared. Its Error(LearnStrategy) has 2381.389 Type III Sum of
Squares, 38 df, and 62.668 Mean Square. Since the Sig. (.160) is greater
than the chosen alpha of .05, the null hypothesis that “Learning Strategy has
no significant main effect on Long-Term Memory” is retained [F(2, 38) =
1.921, p > .05, ɳp2 = .092, a medium effect size]. Indeed, LearnStrategy
does not have significant main effect on Long-Term Memory. Though the
effect of Learning Strategy (LearnStrategy) on Long-Term-Memory is not
statistically significant, 9.2% of the variance in Long-Term-Memory is
accounted for by the Learning Strategy (Dual Coding, Retrieval Practice
and Elaboration) adopted by the individuals.
The same conclusion is made when Greenhouse-Geisser is used as
LearnStrategy has 240.833 Type III Sum of Squares, 1.764 df, 136.516

636
Mean Square, 1.921 F, .166 Sig. and .092 Partial Eta Squared. Also, with
Greenhouse-Geisser, LearnStrategy has Error(LearnStrategy) 2381.389
Type III Sum of Squares, 33.519 df, and 71.047 Mean Square. The
computed Sig. (.166) is greater than the chosen alpha of .05. Therefore,
retain the null hypothesis that “Learning Strategy has no significant main
effect on Long-Term Memory” [F(1.764, 33.519) = 1.921, p > .05, ɳp2 =
.092 (medium effect size)].
With Sphericity Assumed, MemDrug*LearnStrategy has 591.667 Type
III sum of Squares, 4 df, 147.917 Mean Square, 2.442 F, .054 Sig., and .114
Partial Eta Squared. Its Error(MemDrug*LearnStrategy) has 4602.778 Type
III Sum of Squares, 76 df, and 60.563 Mean Square. The Sig. (.054) is
greater than the chosen alpha of .05, therefore the null hypothesis that
“Memory Drug and Learning Strategy have no statistically significant
interaction effect on Long-Term Memory” is retained (not rejected) [F(4,
76) = 2.442, p > .05, ɳp2 = .114 (medium effect size)].
If the results are viewed on the basis of Greenhouse-Geisser (as though
the Sphericity Assumption were not met), MemDrug*LearnStrategy has
591.667 Type III Sum of Squares, 2.912 df, 203.185 Mean Square, 2.442 F,
.075 Sig., and .114 Partial Eta Squared. The
Error(MemDrug*LearnStrategy) has 4602.778 Type III Sum of Squares,
55.327 df, and 83.192 Mean Square. Since the Sig. (.075) is greater than the
chosen alpha of .05, the null hypothesis that there is no significant
interaction effect of the new Memory Drug (MemDrug) and Learning
Strategy on Long-Term Memory is retained (not rejected) [F(2.912, 55.327)
= 2.442, p > .05, ɳp2 = .114, a medium effect size]. Although the
interaction effect of the new Memory Drug (MemDrug) and Learning
Strategy (LearnStrategy) on Long-Term Memory is not significant
statistically, 11.4% of the variance in Long-Term Memory is accounted for
by the MemDrug and LearnStrategy interaction. If 11.4% of the variance in
Long-Term Memory is considered as a meaningful gain, then it would not
be out of place for both the Memory Drug and Learning Strategy to be
recommended for use.

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts

The Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts is dispensable in reporting the
findings of Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA. The table shows the

637
outcome of two trend tests known as Linear and Quadratic with respect to
the effects of MemDrug and Learning Strategy, as well as of the
MemDrug*LearnStrategy interaction, on Long-Term Memory
(LTMemory). For instance, MemDrug has a significant Linear trend effect
on Long-Term Memory: [F(1, 19) = 15.990, p < .01, ɳp2 = .457]. That is,
the points represented by the effect of MemDrug on Long-Term Memory as
depicted by the means, actually significantly tend to fall onto a straight line.
MemDrug also has significant Quadratic trend effect on Long-Term
Memory: [F(1, 19) = 8.166, p < .05, ɳp2 = .301]. That is, the points
represented by the effect of MemDrug on Long-Term Memory as depicted
by the means, significantly tend to fall under an inverted U-shaped trend.
The Linear and Quadratic trend tests show reasonable consistency in the
trend of MemDrug effect on Long-Term Memory. They indicate that over
time, MemDrug has meaningfully predictable improvement effect on Long-
Term Memory.
In all, while a Linear trend test is used to assess the extent to which the
points, represented by the means, tend to fall onto a straight line; a
Quadratic trend test assesses the extent to which the points, represented
by the means, tend to fall under a U-shaped or an inverted U-shaped trend
as can be seen pictorially in the Profile Plots section of the output.
Furthermore, the Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts as in this table mainly
indicates whether a trend is significant or not significant. It has shown
whether the individual conditions significantly differ from one another in a
meaningful pattern or in a haphazard form. When the trend test is
significant as found with the effect of MemDrug on Long-Term Memory,
the trend or pattern of the effect is meaningful, and not by mere coincidence
or chance. Another test, known as Pairwise Comparisons, to be discussed a
short while from now, will further explicitly indicate the extent to which
individual Long-Term Memory conditions significantly differ from one
another as a function of the MemDrug.
LearnStrategy does not have a significant Linear trend effect on Long-
Term Memory: [F(1, 19) = 2.814, p > .05, ɳp2 = .129]. That is, the points
represented by the effect of LearnStrategy on Long-Term Memory as
depicted by the means, do not significantly tend to fall onto a straight line
as can be seen graphically in the Profile Plots. Also, LearnStrategy does
not have a significant Quadratic effect on Long-Term Memory: [F(1, 19) =

638
.000, p > .05, ɳp2 = .000]. That is, the points represented by the effect of
LearnStrategy on Long-Term Memory as depicted by the means, do not
significantly tend to fall under a U-shaped or an inverted U-shaped line.
The lack of significance in the Linear and Quadratic trends of the effect of
LearnStrategy on Long-Term Memory depicts haphazard or chance
occurrence that cannot be meaningfully predicted.
For Linear, while the MemDrug*LearnStrategy interaction Linear trend
effect on Long-Term Memory is significant: [F(1, 19) = 9.029, p < .01, ɳp2
= .322]; MemDrug*LearnStrategy interaction Quadratic trend effect on
Long-Term Memory is insignificant: [F(1, 19) = .023, p > .05, ɳp2 = .001].
For Quadratic, while the MemDrug*LearnStrategy interaction Linear trend
effect on Long-Term Memory is insignificant: [F(1, 19) = .074, p > .05, ɳp2
= .004]; MemDrug*LearnStrategy interaction Quadratic trend effect on
Long-Term Memory is also insignificant: [F(1, 19) = .115, p > .05, ɳp2 =
.006].

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

This table is not required in the interpretation of Two-Way Repeated
Measures ANOVA because it is the differences within subjects, not between
subjects, that Two-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA is concerned with
establishing, where such difference does exist. This table only displays the
results for any between-subjects factors included in the investigation.
Because there was no between-subjects factor in the current example, it is
not necessary to report the information in this table in the Two-Way
Repeated Measures ANOVA.

Estimated Marginal Means for MemDrug Estimates

This table provides the Mean, Std. Error, and 95% Confidence Interval
(Lower and Upper) for each of the three experimental dosage conditions
(20mg, 40mg, and 60mg, respectively for 1, 2, and 3) of MemDrug.
MemDrug 20mg has a Mean of 39.167 and Std. Error of 2.659; 40mg has a
Mean of 45.917 and Std. Error of 2.772; and 60mg has a Mean of 46.167
and Std. Error of 2.109. The Lower Bound and Upper Bound 95%
Confidence Interval for each dosage condition are very clearly provided in
the table and read easily as they are. The Estimated Marginal Means for

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MemDrug information could be used partly to answer the first research
question.

Estimated Marginal Means for MemDrug Pairwise

Comparisons
The rejection of the null hypothesis on the main effect of the newly
manufactured memory drug (MemDrug) on Long-Term Memory assuredly
shows that Long-Term Memory significantly differs across the three
MemDrug dosage conditions (20mg, 40mg, and 60mg). Consequently, the
Estimated Marginal Means for MemDrug Pairwise Comparisons must be
reported to specifically determine the particular pairs that are significantly
different and the side that such difference favours.
The MemDrug Pairwise Comparisons table has presented the Long-
Term Memory Mean Difference (I-J), Std. Error, Sig., and 95% Confidence
Interval for Difference Lower Bound and Upper Bound for each of the
Pairwise Comparisons across the MemDrug dosages (20mg, 40mg and
60mg). Under the Mean Difference (I-J) column, each Mean Difference that
is statistically significant has an asterisk (*) as the Sig. (p-value) for the pair
of Means is less than .05 alpha (p < .05) as well as less than .01 alpha (p <
.01). A pair that the Mean Difference is not significant does not have
asterisk because the p > .05 (e.g., 2 [40mg] and 3 [60mg]). The asterisk can
be found for the pairs 1 and 2 (20mg and 40mg, respectively), 1 and 3
(20mg and 60mg, respectively), 2 and 1 (40mg and 20mg, respectively),
and 3 and 1 (60mg and 20mg, respectively). Therefore, for each of these
pairwise Comparisons, the Mean Difference is statistically significant in
favour of the dosage that is having greater Long-Term Memory Mean. That
is practically, each of 40mg and 60mg dosage of the new Memory Drug
manufactured by the German pharmaceutical company is significantly
better than 20mg dose of the drug in improving Long-Term Memory. The
Long-Term Memory due to taking of 40mg dose of MemDrug does not
differ significantly from the Long-Term Memory due to taking of 60mg
dose of the MemDrug.
To show the direction that the Mean Difference favours, where the mean
of the (I) MemDrug is smaller than the mean of the (J) MemDrug, a
negative sign (-) is put as the prefix of the given Mean Difference because
the (J) mean is subtracted from the (I) mean to arrive at the Mean

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Difference. Where the mean of the (I) MemDrug is greater than the mean of
the (J) MemDrug, there is no negative sign as prefix of the Mean
Difference.
The evidence of statistical significance in each Mean Difference can also
be seen in the 95% Confidence Interval for Difference Lower Bound and
Upper Bound because wherever the significant Mean Difference is positive,
both the Lower Bound and Upper Bound are totally above zero; and
wherever the significant Mean Difference is having a negative sign, both
the Lower Bound and Upper Bound are completely below zero. If the Mean
Difference is not statistically significant, the Lower Bound and the Upper
Bound of 95% Confidence Interval for Difference must have zero between
them.

Multivariate Tests
These Multivariate Tests results are exactly as those reported under the third
section of the Output 9.1 for MemDrug. Each of the F for the four tests
(10.802) is statistically significant with p < .05 and p < .01, and has .545
Partial Eta Squared (Effect Size). Each of the four tests (Pillai’s trace,
Wilk’s lambda, Hotelling’s trace and Roy’s largest root) uses Exact
statistic F to test the multivariate effect of MemDrug on the basis of
linearly independent pairwise comparisons among the estimated marginal
means.

Estimated Marginal Means for LearnStrategy

Estimates
The LearnStrategy Estimates table provides the Mean, Std. Error, and 95%
Confidence Interval (Lower Bound and Upper Bound) for each of the three
experimental Learning Strategy conditions (Dual Coding, Retrieval
Practice, and Elaboration, respectively for 1, 2, and 3). The LearnStrategy
Dual Coding (1) has a Mean of 45.167 and Std. Error of 2.281; Retrieval
Practice (2) has a mean of 43.750 and Std. Error of 2.350; and Elaboration
(3) has a Mean of 42.333 and Std. Error of 2.857. The Lower Bound and
Upper Bound 95% Confidence Interval for each Learning Strategy
condition are very clearly provided in the table. Information here on the

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LearnStrategy Estimated Marginal Means could be used for partly
answering the second research question.

Estimated Marginal Means for LearnStrategy Pairwise

Comparisons
The retention (non-rejection) of the null hypothesis on the main effect of
Learning Strategy on Long-Term Memory assuredly shows that Long-Term
Memory does not significantly differ across the three LearnStrategy
conditions (Dual Coding, Retrieval Practice, and Elaboration). Accordingly,
the Estimated Marginal Means for LearnStrategy Pairwise Comparisons
should not be reported as a difference because the Mean Difference in each
of the Pairwise Comparisons is a mere chance occurrence (i.e., not
significant). In research, a difference is considered to indeed be a difference
only when it is significant statistically at a given alpha, classically .05 or
.01. The difference and direction of the difference in each of the pairs is
merely due to chance or random occurrence and it is not statistically
different; therefore, not a difference in the population from which the
sample was drawn.
The General Linear Model of Two-Way Repeated Means ANOVA has
produced the LearnStrategy Pairwise Comparisons table that shows the
Long-Term Memory Mean Difference (I-J), Std. Error, Sig., and 95%
Confidence Interval for Difference Lower Bound and Upper Bound for each
of the Pairwise Comparisons across the LearnStrategy conditions (Dual
Coding [1], Retrieval Practice [2], and Elaboration [3]). Under the Mean
Difference (I-J) column, each Mean Difference that is statistically
significant has an asterisk (*) as the Sig. (p-value) for the pair of Means is
less than .05 alpha. A pair that the Mean Difference is not significant does
not have asterisk. It can be glaringly discerned from the table that none of
the Long-Term Memory (LTMemory) pairwise means comparisons with
regards to Learning Strategy (LearnStrategy) is significant because for
each, there is no asterisk as the Sig. is bigger than the chosen alpha of .05
(i.e., p > .05).
Based on Dual Coding and Retrieval Practice LearnStrategy, Long-Term
Memory Mean Difference is 1.47, Std. Error is 1.298, Sig. is .866 (p > .05),
Lower Bound and Upper Bound at 95% Confidence Interval for Difference
are respectively -1.991 and 4.825. For Dual Coding and Elaboration, the

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Long-Term Memory Mean Difference is 2.833, Std. Error is 1.689, Sig. is
.329 (p > .05), the Lower Bound and Upper Bound at 95% Confidence
Interval for Difference are -1.600 and 7.267, respectively. Similar
interpretations go for the other pairwise comparisons in the table.
To show the direction that the non-significant Mean Difference favours,
where the LTMemory mean of the (I) LearnStrategy is smaller than the
LTMemory mean of the (J) LearnStrategy, a negative sign (-) is put as the
prefix of the given Mean Difference because the (J) mean is subtracted from
the (I) mean to arrive at the Mean Difference. Where the LTMemory mean
of the (I) LearnStrategy is greater than that of the mean of the (J)
LearnStrategy, there is no negative sign as prefix of the Mean Difference.
The evidence of absence of statistical significance in each Mean
Differences can also be seen in the 95% Confidence Interval for Difference
Lower Bound and Upper Bound because for every of the Mean Difference,
both the Lower Bound and Upper Bound spread below zero and above zero.

Multivariate Tests
Results of the Multivariate Tests here are exactly as those reported under
the third section of the Output 9.1 for LearnStrategy. Each of the F for the
four tests (1.333) is not significant as the Sig. (.288) is greater than the
chosen .05 level of significance [p > .05], and has only .129 Partial Eta
Squared (Effect Size). Each of the four tests (Pillai’s trace, Wilk’s lambda,
Hotelling’s trace and Roy’s largest root) uses Exact statistic F to test the
multivariate effect of Learning Strategy on the basis of linearly independent
pairwise comparisons among the estimated marginal means.

Estimated Marginal Means for

MemDrug*LearnStrategy
The Estimated Marginal Means of Long-Term Memory based on MemDrug
and LearnStrategy interaction in this table provide the Mean, Std. Error, and
95% Confidence Interval (Lower Bound and Upper Bound) for each of the
nine experimental Memory Drug and Learning Strategy conditions Pairs or
combinations (1 and 1 = Dual20mg, 1 and 2 = Retrieval20mg, and 1 and 3
= Elaboration20mg; 2 and 1 = Dual40mg, 2 and 2 = Retrieval40mg, and 2
and 3 = Elaboration40mg; and 3 and 1 = Dual60mg, 3 and 2 =

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Retrieval60mg, and 3 and 3 = Elaboration60mg). The Dual20mg has a
Mean of 43.250 and Std. Error of 2.546; 95% Confidence Interval Lower
Bound of 37.921 and Upper Bound of 48.579. Similarly, the Retrieval20mg
has a Mean of 39.500 and Std. Error of 3.097; 95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound of 33.018 and Upper Bound of 45.982. The Elaboration20mg
has a Mean of 34.750 and Std. Error of 3.581; 95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound of 27.254 and Upper Bound of 42.246. Equally, the
Dual40mg has a Mean of 47.250 and Std. Error of 3.354; 95% Confidence
Interval Lower Bound of 40.231 and Upper Bound of 54.269. Similar
interpretation goes for each of the remaining pairs of the Memory Drug and
Learning Strategy interaction with regards to Long-Term Memory Means,
Std. Error and 95% Lower Bound and Upper Bound Confidence Interval.
The MemDrug*LearnStrategy interaction information in this section of the
Output 9.1 could partly be used to answer the third research question.

Profile Plots
The Profile Plots has graphically illustrated the magnitude and relative
position of the nine means (three for MemDrug, three for LearnStrategy,
and three for the interaction between MemDrug and LearnStrategy
[MemDrug*LearnStrategy]) with regards to Long-Term Memory. The line
for Dual Coding LearnStrategy runs through MenDrug20mg at Long-Term
Memory mean of 43.25, via MenDrug40mg at LTMemory mean of 47.25 to
MemDrug60mg at LTMemory mean of 45.00. The line for Retrieval
Practice LearnStrategy runs through MenDrug20mg at Long-Term Memory
mean of 39.50, via MenDrug40mg at LTMemory mean of 45.50 to
MemDrug60mg at LTMemory mean of 46.25. The line for Elaboration
LearnStrategy runs through MemDrug20mg at Long-Term Memory mean
of 34.75, via MemDrug40mg at LTMemory mean of 45.00 to
MemDrug60mg at LTMemory mean of 47.25.

SUMMARY OF THE TWO-WAY REPEATED

MEASURES ANOVA
Conclusively, the Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA executed on the
effects of a new memory drug manufactured (MemDrug) by a German

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pharmaceutical company and Learning Strategies on Long-Term Memory
showed a significant main effect of the MemDrug [F(2, 38) = 13.173, p <
.01, ɳp2 = .409, a large effect size] based on Sphericity Assumed. The
Memory Drug equally has a significant main effect on Long-Term Memory
[F(1.849, 35.122) = 13.173, p < .01, ɳp2 = .409, a large effect size] based
on Greenhouse-Geisser. The significant difference is in favour of
MemDrug60mg (EM Mean = 46.167) p <.01, and MemDrug40mg (EM
Mean = 45.917) p < .01. The main effect of Learning Strategy on Long-
Term Memory is not significant [F(2, 38) = 1.921, p > .05, ɳp2 = .092,
medium effect size] based on Sphericity Assumed. On the basis of
Greenhouse-Geisser too, the main effect of Learning Strategy is not
significant [F(1.764, 33.519) = 1.921, p > .05, ɳp2 = .092, medium effect
size]. The interaction effect of Memory Drug and Learning Strategy on
Long-Term Memory is not significant [F(4, 76) = 2.442, p > .05, ɳp2 =
.114, a medium effect size] based on Sphericity Assumed. Using
Greenhouse-Geisser too, the interaction effect (MemDrug*LearnStrategy)
is not significant [F(2.912, 55.327) = 2.442, p > .05, ɳp2 = .114, a medium
effect size]. Therefore, for improvement of Long-Term Memory, MemDrug
40mg is recommended. For better improvement of Long-Term Memory, the
MemDrug 60mg is recommended.

Step 6. View the output, which has already been done in the interpretation
process.

Step 7. Save the output as Chapter 9 Output 1.spv. Click Save this
document tool in the Toolbar to have the Save Output As… dialog
box. In the box beside File name, type in a suitable name for the document
(Chapter 9 Output 1.spv) as shown in Figure 9.22; and click Save.

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 Figure 9.22 Save Output As… Chapter 9 Output 1.spv

Step 8. Print the output and the dataset. Click the Print icon in the
Toolbar to get the Print dialog box. Ensure that All visible output is
selected as shown in Figure 9.23 and click OK to have one copy of the
entire output for the Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA printed. After
that, activate the SPSS Data Editor with the dataset as shown in Figure 9.2
and click the Print icon and click Ok to have a copy of the data printed.

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 Figure 9.23 Print dialog box

Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing each opened SPSS window.

Step 10. Shut down the system by clicking Start, clicking Power and
finally by clicking Shut down.

TWO-WAY REPEATED MEASURES ANOVA

EXECUTION WITH SPSS SYNTAX
Execution of Two-Way Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance is more
interesting and swifter with application of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax.
For the current example, the requisite SPSS Syntax is presented in Syntax
9.1. It only requires activating the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor and
very carefully entering the Syntax 9.1. Once this is done, highlighting the

entered syntax and clicking the Run Selection tool in the Toolbar.
With that click, IBM SPSS Statistics completes the analysis and produces
the output.

Syntax 9.1 Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA

Syntax

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 Without further ado, switch on the computer and let it boot fully. Launch
IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking its icon on the screen of the
computer. When it fully comes up, close the Welcome to IBM SPSS
Statistics dialog box. Move cursor to the Toolbar and click the Open data
document tool to have its menu as given in Figure 9.24. In the Open
Data menu, look for and click the name with which the data document was
saved (Chapter 9 Table 1 Data.sav) and press Enter key on the Keyboard
or click Open.

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 Figure 9.24 Open Data for Chapter 9 Table 1 Data.sav

With the pressing of the Enter key, the document opens exactly as
shown much earlier in Figure 9.2. Have a very close look at the variables as
named because the names are indispensable part of the Syntax.
Select Window and click Go to Designated Syntax Window (see
Figure 9.25) or click File, select New and click Syntax.

Figure 9.25 Window Go to designated Syntax window

By selecting the Go to Designated Syntax Window, the IBM SPSS

Statistics Syntax Editor appears as given in Figure 9.26.

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 Figure 9.26 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

Most carefully enter the Syntax that is presented in Syntax 9.1. When
done, it will look like the screenshot in Figure 9.27.

Figure 9.27 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor with the requisite Two-Way Repeated
Measures ANOVA syntax

Crosscheck to verify that you have correctly typed the Syntax as given
in Syntax 9.1. With exact names of the variables as you have carefully
noted in Figure 9.2, the clear specification of the Syntax as in Syntax 9.1,
and with the aid of the prompting that IBM SPSS Statistics gives while
typing the Syntax, probability of your making a mistake is very remote. Do
not miss out the dot (.) or full stop at the end of the command Syntax. The
command syntax for each statistical analysis must end with a dot.
Finally, highlight the entire entered Syntax and click the Run Selection

icon in the Toolbar for SPSS to execute the whole analysis and
produce the results in a second as in the displayed Output 9.2.

650
 Alternatively, instead of highlighting the entered Syntax, click Run in
the Menu Bar and in the Run dropdown menu, click All (see Figure 9.28).
With this, IBM SPSS Statistics instantly runs the analysis and presents the
results in the Viewer window as exhibited in Output 9.2.

Figure 9.28 Run All menu

Output 9.2 Chapter 9 Output 2.spv – Memory Drug

and Learning Strategy

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652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 9.2
Compare every table in Output 9.2 with its corresponding table in Output
9.1 and make a list of the differences. At the end, how many differences

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were you able to spot and list? Zero difference? Yes. Good! If there is no
difference at all in the two outputs (Output 9.2 and Output 9.1), then the
explanations provided for Output 9.1 cannot be different from how Output
9.2 should be explained. Apply the interpretation of Output 9.1 to the
Output 9.2.
Perform the remaining IBM SPSS Statistics data analysis protocols to
eventually shut down your system.
View output

Save the output (Chapter 9 Output 2.spv) and the Syntax (Chapter 9
Syntax 1.sps)

Print the output and the syntax

Exit IBM SPSS Statistics

Shut down the system.

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 Chapter 10
TWO-WAY MIXED (BETWEEN-
WITHIN) ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

Overview
In this chapter, 44 screenshots demonstration of unmistakable step-by-step
hands-on knowhow for the execution of Two-Way (Between-Within)
Analysis of Variance is presented. This statistical test is the best for
concurrent ascertainment of the effects of one or two between-subjects
factors and one or two within-subjects factors on a single dependent
variable. While the between-subjects factor is a categorical independent
variable, the within-subjects factor is a multi-treatment independent
variable that considers all the subjects as a single sample. Two-way
(between-within) ANOVA is a much more powerful factorial design test
with greater precision in the specification of within-subjects main effect,
between-subjects main effect, within-subjects and between-subjects
interaction effect on one dependent variable. Multivariate Analysis of
Variance (MANOVA) for follow-up of the interaction effect is equally
presented in an extremely simplified user-friendly manner. The illustrative
example used is staff recruitment exercise for a STEM program in gifted
children’s school.

Keywords: Two-way mixed ANOVA, Mixed factorial design,

Between-within ANOVA, Tests of within-subjects effects, Tests
of between-subjects effects, Pairwise comparisons, MWITHIN
Stem, STEM within-subject effect, MWITHIN DISCIPLINE BY
STEM, Results summary, Syntax for Two-way mixed ANOVA.

Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within) Analysis of Variance is used for

analysing data in an investigation that is aimed at establishing the effects of

662
at least one between-subjects factor and at least one within-subjects factor
as the independent variables on a dependent variable. The Between-
Subjects factor is an independent variable with preferably three or more
distinct levels or groups in which members of each group were accorded
only one level of the treatment condition. The Within-Subjects factor is an
independent variable with preferably three or more treatment conditions in
which each of the subjects was exposed to all the treatment conditions. That
is, the Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within) ANOVA is as the name implies,
a mixed factorial ANOVA design that combines between-subjects and
within-subjects experimental conditions simultaneously in a single study
and analysis. An example of how the analysis is done will clarify the mixed
factorial ANOVA design.

STAFF RECRUITMENT EXERCISE FOR A

GIFTED CHILDREN’S SCHOOL STEM PROGRAM
A South-Western Governor in Nigeria anonymously attended a STEM
Symposium on April 14, 2018 at Nysmith School for the Gifted in
Herndon, Virginia, Washington D.C., United States. He was over impressed
with information on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics) that was presented. He decided to establish a Gifted
Children’s School that will be based on STEM in his State on return to
Nigeria. Not certain of getting enough staff who are knowledgeable
sufficiently to teach in the Gifted Children’s School that was to run STEM
Program, he engaged a team of researchers to investigate the problem. With
his sponsorship, the researchers carried out a 12-month special intensive
training for fresh graduates from various disciplines who applied for the
teaching job. The performance of some participants in that STEM training
programme constitute the data used for illustration of the Two-Way Mixed
(Between-Within) ANOVA execution in this chapter. For information on
factorial research designs, refer to Kpolovie (2016 & 2018).
Four key areas that were covered in the intensive STEM training are
Engineering, Mathematics, Science and Technology (AERA, APA and
NCME, 2014). For Engineering, the training covered aspects of civil,
mechanical, mechatronic, aeronautical, chemical, oil/gas, and electrical
engineering. Mathematics training covered various fields in statistics and

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mathematics (arithmetic, applied maths, calculus, algebra, experimental
maths, logic, geometry/topology, dynamic systems with differential
equations, and data mining). Science training dealt with areas that include
biochemistry, biology, medicine, and psychology. Technology training
touched a broad spectrum of the field, including artificial intelligence,
curriculum development and educational technology, information and
communication technology, computer science and programming. The
intention was to at the end of the training, recruit only those candidates who
will excel in a pre-employment STEM Test Battery (STEMTB) that will be
given, to serve as tutors in the STEM-based Gifted Children’s School. The
STEMTB was adopted for the measurement of the Staff Recruitment
Exercise Performance (SREP).
The four core areas of training, Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) constituted the Within-Subjects Factor in which
every of the candidates was equally exposed to all the four levels. The areas
of Discipline in which each candidate got his/her first degree served as the
Between-Subjects Factor because each of the candidates had a degree in
just one Discipline.
The STEM Test Battery (STEMTB) was a pre-employment set of four
tests grouped together and administered to the participants in the training
for possible employment as teaching staff in the STEM-based Gifted
Children’s School that was to be established by the Governor. In accordance
with the requirements of the job and the employer’s needs, the four tests in
STEMTB were Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics for the
measurement of Staff Recruitment Exercise Performance (SREP). Each of
these tests had in addition to its core area, some items that measured basic
skills and trainability as well as personality predispositions of creativity,
trustworthiness, honesty, and adherence to rules.
The four tests in the STEMTB were administered in a forward and
backward sequence (A B C D D C
B A) and the average of each applicant’s two scores on each of the
tests was taken as his/her score for the particular test. The A B
C D D C B A order of administration of
the Within-Subjects Factor was to prevent carry-over effect and sequencing
effect (Ololube, Kpolovie, & Makewa, 2015; Kpolovie, 2016; 2010) from

664
affecting the findings. Once again, the Staff Recruitment Exercise
Performance was measured with the STEMTB. Three Disciplines that had
the highest number of applicants were used for the study, and coded 1 for
MBBS, 2 for Agriculture, and 3 for Management Science. The
applicants’ scores are as presented in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1 Chapter 10 Table 1 Data.sav – Effects of Discipline and STEM

training on applicants’ Staff Recruitment Exercise Performance (SREP)

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Research questions
What is the applicants’ staff recruitment exercise performance (SREP) in
terms of their areas of discipline as depicted by their means and standard
deviations?

667
 What is the applicants’ staff recruitment exercise performance (SREP) in
terms of the STEM training that they received as depicted by their means
and standard deviations?
What is the applicants’ staff recruitment exercise performance (SREP)
with regards to the interaction of their discipline and STEM training?

Alternate Hypotheses
The applicants’ performance in the staff recruitment exercise differ
significantly with regards to their discipline.
The applicants’ performance in the staff recruitment exercise differ
significantly with regards to the STEM training that they received.
There is a significant interaction effect of discipline and STEM training
on the applicants’ performance in the staff recruitment exercise.

Null hypotheses
The applicants’ performance in the staff recruitment exercise do not differ
significantly with regards to their discipline.
The applicants’ performance in the staff recruitment exercise do not
differ significantly with regards to the STEM training that they received.
There is no significant interaction effect of discipline and STEM training
on the applicants’ staff recruitment exercise performance.

TWO-WAY MIXED (BETWEEN-WITHIN) ANOVA

WITH SPSS DIALOG BOXES SELECTION
Step 1. Switch on the computer and let it boot fully.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking the icon of the version of
SPSS that is installed in your computer. Version 26 for instance is like this
. When fully ready, close the superimposed dialog
box on the IBM SPSS Data Editor.

Step 3. Enter the data exactly as shown in Table 10.1 with the five scores
for each applicant constituting one row in the same order. When the entire

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scores for the 60 applicants have correctly been entered exactly the way
they appear in Table 10.1, switch to the Variable View by clicking it beside
Data View at the bottom extreme left corner of the SPSS Statistics Data
Editor. In the Variable View, under the Name column, type the actual
names of the variables (Science, Technology, Engineering, Maths, and
Discipline) respectively to replace the default names that SPSS has given
them (VAR00001, VAR00002, VAR00003, VAR00004, and VAR00005).
Also enter the variable names (Science, Technology, Engineering, Maths,
and Discipline) accordingly in the first five rows under Label column. In
the Measure column, select Scale for the first four rows, and Nominal for
the fifth row because Discipline, the Between-Subjects independent
variable is categorized into three (coded 1, 2 and 3).
Then for the fifth row under Values, click None, and click the small blue
dotted box . This produces its dialog box known as Value Labels as
presented in Figure 10.1.

Figure 10.1 Value Labels

Type 1 in the box beside Value and type MBBS in the box beside Label
as shown in Figure 10.2.

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 Figure 10.2 Value Label with 1 and MBBS entered

Click Add, after which you type 2 in the Value box; and type Agric in
the Label box as illustrated in Figure 10.3.

Figure 10.3 Value Labels with 2 and Agric entered

Click Add, after which you type 3 in the Value box; and enter MS
(standing for Management Sciences) in the Label field as shown in Figure
10.4.

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 Figure 10.4 Value Labels with 3 and MS entered

Finally, click Add to complete the Value Labels dialog box for it to look
like the screenshot illustration in Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5 Completed Value Labels ready for

Then, click OK, to return to the Variable View when all variables have
been named, labelled and the Between Factor independent variable
(Discipline) has been given Value Labels as shown in Figure 10.6.

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 Figure 10.6 Completed Variable View with all variable names and labelled

Switch over to the Data View again to see the entered data and actual
variable names instead of the default of VAR00001, VAR00002, and so on,
that was given when you keyed in the data. The completed Data View of
the IBM SPSS Data Editor with the data is presented in Figure 10.7.

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Figure 10.7 Chapter 10 Table 1 Data.sav

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Figure 10.7 Continued

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 Figure 10.7 Continued

Step 4. Save the data. Move cursor to the Toolbar and click Save this
document icon . With this click, the Save Data As dialog box appears.
In it, type a most suitable name, Chapter 10 Table 1 Data.sav, in the File
name box as exemplified in Figure 10.8, and click Save.

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 Figure 10.8 Save Data As… Chapter 10 Tata 1 Data.sav

Step 5. Analyze the data. This is the step in which all the required statistical
operations for execution of the Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within)
ANOVA have to be done. Click Analyze General Linear Model
Repeated Measures… as illustrated in Figure 10.9.

Figure 10.9 Analyze General Linear Model Repeated Measures

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 On clicking the Repeated Measures…, a dialog box that is called
Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) appears, shown in Figure 10.10. For
the Within-Subject Factor Name, STEM, (referring to the intensive
STEM training that was accorded to all the applicants as the experimental
treatment conditions); and the Number of Levels in this treatment Factor,
4 (i.e., 1. Science, 2. Technology, 3. Engineering and 4. Mathematics) to be
typed in their corresponding boxes and added to the analysis by clicking
Add. Also, to be typed in is the dependent variable, termed here as
Measure Name, SREP (synonym for Staff Recruitment Exercise
Performance) and added by clicking Add. Perform these actions, one after
the other.

Figure 10.10 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s)

In the box beside Within-Subject Factor Name where factor1 is

written, double-click to highlight it and type Stem as shown in Figure
10.11. Note that in typing the Factor Name, space must be avoided or use
underscore in place of it. Also, a Factor Name can only have a one

677
uppercase (capital letter) as the beginning alphabet of the Factor Name in
some versions of SPSS. Therefore, Stem is typed instead of STEM.

Figure 10.11 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with factor1 name entered

In the box for Number of Levels, type 4 which is the number of

treatment conditions that were given and on which measurements or
observations were taken as shown in Figure 10.12.

678
Figure 10.12 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with the number of levels in the Within-
Subjects factor provided

Next, click Add, for the name of the Within-Subject Factor(s), Stem,
and its number of levels, 4, to be added to the analysis as shown in Figure
10.13.

679
 Figure 10.13 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with the factor and its levels added

In the box beside Measures Name, type Srep (representing Staff

Recruitment Exercise Performance that is the dependent variable of the
study) as shown in Figure 10.14.

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 Figure 10.14 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with Measure Name entered

For the Srep to be added to the analysis, click Add as demonstrated in

Figure 10.15.

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Figure 10.15 Repeated Measures Define Factor(s) with the dependent variable Srep (Staff
Recruitment Exercise Performance) added

Click Define, , at the bottom left of the screenshot in Figure 10.15

so that the Repeated Measures main dialog box will appear for the
requisite statistical operations to be done. The Repeated Measures dialog
box is presented in Figure 10.16.

682
 Figure 10.16 Repeated Measures dialog box

This Repeated Measures main dialog box is so crucial to the analysis

that lots of statistical operations will be performed in it directly or
indirectly. For example, the levels of the Within-Subjects Variables
(Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths) must be moved from the
left box into the Within-Subjects Variables (Stem) box at the right; the
Between-Subjects variable (Discipline) must also be moved from the left
box into the Between-Subjects Factor(s) panel at the right. The dialog box
for each of Plots, Post Hoc, EM Means and Options can only be accessed
through the Repeated Measures main dialog box. On completion of the
statistical operations in Plots dialog box, you must return to the Repeated
Measures main dialog box to select Post Hoc; and when through with the
Post Hoc dialog box, you have got to return to the main Repeated
Measures dialog box to select EM Means; and after finishing with its
dialog box, you again get back to the main Repeated Measures dialog box
for selection of Options. At the end of the needful statistical operations in
the Options dialog box, you return to the main Repeated Measures dialog

683
box. When all the actions to be taken for the analysis are done, it is still in
the Repeated Measures dialog box that the final button, OK, will be
clicked for the IBM SPSS Statistics to run the analysis and produce the
much-needed output. Alright, perform these necessary statistical operations
one after the other carefully.
Hold down the Shift key and press the Arrow-down key on the
Keyboard to select all the levels of the Within-Subjects Factor or of the
independent variable that are each treated as a variable (Science,
Technology, Engineering and Maths) in the left box and move them at
once into the Within-Subjects Variables box at the right by clicking the
right-pointed arrow that is facing it as shown in Figure 10.17.

Figure 10.17 Repeated Measures dialog box with the Within-Subjects variables moved to
the right

Click and highlight Discipline which is the Between-Subjects variable

and move it from the left box into the Between-Subjects Factor(s) panel at

684
the right by clicking the right-pointed arrow that is directly facing the
Between-subjects Factor(s) box as exhibited in Figure 10.18.

Figure 10.18 Repeated Measures dialog box with Discipline moved to Between-Subjects
Factor(s) box

Select Plots pushbutton. This produces the Repeated Measures: Profile

Plots dialog box, illustrated in Figure 10.19. The Profile Plots lets SPSS to
diagrammatically display the dependent variable means graphically as
illustrative answer to the research questions, indicating the relative location
of each of the means along the horizontal and vertical axes for both the
Between-Subjects (Discipline) and Within-Subjects (Stem) independent
variables.

685
 Figure 10.19 Repeated Measures: Profile Plots dialog box

Click Stem in the Factors box at the left to highlight it. Then, transfer it
into the Horizontal Axis by clicking the right-pointed arrow that is
directly facing the Horizontal Axis. It is a rule of thumb for the variable
with greater number of levels (categories) to be transferred into the
Horizontal Axis and the variable with fewer number of levels to be
transferred into the Separate Lines (Kpolovie, 2018). The within-subjects
independent variable, Stem, has four levels (Science, Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics) while Discipline has three levels (MBBS,
Agriculture and Management Sciences). This accounts for why the Stem

686
is moved into the Horizontal Axis. Next, click Discipline in the Factors
box at the left to highlight it; and move it into the Separate Lines by
clicking the right-pointed arrow that is facing the Separate Lines
directly as demonstrated in Figure 10.20.

Figure 10.20 Repeated Measures: Profile Plots with variables transferred to two boxes at
the right

You must have observed that the movement of these independent

variables from the Factors box at the left into their appropriate boxes at the
right activated Add, in the dialog box. For the Profile Plots
statistical operations to become complete, you must click the Add. So, click

687
 . A click on the Add produces the interaction term Stem*Discipline
that is indispensably required for either Line chart or Bar chart as
illustrated in Figure 10.21. Also, you must notice that by clicking the Add,
the two independent variables, Stem and Discipline, disappeared from their
respective Horizontal Axis and Separate Lines fields, and rather appeared
as an interaction term, Stem*Discipline in the big panel under Plots.

Figure 10.21 Repeated Measures: Profile Plots showing Stem*Discipline as interaction

term for Line Chart

Click Continue to return to the main Repeated Measures dialog box.

Next, select Post Hoc pushbutton to have its dialog box as presented in

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Figure 10.22. The Post Hoc statistical operation in Two-Way Mixed
(Between-Within) ANOVA is used for Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons
of the dependent samples means strictly with respect to the Between-
Subjects independent variable, which is Discipline in this example.

Figure 10.22 Repeated Measures: Post Hoc

Move Discipline from the Factor(s) box at the left into the Post Hoc
Tests for panel at the right by clicking the right-pointed arrow, , when
the variable in question is highlighted. The rightward movement of the
variable activates the several Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons tests as
exhibited in Figure 10.23.

689
 Figure 10.23 Repeated Measures: Post Hoc when Discipline has been moved to the right

Check the checkbox of the particular Post Hoc test(s) suitable for the
purpose that you want to use. Check R-E-G-W-Q (that is very suitable
when equal variances is assumed) and Games-Howell (that is appropriate
in case equal variances is not assumed) as demonstrated in Figure 10.24.

690
 Figure 10.24 Repeated Measures: Post Hoc tests checked

Click Continue to return to the Repeated Measures main dialog box

for further analysis to be done. Select EM Means (Estimated Marginal
Means) for its dialog box to appear as shown in Figure 10.25. The
Estimated Marginal Means statistical operations is used to very clearly
produce the main effect of the Between-Subjects independent variable
(Discipline) and the main effect of the Within-Subjects independent
variable (Stem) and the interaction effect of the two variables
(Discipline*Stem) in the IBM SPSS Statistics output.

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 Figure 10.25 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means dialog box

With the aid of Shift key and Arrow-down key on the Keyboard, select
Discipline, Stem and Discipline*Stem in the Factor(s) and Factor
Interactions box at the left and transfer them into the Display Means for
box at the right by clicking the right-pointed arrow . You can also
highlight each of the three variables in the left box and transfer it separately
into the right panel by clicking the right-pointed arrow. When done, the
Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means dialog box takes a
different look as in Figure 10.26.

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 Figure 10.26 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means dialog box with the main
effects and interaction effect moved to the right

Check the Compare main effects checkbox and Confidence interval

adjustment with its small black downward-pointed arrow will get
activated as shown in Figure 10.27.

Figure 10.27 Repeated Measures: Estimated Marginal Means dialog box with Compare
main effects ticked and Confidence interval adjustment activated

693
 Click the small downward-pointed black arrow under Confidence
interval adjustment and click Bonferroni in its dropdown menu for the
Confidence interval adjustment as illustrated in Figure 10.28.

Figure 10.28 Estimated Marginal Means with Bonferroni chosen for Confidence interval
adjustment

Click Continue to get back to the Repeated Measures main dialog box
for execution of the last set of statistical operations. In the main Repeated
Measures dialog box, select Options pushbutton. This action produces the
Repeated Means: Options presented in Figure 10.29.

Figure 10.29 Repeated Measures: Options

694
 This dialog box allows you to perform descriptive statistics and the so
much needed Effect Size, measured with Partial Eta Squared, when any
brand of Two-way ANOVA is performed. You get the descriptive statistical
values like means and standard deviations, and the Effect Size analysis
done merely by checking the checkbox beside Descriptive statistics and
the checkbox beside Estimates of effect size as presented in Figure 10.30.

Figure 10.30 Repeated Measures: Options with Estimates of effect size and Descriptive
statistics checked

Finally, click Continue to again have the Repeated Measures main

dialog box reproduced here as Figure 10.31. This time, all the requisite
statistical operations for the Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within) ANOVA
have been completely performed in the General Linear Model Repeated
Measures dialog box.

695
Figure 10.31 Repeated Measures main dialog box when all the statistical operations have
been done

Move the cursor to, and click OK, and in just a moment, IBM SPSS
Statistics runs the whole analysis completely and displays the output in the
IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as presented in Output 10.1.

MANOVA FOR FOLLOW-UP OF STEM *

DISCIPLINE SIGNIFICANT INTERACTION
EFFECT ON SREP
Before examining the Output 10.1, it is necessary to also perform
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) as a follow-up analysis in
case the STEM * Discipline interaction effect happens to be significant
statistically. It is the MANOVA that will clearly show whether the
interaction of each of the four levels of Stem (the Within-Subject factor)

696
with the three levels of Discipline (the Between-Subjects factor) has
significant effect on the dependent variable (Srep). If the interaction effect
of each Stem level with all the three levels of Discipline is significant on
Srep, at least one of the means of the interaction must be statistically
different from one or some of the others. In synopsis, the MANOVA will
reveal whether a significant mean difference exists across the Between-
Subjects factor (Discipline) for each Within-Subjects factor (Stem) level,
on the one hand.
From the other perspective, the MANOVA will show whether the
interaction between each of the three levels of the Between-Subjects factor
(Discipline) with all the four levels of the Within-Subjects factor (Stem) is
significant statistically. If at least one of the interactions of each Discipline
level with across all levels of Stem is greater statistically than one or more
of the others, the MANOVA will yield a significant result. In synopsis, the
MANOVA will reveal whether a significant mean difference exists across
the Within-Subjects factor (Stem) levels for each level of the Between-
Subjects factor (Discipline) level, and viseveser.
Execution of MANOVA to test the null hypothesis of ‘no significant
mean difference across the Between-Subjects factor (Discipline) levels for
each Within-Subjects factor (Stem) level”; and the execution of
MANOVA to test the null hypothesis of “no significant mean difference
across the Within-Subjects factor (Stem) levels for each Between-
Subjects factor (Discipline) level” are done with the two respective IBM
SPSS Statistics Syntax Commands given in Syntax 10.1.

Syntax 10.1 Chapter 10 Syntax 1.sps – MANOVA

Syntax for follow-up

697
 Note that there are two Syntax Commands, each begins with MANOVA
and ends with a dot (full stop). The first Syntax is used to test the null
hypothesis that “there is no significant mean difference across the Between-
Subjects factor (Discipline) levels for each Within-Subjects factor
(Stem) level.” The second Syntax is used for testing tenability of the null
hypothesis that “there is no significant mean difference across the Within-
Subjects factor (Stem) levels for each Between-Subjects factor
(Discipline) level.”
Activate the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor with the dataset that was
saved as Chapter 10 Table 1 Data.sav. Click Window, and click Go to
Designated Syntax Window. Alternatively, click File, select New, and
click Syntax. Either of the two processes will instantly make the IBM
SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor to appear.
Correctly enter the Syntax that is provided in Syntax 10.1 for simple
Between-Subjects * Within-Subjects interaction effect into the IBM
SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor as exemplified in Figure 10.32.

698
 Figure 10.32 Chapter 10 Syntax 1.sps – MANOVA Syntax for further Stem * Discipline
Interaction follow-up tests

Click Run. Click All. With this click on All, IBM SPSS Statistics
immediately runs the MANOVA internally and produces the results in the
IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as shown in the follow-up section of Output
10.1.

Output 10.1 Chapter 10 Output 1.spv

699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
RESULTS OF MANOVA FOR INTERACTION
FOLLOW-UP

707
708
709
710
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 10.1 – EFFECTS
OF STEM AND DISCIPLINE
The Output 10.1 is very extensive with 18 sections that are made up of 17
tables and 1 graph; though, not all the 18 sections that are necessarily
required for reporting the findings. In addition, there are 10 sections of the
Output as MANOVA follow-up for the significant interaction effect
between Discipline and STEM. Each of the sections in the Output is aptly
detailed herein with the essential interpretation.

Within-Subjects Factors
This merely lists the four within-subjects treatment conditions and
measurements or observations (Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics) taken across all the subjects.

Between-Subjects Factors
The Value Labels for the three levels (MBBS, Agric and Management
Science) of the Between-Subjects variable, Discipline, and the number of
cases in each level are outlined in this table.

Descriptive Statistics
The Mean, Std. Deviation and sample size (N) for each of the 12 conditions
(Science with MBBS, Science with Agric and Science with MS;

711
Technology with MBBS, Technology with Agric and Technology with MS;
Engineering with MBBS, Engineering with Agric and Engineering with
MS; Maths with MBBS, Maths with Agric and Maths with MS) in the study
are tabulated in the Descriptive Statistics. The Descriptive Statistics
information is used to partly answer the research questions.

Multivariate Tests
The null hypotheses of the main effects of STEM as well as of the
interaction effect of Stem*Discipline on the dependent variable, Srep
(Staff Recruitment Exercise Performance) could either be tested with
MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance) or with Univariate Analysis
of Variance. Results for four MANOVA tests (Pillai’s Trace, Wilk’s
Lambda, Hotelling’s Trace and Roy’s Largest Root) are given in this table.
The table displays the Value, the F, the Hypothesis df, the Error df, the
actual Sig. and the Partial Eta Squared; using each of the four tests to show
the effects of Stem and of Stem*Discipline interaction on the Staff
Recruitment Exercise Performance (Srep) of the applicants or participants.
The F for each of the tests is statistically significant (p < .05) in each case.
Meaning that (1) there is a significant effect of STEM on SREP, and (2)
there is a significant effect of STEM*Discipline interaction on SREP (p <
.0005 with substantially large effect size).

Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity

The Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity is used to test the null hypothesis that the
error covariance matrix of the orthonormalized transformed dependent
variables is proportional to an identity matrix. Sphericity Assumed is to be
used whenever the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity is not statistically
significant as it is the case for the current analysis that has .926 Mauchly’s
W, 4.303 Approximate Chi-Square, 5 df and .51 Sig. Since the Sig. is
greater than .05 alpha, the null hypothesis of no Sphericity assumed, is
rejected. The Sphericity is Assumed, p > .05. However, where Sphericity is
not Assumed, three Epsilon tests (Greenhouse-Geisser, Huynh-Feldt and
Lower-bound) are given to be used for adjustment of the degrees of
freedom for the averaged tests of significance in the Tests of Within-
Subjects Effects table.

712
 A few authors like Howell (2013; 2016) have noted that the Mauchly’s
Test of Sphericity is inaccurate and that it tends to be better to provide two
reports for the Within-Subjects ANOVA, one for Sphericity Assumed and
another for Sphericity not Assumed. Hence, double results of the Two-Way
Mixed (Between-Within) ANOVA shall be presented in this example
mainly for illustration sake. Ordinarily, when the sphericity assumption is
not met, the standard ANOVA F test given for Sphericity Assumed
inaccurately yields results that tend to reject a true null hypothesis slightly
more often than is true in the population; and therefore one of the alternate
F tests (Greenhouse-Geisser, Huynh-Feldt and Lower-bound) collectively
known as Epsilon, should rather be reported because these other tests adjust
the df to accurately accommodate the sphericity violation issue. Of the three
Epsilon or alternative F tests when sphericity assumption is violated or
when Sphericity Assumed F is to be bypassed due to slight elements of
inaccuracy in Mauchly’s Test, the best and most appropriately cautious
alternative F test to use is the Greenhouse-Geisser. The reason being that
while the Lower-bound F test makes adjustment that is overly cautious and
which might reject the null hypothesis a little too infrequently (i.e., fail to
reject the null hypothesis occasionally) due to its conservativeness, the
Huynh-Feldt F test makes adjustment that is slightly more liberal (rejecting
the null hypothesis a little more often than is warranted by the population
from which the representative sample was drawn).

Tests of Within-Subjects Effects

The Tests of Within-Subjects Effects is the most critically crucial and is
completely indispensable to report and in interpretation of all the 18
sections in the Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within) ANOVA Output for
testing the tenability of the postulated null hypotheses for the Within-
Subjects (Stem) main effect and the Within-Subjects cum Between-
Subjects interaction (Stem*Discipline) effect on the dependent variable
(Srep). The table has displayed the Type III Sum of Squares, the df, Mean
Square, F, Sig. and Partial Eta Squared (used for establishment of Effect
Size) for each of the four tests (Sphericity Assumed, Greenhouse-Geisser,
Huynh-Feldt and Lower-bound) with regard to the Stem main effect and the
interaction effect of Stem*Discipline on the dependent variable, Srep
(Staff Recruitment Exercise Performance). The Type III Sum of Squares, df

713
and Mean Square for the Residual Term (Error) are also provided in the
table for each of the four tests (Sphericity Assumed, Greenhouse-Geisser,
Huynh-Feldt and Lower-bound). The Residual Term (Error) Mean Square is
the final denominator in each of the F tests.
The Tests of Within-Subjects Effects table provides the much-needed F
test as the ratio of the sources of variance, each represented as a Mean
Square (MS), which make up the General Linear Model Univariate
Analysis of Variance when repeated measures are taken. The F is the Mean
Square for Effect (STEM between the repeated measures) divided by the
Mean Square for Error (Residual Term) across the levels of STEM for any
of the four main effect F tests as well as for each of the four interaction
(Stem * Discipline) effect F tests (Sphericity Assumed, Greenhouse-
Geisser, Huynh-Feldt and Lower-bound).
In equation form, F for Sphericity Assumed regarding Stem main effect
is arrived at as Equation 10:1.

The F for Sphericity Assumed regarding Stem * Disciple interaction

effect is arrived at as:

The F for Greenhouse-Geisser regarding Stem main effect is arrived at

as:

The F for Greenhouse-Geisser regarding Stem * Discipline interaction

effect is arrived at as:

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 In both the Sphericity Assumed and Greenhouse-Geisser tests
scenarios, the main effect of Stem F is 3.120 which is as provided in the
table, and it is statistically significant as the Sig. (probability of obtaining
such rear result) is less than the chosen alpha of .05; and the Effect Size as
measured by Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) is .052, a small effect size.
Therefore, the STEM intensive training has significant main effect on Srep,
the Staff Recruitment Exercise Performance: [F(3, 171) = 3.120, p < .05,
ɳp2 = .052 for Sphericity Assumed] and [F(2.848, 162.360) = 3.120, p <
.05, ɳp2 = .052 for Greenhouse-Geisser].
Recall that the determination of Effect Size in ANOVA models is
measured with Partial Eta Squired, and the Partial Eta Squired (ɳp2) is
interpreted as follows:
.000 - .009 = Trivial Effect Size
.010 - .059 = Small Effect Size
.060 - .139 = Medium Effect Size
.140 and above = Large Effect Size.
For the Stem * Discipline interaction effect in both Sphericity Assumed
and Greenhouse-Geisser tests situations, the F is 68.159 which is as
provided in the table, and it is significant statistically as the Sig. (p-value)
of .000 (read as less than .0005) is smaller than the chosen alpha of .05; it is
even less than .01 (if .01 were the alpha chosen). The Effect Size of the F
(68.159) as measured by Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) is as large as .705.
Therefore, the null hypothesis that “there is no significant interaction effect
of Discipline and STEM training on the applicants’ staff recruitment
exercise performance” is rejected. STEM and Discipline have significant
interaction (Stem*Discipline) effect on Srep (Staff Recruitment Exercise
Performance): [F(6, 171) = 68.159, p < .05, ɳp2 = .705 (an
overwhelmingly large effect size) for Sphericity Assumed]; and
[F(5.697, 162.360) = 68.159, p < .05, ɳp2 = .705 (an overwhelmingly
large effect size) for Greenhouse-Geisser].

715
Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts
The Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts are not necessarily required in the
reporting and interpretation of Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within)
ANOVA. They may be required in some other statistical tests where they
play necessary roles. In fact, these tests are merely to indicate whether the
points where Linear line passes through are significantly straight; or
whether the points that the Quadratic U curves run are significant; or
whether the points significantly approximate Cubic or polynomial curve.
The Linearity, Quadratic and Cubic nature of the Stem and Stem *
Discipline interaction are depicted by the Profile Plots given towards the
end of the Output.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

The Tests of Between-Subjects Effects table presents results of the
Between-Subjects Factor or independent variable, Discipline in this case. It
can be discerned from the table that Discipline has a Type III Sum of
Squares of 1802.500, df of 2, Mean Square of 901.250, F of 1.689, Sig. of
.194 and Partial Eta Squared of .056. The Error (i.e., the Residual term) has
Type III Sum of Squares of 30412.500, df of 57, and Mean Square of
533.553. Again, the F is a function of the Mean Square Effect (i.e., the
Discipline) divided by the Error Mean Square. That is, the F is as given
earlier in Equation 10:1.

The F of 1.689 that depicts the main effect of Discipline on staff

recruitment exercise performance (Srep) is not significant as the Sig. of
.194 is greater than the chosen alpha of .05. Therefore, the null hypothesis
that “the applicants’ performance in the staff recruitment exercise do not
differ significantly with regards to their discipline” is retained (not rejected)
[F(2, 57) = 1.689, p > .05, ɳp2 = .056, a small effect size].

Estimated Marginal Means for Discipline

716
This table has given the Mean, Std. Error, and 95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound and Upper Bound for each of the three levels of Discipline
(MBBS, Agric, and MS). The Std. Error for each of the levels is 2.583. The
Mean for MBBS is 38.750, for Agric is 45.375, and for MS is 41.125.

Pairwise Comparisons
Pairwise Comparisons of Discipline indicating the Mean Difference, Std.
Error, Sig., and Lower versus Upper Bounds at 95% Confidence Interval for
Difference on the basis of Bonferroni’s adjustment for multiple
comparisons show outright lack of significance for each of the pairwise
comparisons. That is, there is no pairwise comparison that has a significant
mean difference. IBM SPSS Statistics attaches an asterisk to any Mean
Difference (I – J) that is statistically significant. But there is no Mean
Difference with asterisk, showing that none of the pairwise Mean
Difference in Staff Recruitment Exercise Performance (Srep) is significant
with respect to Discipline.
Assessing the Pairwise Comparisons from the Sig. column, any Pairwise
Mean Difference that is significant must have a p-value (Sig.) that is lower
than the classically chosen alpha level of .05. But each of the Pairwise
Mean Differences is having Sig. that is higher than .05, showing therefore,
that none of the Pairwise Mean Differences is significant statistically.
Lastly, assessing from the 95% Confidence Interval for Difference
column, a Pairwise Mean Difference that is significant must have both the
Lower Bound and the Upper Bound either completely above zero or
completely below zero. But none of the Mean Differences meets this
condition. Therefore, all the Mean Differences in Srep with regard to
Discipline are a mere function of chance occurrence. Finally, for the fact
that the null hypothesis that “the applicants’ performance in the staff
recruitment exercise do not differ significantly with regards to their
discipline” is retained (not rejected) [F(2, 57) = 1.689, p > .05, ɳp2 = .056];
it is needless even showing any Post Hoc Multiple Comparison that border
on Mean Difference in staff recruitment exercise performance that is due to
Discipline.

Univariate Tests

717
This table clearly presents the F tests for the main effect of Discipline on
the dependent variable (Srep) on the basis of the linearly independent
pairwise comparisons among the estimated marginal means. The Sum of
Squares for Contrast (Discipline or Effect) is 450.625 and for Error is
7603.125. The df for Contrast is 2 and for Error is 57. The Mean Square for
Contrast is 225.313 and for Error is 133.388. The F is 1.689. That is:

The Sig. (p-value) is .194. Since the p > .05, the null hypothesis of no
significant effect of Discipline on Srep is retained (not rejected). The Effect
Size that is measured with Partial Eta Squared is .056.

Estimated Marginal Means for Stem

The Estimated Marginal Means for the four levels of Stem (Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Maths) estimates the Srep Mean, Std. Error,
and 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound and Upper Bound for each of
the four levels of Stem. For level 1 (Science), the Mean is 40.833 and the
Std. Error is 1.916. For level 2 (Technology), the Mean and Std. Error are
respectively 40.167 and 1.620. For level 3 (Engineering), the Mean and Std.
Error are respectively 44.500 and 1.835. For level 4 (Maths), the Mean and
Std. Error are respectively 41.500 and 1.657. The Lower Bound and Upper
Bound at 95% Confidence Interval for each of the Stem levels can very
easily be read as presented accordingly in the last two columns (Lower
Bound and Upper Bound) of the table. The information provided by the
Estimated Marginal Means for Stem section of the Output 10.1 could partly
serve as the answer to the second research question.

Pairwise Comparisons
This table has displayed the 12 possible pairwise comparisons of Srep
means for the four levels of Stem. It has provided the Mean Difference (I-
J), Std. Error, Sig. and 95% Confidence Interval for Difference Lower
Bound and Upper Bound across the 12 pairs of the levels of Stem. For

718
instance, the Mean Difference between Science (1) and Technology (2) is
.667, Science (1) and Engineering (3) is -3.667, Science (1) and Maths (4)
is -.667. The Mean Difference between Technology (2) and Science (1) is
.667, Technology (2) and Engineering (3) is -4.333* (that is significant in
favour of Engineering), Technology (2) and Maths (4) is -1.333. The Mean
Difference between Engineering (3) and Science (1) is 3.667, Engineering
(3) and Technology (2) is 4.333* (significant in favour of Engineering),
Engineering (3) and Maths (4) is 3.000. The Mean Difference between
Maths (4) and Science (1) is .667, Maths (4) and Technology (2) is 1.333,
Maths (4) and Engineering (3) is -3.000.
The Mean Difference in each pair is got by subtracting the Mean for
Stem level (J) from the Mean for Stem level (I). Whenever the Stem level
(J) Mean is higher than the Stem level (I) Mean, a negative sign (-) is put as
prefix of the Mean Difference because the Mean of level J is subtracted
from the Mean of level I. If the Mean for Stem level J is smaller than the
Mean of Stem level I, there is no negative sign as prefix of the Mean
Difference as the mean J is subtracted from the mean I.
Any pair with a Mean Difference that is statistically significant has an
asterisk put for the Mean Difference to depict that the mean difference is
significant at the .05 alpha level. Of all the 12 pairwise comparisons, two
have the asterisk, showing that the Mean difference is significant. They are
Technology (2) and Engineering (3); and Engineering (3) and Technology
(2). The mean difference respectively of -4.333* and 4.333 is statistically
significant as the Sig. (.035) in each comparison is less than the chosen .05
alpha. Furthermore, for the mean difference of -4.333* the 95% Confidence
Interval for Difference Lower Bound (-8.464) and Upper Bound (-.203) are
completely below zero to show clearly that the mean difference is
statistically significant. For the mean difference of 4.333*, the 95%
Confidence Interval for Difference Lower Bound (.203) and Upper Bound
(8.464) are completely above zero to show clearly that the mean difference
is statistically significant.
All the other pairwise mean differences are not significant statistically as
(1), they do not have asterisk (*) assigned to them; (2), they have Sig. that
is greater than the chosen alpha level of .05 (p > .05); and (3), they have
95% Confidence Interval for Difference Lower Bound and Upper Bound
that do not completely fall either above zero or below zero in each
comparison.

719
Multivariate Tests
The Multivariate Tests are used to test the null hypotheses of the main
effect of Stem (Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths training) on
the dependent variable, Srep (Staff Recruitment Exercise Performance)
because the null hypothesis could either be tested with MANOVA
(Multivariate Analysis of Variance) or with Univariate Analysis of
Variance. Results for four MANOVA tests (Pillai’s Trace, Wilk’s Lambda,
Hotelling’s Trace and Roy’s Largest Root) are given in this table. The table
displays the Value, the F, the Hypothesis df, the Error df, the actual Sig. and
the Partial Eta Squared (measure of Effect Size); using each of the four tests
to show the effect of Stem intensive training on the Staff Recruitment
Exercise Performance (Srep) of the applicants who are the subjects or
participants in the investigation. The F (3.170) exact statistic for each of the
tests is statistically significant (p < .05) with a Partial Eta Squared of .147,
large effect size, in each test. Meaning that (1) there is a significant effect of
Stem on Srep [F(3.000, 55.000) = 3.170, p < .05, ɳp2 = .147]. That is,
Stem accounts for approximately 15% (exactly 14.7%) of the variance in
Srep. The MANOVA tests of the effect of Stem on Srep are each based on
the linearly independent pairwise comparisons among the estimated
marginal means, using exact statistic.

Estimated Marginal Means for Discipline * Stem

The Estimated Marginal Means for Discipline * Stem presents the Mean,
Std. Error, and 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound and Upper Bound
for each of the 12 levels of the interaction between Discipline and Stem.
For instance, the interaction between MBBS and Science (1) has Mean and
Std. Error of 53.500 and 3.319, respectively; MBBS and Technology (2)
interaction has a Mean of 31.000 and Std. Error of 2.806; MBBS and
Engineering (3) interaction has Mean of 40.500 and 3.178 Std. Error;
MBBS and Maths (4) interaction has 30.000 Mean and 2.871 Std. Error.
Agric and Science interaction Mean and Std. Error are respectively
41.000 and 3.319; Agric and Technology interaction has 42.500 Mean and
2.806 Std. Error; Agric and Engineering interaction has 63.000 Mean and
3.178 Std. Error; and Agric and Maths interaction has 35.000 Mean and
2.871 Std. Error.

720
 The interaction between MS (Management Science) and Science has
28.000 Mean and 3.319 Std. Error; MS and Technology interaction has
47.000 Mean and 2.806 Std. Error; MS and Engineering interaction has
30.000 Mean and 3.178 Std. Error, and MS with Maths interaction has
Mean and Std. Error of 59.500 and 2.871, respectively.
The Lower Bound and Upper Bound at 95% Confidence Interval for
each level of the interaction between Discipline and Stem can very easily
be read off as they are given in the table. Information in this table can be
used to answer the third research question with regard to interaction effect
of the between-subjects independent variable (Discipline) and the within-
subjects independent variable (Stem), Discipline * Stem, on the dependent
variable (Srep).

Post Hoc Tests for Discipline

Recall that in Figure 10.24, Games-Howell was also checked just in case
equal variances is not assumed. Results of the analysis showed that equal
variances is assumed; and therefore, it is not the Games-Howell test that
will be reported. Rather, it is the R-E-G-W-Q that was checked in case of
equal variances assumed that will be reported as shown in the next section
of the Output and is titled Homogeneous Subsets. However, Games-Howell
still provided the Post Hoc Test for Discipline, showing the Mean
Difference (I-J), Std. Error, Sig., and 95% Confidence Interval Lower
Bound and Upper Bound for each pairwise comparison of the three levels
of the Discipline. None of the pairs has significant Mean Difference.

Homogeneous Subsets for Srep

With regard to Discipline, the Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch Range (R-E-G-
W-Q) test has shown that the means for MBBS (38.7500), MS (41.1250)
and Agric (45.3750) all fall within one Subset to clearly show the absence
of significant difference in the means. The means for groups in the
homogeneous subsets are displayed on the basis of the observed means and
the error term is the Mean Square(Error) of 133.388. If the Srep mean for
any of the three areas of Discipline (MS, Agric and Science) had been
significantly different from any of the others, the Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-
Welsch Range tests could have used it to constitute a distinct or unique
Subset in the table.

721
Profile Plots
The Profile Plots has graphically portrayed Estimated Marginal Means of
Srep (Staff Recruitment Exercise Performance) by Discipline (MBBS,
Agric, and MS) and Stem (1 = Science, 2 = Technology, 3 = Engineering,
and 4 = Maths); as well as the Discipline * Stem interaction. MBBS line
passes through Science at a mean of about 53, Technology at a mean of
about 31, Engineering at a mean of about 40 to Maths at a mean of
approximately 30. Applicants from Agric discipline have a Srep line chart
that passes through Science at a mean of about 41, Technology at a mean of
about 42, Engineering at a mean of about 63 to Maths at a mean of about
35. Applicants with MS (Management Science) discipline have a Srep line
chart that passes through Science at a mean of approximately 28,
Technology at the mean of about 48, Engineering at a mean of about 30 to
Maths at a mean of about 59. The linear, quadratic and cubic nature of the
Stem and Discipline as well as their complex interaction (Stem *
Discipline) effect on staff recruitment exercise performance (Srep) is
pictorially shown in the Profile Plots. The complex crisscrossing of the
lines demonstrates the substantially significant interaction effect of Stem
and Discipline on Srep. To disentangle the interaction effect, MANOVA
follow-up analysis was done, and it is interpreted in the next section. The
Profile Plots could also serve partly as pictorial illustration of answers to
the research questions.

INTERPRETING THE MANOVA INTERACTION

FOLLOW-UP TESTS
The Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) follow-up tests for
the significant Stem * Discipline interaction effect on Srep were performed
to breakdown or to unbundle the interaction effect and make it much
clearer. The MANOVA has clearly shown whether the interaction of each
of the four levels of Stem (the Within-Subject factor) with the three levels
of Discipline (the Between-Subjects factor) has significant effect on the
dependent variable (Srep). If the interaction effect of each Stem level with
all the three levels of Discipline is significant on Srep, at least one of the
means of the interaction must be statistically different from one or some of

722
the others. Aptly, the MANOVA was meant to reveal whether a significant
mean difference exists across all the levels of the Between-Subjects factor
(Discipline) for each Within-Subjects factor (Stem) level.
In other words, seven specific null hypotheses were tested with the
MANOVA, four in the first phase of the MANOVA tests and three in the
second dimension of the MANOVA tests. Apart from the seven major
MANOVA tests that breakdown the interaction effect of the Within-
Subjects independent variable (Stem) and the Between-Subjects
independent variable (Discipline) on the dependent variable (Srep), there
are five supplementary MANOVA tests that further clarify the interaction
effect. As it shall be seen very shortly, for each of the hypotheses tested
with the MANOVA follow-up for specification of the interaction effect of
Stem, the Within-Subjects factor, and Discipline, the Between-Subjects
factor, (i.e., the Stem*Discipline effect) on Srep (Staff Recruitment
Exercise Performance), the computed F is actually significant at as low as
.0005 alpha because the Sig of F in each of the tests is .000, read as less
than .0005. Bear in mind that the “Sig of F” in the MANOVA follow-up
output is the probability level (i.e., the p value) at which the specific result
(F) is statistically significant.

Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(1)’ Within-Subject

Effect
Null hypothesis i: There is no significant mean difference across all the
levels of the Between-Subjects factor (Discipline) (MBBS, Agric and MS)
for Science level of Stem (the Within-Subjects factor).
Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(1)’ Within-Subject Effect table
of the MANOVA output was used for this purpose. The
WITHIN+RESIDUAL has 12555.00 Sum of Squares (SS), 57 degrees of
freedom (DF) and 220.26 Mean Square (MS) for WITHIN+RESIDUAL
which is the Error term in MANOVA and serves as the denominator for F.
The table has also shown 100041.67 SS, 1 DF, 100041.67 MS, 454.19 F,
and .000 Sig of F for MWITHIN STEM(1) but this particular row of the
results only needs to be ignored or disregarded because it merely test the
null hypothesis that the mean is not greater than zero; which obviously, is
greater than zero significantly. Of core importance in the MANOVA results
is the Discipline BY MWITHIN STEM(1) row that has 6503.33 SS, 2 DF,

723
3251.67 MS, 14.76 F, and .000 Sig of F (read as less than .0005). The F of
14.76 is arrived at by dividing the MS Effect (i.e., for Discipline BY
MWITHIN STEM(1)) which is 3251.67 by the MS Error (i.e., for
WITHIN+RESIDUAL) which is 220.26. In equation form, the F is as
earlier given in Equation 10:1, but just note that the MS Effect which is the
denominator is made up of the WITHIN+RESIDUAL.

The Sig of F (.000) is less than the chosen .05 alpha. Therefore, the null
hypothesis of no significant mean difference across all the levels of the
Between-Subjects factor (Discipline) (MBBS, Agric and MS) for Science
level of Stem (the Within-Subjects factor) is rejected [F(2, 57) = 14.76, p
< .05].

Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(2)’ Within-Subject

Effect
Null hypothesis ii: There is no significant mean difference across the three
levels of Discipline (the Between-Subjects factor) for the Technology level
of Stem (the Within-Subjects factor).
Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(2)’ Within-Subject Effect table of
the MANOVA output tested this null hypothesis. The results show that
WITHIN+REDSIDUAL (i.e., the Error term) has 8975.00 SS, 57 DF, and
157.46 MS. MWITHIN STEM(2) that should be ignored has 96801.67 SS,
1 DF, 96801.67 MS, 614.78 F, and .000 Sig of F. Discipline BY MWITHIN
STEM(2) that is the core issue under investigation has 2723.33 SS, 2 DF,
1361.67 MS, 8.65 F, and .001 Sig of F. Since the Sig of F (.001) is less that
the chosen alpha of .05, the null hypothesis is rejected [F (2, 57) = 8.65, p <
.05].

Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(3)’ Within-Subject

Effect

724
Null hypothesis iii: There is no significant mean difference across the three
levels of Discipline (MBBS, Agric, MS) for the Engineering level of Stem.
Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(3)’ Within-Subject Effect table of the
MANOVA results tested this null hypothesis.
The results show that the WITHIN+RESIDUAL (the Error term) has
11515.00 SS, 57 DF, and 202.02 MS. The MWITHIN STEM(3) has
118815.00 SS, 1 DF, 118815.00 MS, 588.14 F and .000 Sig of F. Crucially,
the Discipline BY MWITHIN STEM(3) has SS of 11370.00, DF of 2, MS
of 5685.00, F of 28.14, and .000 Sig of F. The Sig of F is lower than the
chosen alpha of .05. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant mean
difference across the three levels of Discipline (MBBS, Agric, and MS) for
the Engineering level of Stem is rejected [F(2, 57) = 28.14, p < .05].

Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(4)’ Within-Subject

Effect
Null hypothesis iv: There is no significant mean difference across the three
levels of Discipline for the Math level of STEM. This null hypothesis is
tested with the Tests involving ‘MWITHIN STEM(4)’ Within-Subject
Effect table of the MANOVA output.
It shows that WITHIN+RESIDUAL has 9395.00 SS, 57 DF, and 164.82
MS. MWITHIN STEM(4) has 103335.00 SS, 1 DF, 103335.00 MS, 626.94
F and .000 Sig of F, but this row has to be ignored. Discipline BY
MWTHIN STEM(4) that is the concern of the investigation has SS of
9970,00, DF of 2, MS of 4985.00, F of 30.24, and .000 Sig of F. The Sig of
F is smaller than .05 chosen alpha. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected
[F(2, 57) = 30.24, p < .05].
The second dimension of the MANOVA tests have revealed whether the
interaction between each level of the Between-Subjects factor (Discipline)
with all the four levels of the Within-Subjects factor (Stem) is significant
statistically. Whenever at least one of the interactions of all the STEM
levels with each Discipline level is greater statistically than one or more of
the others within the subsection of comparison, the MANOVA yielded a
significant result. Aptly, the second dimension of MANOVA tests have
exposed whether a significant mean difference exists across all the Within-
Subjects factor (Stem) levels for each level of the Between-Subjects factor
(Discipline) as shown in the next three null hypotheses testing.

725
Tests involving ‘STEM’ Within-Subject Effect
Null hypothesis v: There is no significant mean difference across the four
levels of the Within-Subjects factor (Stem) for MBBS level of Discipline
(the Between-Subjects factor).
The last MANOVA table in the Output 10.1, titled Tests involving
‘STEM’ Within-Subject Effect, provides the information for testing this
null hypothesis as well as for testing the next two null hypotheses. The table
shows that WITHIN+RESIDUAL has 12027.50 SS, 171 DF, and 70.34 MS.
MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(1) BY STEM has 7145.00 SS, 3 DF, 2381.67
MS, 33.86 F, and .000 Sig of F. The Sig of F is less than the .05 chosen
alpha level. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected [F(3, 171) = 33.86, p
< .05].

Tests involving ‘STEM’ Within-Subject Effect

Null hypothesis vi: There is no significant mean difference across the four
levels of STEM (the Within-Subjects factor) for Agric level of Discipline
(the Between-Subjects factor).
The requisite MANOVA table, Tests involving ‘STEM’ Within-Subject
Effect, for testing this null hypothesis has shown that
WITHIN+RESIDUAL has 12027.50 SS, 171 DF, and 70.34 MS. The
MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(2) BY STEM has 8913.75 SS, 3 DF, 2971.25
MS, 42.24 F, and .000 Sig of F. Since the Sig of F is lower than the chosen
.05 alpha level at the appropriate degrees of freedom, the null hypothesis is
rejected: [F(3, 171) = 42.24, p < .05].

Tests involving ‘STEM’ Within-Subject Effect

Null hypothesis vii: There is no significant mean difference across all the
four levels of the Within-Subjects factor (Stem) for the MS level of
Discipline (the Between-Subjects factor).
The last MANOVA table, Tests involving ‘STEM’ Within-Subject
Effect, that is meant for testing this null hypothesis has shown that
WITHIN+RESIDUAL has 12027.50 SS, 171 DF, and 70.34 MS. The
MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(3) BY STEM has 13363.75 SS, 3 DF, 4454.58
MS, 63.33 F, and .000 Sig of F. The Sig of F is smaller than .05 chosen

726
alpha at the appropriate degrees of freedom. Therefore, the null hypothesis
is rejected [F(3, 171) = 63.33, p < .05].

Supplementary information that the MANOVA results have shown are

five tables, each of which is merely mentioned with a very brief comment.
The supplementary tests do not have to necessarily be reported in
interpreting the Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within) ANOVA.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

This table displays the SS, DF, MS, F and Sig of F for the
WITHIN+RESIDUAL, MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(1), MWITHIN
DISCIPLINE(2), and MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(3). These are the tests that
have to be ignored in reporting the Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within)
ANOVA because they merely test whether the mean for each level of
discipline is greater than zero. Indeed, each of the means is greater than
zero significantly.

Tests involving ‘STEM’ Within-Subject Effect

This table presents results of Mauchly sphericity with W of .92569; Chi-
square approx. of 4.30277, DF of 5, and Significance of .507. Since the
Significance (.507) is greater than .05, the null hypothesis of Sphericity
Assumed is retained. That is, sphericity is assumed; and therefore, the
alternative tests given in the table as Greenhouse-Geisser Epsilon = .94947,
Huynh-Feldt Epsilon = 1.00000, and Lower-bound Epsilon =.33333 do not
need to be used. This accounts for why there was no provision for any of
these alternative tests in the seven major follow-up hypotheses that have
been tested to unbundle the significant interaction effect that was shown
much earlier in the Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within) ANOVA output.

EFFECT .. MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(3) BY STEM

This table has presented the Sig of F, the Value, the Exact F and Hypoth.
DF for each of the four Multivariate tests (Pillais, Hotellings, Wilks and
Roys). Each of these four tests has 47.88031 Exact F that is significant
statistically (p < .05) as the Sig of F is .000 (read as less than .0005). The

727
four tests are used to show the interaction effect of Discipline(3) which is
Management Science (MS) BY Stem intensive training on the Staff
Recruitment Exercise Performance (Srep).

EFFECT .. MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(2) BY STEM

This table, like the one just before it, has shown the Sig of F, the Value,
Exact F and Hypoth. DF for each of the four Multivariate tests (Pillais,
Hotellings, Wilks and Roys). Each of these four tests has 35.81091 Exact F
that is significant statistically (p < .0005). The four tests are used to show
the interaction effect of Discipline(2) which is Agric BY Stem intensive
training on the Staff Recruitment Exercise Performance (Srep).

EFFECT .. MWITHIN DISCIPLINE(1) BY STEM

Lastly, this table has shown the Sig of F, the Value, Exact F and Hypoth.
DF for each of the four Multivariate tests (Pillai’s, Hotelling’s, Wilk’s and
Roy’s). Each of these four tests has 29.65979 Exact F that is independently
significant (p < .0005). The four tests show the interaction effect of
Discipline(1) which is MBBS BY STEM intensive training on the Staff
Recruitment Exercise Performance (Srep).

SUMMARY OF THE TWO-WAY MIXED

(BETWEEN-WITHIN) ANOVA OUTPUT
A 3 by 4 Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within) Analysis of Variance was
executed on staff recruitment exercise performance (SREP), the dependent
variable, with Discipline (MBBS, Agric and MS) as the between-subjects
independent variable and STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Maths intensive training) as the within-subject independent variable. The
main effect of the Between-Subjects factor (Discipline) on Srep was not
significant: F(2, 57) = 1.689, p > .05, ɳp2 = .056. The main effect of the
Within-Subjects factor (Stem) on Srep was significant: F(3, 171) = 3.120,

728
p < .05, ɳp2 = .052 for Sphericity Assumed; and F(2.848, 162.4) = 3.120,
p < .05, ɳp2 = .052 for Greenhouse-Geisser. Pairwise comparison showed
significant Srep Mean Difference only between Engineering and
Technology in favour of Engineering: Mean Difference = 4.333, p < .05.
There was a significant interaction effect of Stem * Discipline on staff
recruitment exercise performance (Srep): F(6, 171) = 68.159, p < .05, ɳp2 =
.705 (an overwhelmingly large effect size) for Sphericity Assumed; and
F(5.697, 162.4) = 68.159, p < .05, ɳp2 = .705 (an overwhelmingly large
effect size) for Greenhouse-Geisser.
The MANOVA follow-up tests of the interaction effect of Stem *
Discipline on Srep has shown that:
1. The null hypothesis of no significant mean difference across all the
Between-Subjects factor (Discipline) levels (MBBS, Agric and MS)
for Science level of Stem (the Within-Subjects factor) is rejected
[F(2, 57) = 14.76, p < .05].
2. The null hypothesis of no significant mean difference across the three
levels of Discipline (the Between-Subjects factor) for the
Technology level of Stem (the Within-Subjects factor) is rejected
[F(2, 57) = 8.65, p < .05].
3. The null hypothesis of no significant mean difference across the three
levels of Discipline (MBBS, Agric, MS) for the Engineering level of
Stem is rejected [F(2, 57) = 28.14, p < .05].
4. The null hypothesis of no significant mean difference across the three
levels of Discipline (MBBS, Agric, MS) for the Engineering level of
Stem is rejected [F(2, 57) = 30.24, p < .05].
5. The null hypothesis of no significant mean difference across the four
levels of the Within-Subjects factor (Stem) for MBBS level of
Discipline (the Between-Subjects factor) is rejected [F(3, 171) =
33.86, p < .05].
6. The null hypothesis of no significant mean difference across all the
four levels of the Within-Subjects factor (Stem) for the Agric level
of Discipline (the Between-Subjects factor) is rejected [F(3, 171) =
42.24, p < .05].
7. The null hypothesis of no significant mean difference across all the
four levels of the Within-Subjects factor (Stem) for the MS level of

729
 Discipline (the Between-Subjects factor) is rejected [F(3, 171) =
63.33, p < .05].

Step 6. Scroll up, down, left and right to view the output again in relation to
the interpretation offered for each of the tables.

Step 7. Save the output. Move cursor to the Toolbar and click the Save this
document icon to have the Save Output As dialog box. Type a
suitable name, Chapter 10 Output 1.spv, in the File name box (see Figure
10.33) and click Save to get the output securely saved for subsequent use or
reference whenever the need arises.

Figure 10.33 Save Output As… Chapter 10 Output 1.spv

Activate the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor containing the

MANOVA follow-up syntax commands. Click the Save the document tool
in the Toolbar to have Save Syntax As dialog box. In the File name box,
enter the name (Chapter 10 Syntax 1.sps) as shown in Figure 10.34 and
click Save.

730
 Figure 10.34 Save Syntax As… Chapter 10 Syntax 1.sps

May I emphasize that a Syntax file can only be saved in and retrieved
from the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor window; an Output
document can only be saved in and retrieved from the IBM SPSS Statistics
Viewer window. In like manner, a Data file can only be saved in and
retrieved from the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor.

Step 8. Print the output and the data files. Click the Print icon in the
Toolbar for Print dialog box to open. Ensure that All visible output is
checked, and click OK. With this click, one copy of the output gets printed.
Activate the IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor containing the data, and
click the Print tool in the Toolbar, and click OK for a copy of the data to
also be printed. Similar actions can be taken to get a copy of the Syntax
printed after activation of the SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor that contains
the syntax in question. For more copies of the Output, Data or Syntax,
simple replication of the Print action up to the needed number suffices.

731
Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing each of the SPSS window that
is open on the screen.

Step 10. Shut down the system by clicking Start Power Shut down.

SPSS SYNTAX FOR TWO-WAY MIXED

(BETWEEN-WITHIN) ANOVA
Execution of Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within) ANOVA could more
easily be done with application of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax. All that
matter is correct entry of the Syntax, ensuring that the names of the
Between and Within variables, their labels, categories and levels are
correctly used to replace the ones given in this example. The Syntax for
performing the Two-Way Mixed (Between-Within) ANOVA can be seen in
Syntax 10.2.

Syntax 10.2 Chapter 10 Syntax 2.sps

732
 The Syntax given here is made up of the main Two-Way Mixed
(Between-Within) ANOVA syntax and the MANOVA syntax for follow-up
tests when the Between factor and Within factor interaction effect is
significant statistically.

733
 ‘Seeing’ is believing. ‘Doing’ is knowing. There is no better way to
learn than by doing. There is no better way to prove that you have known
than by doing that which you have learnt for others to see, believe and be
convinced. What you have done is the greatest evidence that learning has
taken place. Needless much comments. So, let the analysis commence and
continue to most successful completion.
Switch on the computer

Start IBM SPSS Statistics

Retrieve the data saved earlier as Chapter 10 Table 1 Data.sav:-

[File Open Data Chapter 10 Table 1 Data.sav
Open]

Window

Go to Designated Syntax Window

Correctly enter the Syntax 10.2 in the Syntax Editor thus.

734
 Run

All

Output 10.2 Chapter 10 Output 2.spv

735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
RESULTS OF MANOVA FOR FOLLOW-UP TESTS

743
744
745
746
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 10.2 – EFFECTS
OF STEM AND DISCIPLINE
The Output 10.2 is as extensive as Output 10.1 with 28 sections that are
made up of 17 tables and 1 graph for the Two-Way Mixed (Between-
Within) ANOVA, and 10 sections for double MANOVA follow-up tests of
the significant interaction effect of the Between-Subject factor and the
Within-Subject factor on the dependent variable SREP. Again, not all the 28
sections that are necessarily required for reporting the findings. Carefully
compare the Output 10.1, when SPSS dialog boxes selection method was
used, with the Output 10.2, when the analysis was executed with SPSS
Syntax technique, to confirm that the outputs are exactly equivalent. The
interpretation offered for Output 10.1 depicts exactly how Output 10.2
should be interpreted. So, write out an interpretation of Output 10.2 in line
with the model that is provided for Output 10.1.
Adhere to the remaining protocols of data analysis with IBM SPSS
Statistics to eventually shut down the system.
View output

Save the output as Chapter 10 Output 2.spv

Save the Syntax as Chapter 10 Syntax 2.sps

747
Print the output and the syntax

Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system.

748
 Chapter 11
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE

Overview
Analysis of Covariance, abbreviated as ANCOVA, is an extraordinarily
powerful inferential test for analysing data from an experimental
investigation to absolutely establish a cause-and-effect relationship, if it
does exist, between the manipulated independent variable and the
dependent variable when the influence of one or more covariates is
completely eliminated statistically. A covariate is an extraneous variable
that highly correlates with the dependent variable, and its influence, if not
held constant with ANCOVA, could easily be mistaken for the effect of the
manipulated independent variable on the dependent variable. This chapter
examines the uses of ANCOVA and the assumptions that underlie it; and
pragmatically demonstrates the execution of ANCOVA with IBM SPSS
Statistics syntax and dialog boxes point and click methods. With 53
illustrative SPSS screenshots and an excellent point-by-point easy to use
guide, every user (be it a total beginner or an experienced one) is sure to
attain expert knowledge in personal application of IBM SPSS Statistics in
performing ANCOVA, and in exceptional interpretation and reporting of the
results. ANOVA as a follow-up test for comparison of the F with that of the
ANCOVA is as well presented. Effect of lumosity training schedule on
recall of nonsense syllables, and lumosity training schedule effect on
intelligence quotient are used for exemplification.

Keywords: Analysis of covariance, ANCOVA assumptions,

ANCOVA uses, research questions, null hypotheses, ANCOVA
SPSS syntax, Dialog boxes point and click, Tests of between-
subjects effects, Effect size, Pairwise comparisons, Follow-up
test, Lumosity training schedule, Nonsense syllables, Intelligence

749
 quotient, Fluid intelligence, Interpretation of output, Summary of
output.

Analysis of Covariance, better known simply as ANCOVA, is a most

special statistical technique test for analysing experimental data in order to
completely eliminate, hold constant or control for the effect of at least one
extraneous variable that correlates highly with the dependent variable for
unambiguous establishment of the effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable. Covariate is the term for the extraneous, nuisance,
confounding or concomitant variable whose effect is eliminated or partialed
out in ANCOVA. Analysis of Covariance, ANCOVA, is an extremely
useful extension of analysis of variance for adjustment of the dependent
variable to eliminate the effect of a rightly suspected covariate from
confounding the experimental outcome. ANCOVA adjusts the dependent
variable for the covariate by removing the entire portion of the variation in
the dependent variable that is not completely attributable to the
manipulation of the independent variable (i.e., the experimental treatment
effect).
ANCOVA is employed for analysis of data in experimental studies to
absolutely determine cause-and-effect relationships, where they exist,
between the manipulated independent variable and one dependent variable.
With ANCOVA, Deterministic Covariation (not Probabilistic Covariation)
is established between the independent variable and the dependent variable
in an investigation. Deterministic Covariation is when manipulation of
only one dependent variable produces observed effect of significant
magnitude in the dependent variable. ANCOVA guarantees Deterministic
Covariation by making the independent variable to become a necessary and
sufficient condition for the observed effect in the dependent variable.
Covariation of events that is a compulsory requirement for the making of
correct cause-and-effect inference between an independent variable and a
dependent variable in an experiment can best be ensured statistically with
application of ANCOVA. Analysis of Covariance ensures that the
independent and the dependent variables in an investigation covary such
that changes in the independent variable directly result in changes in the
dependent variable in an unambiguous manner. The independent variable
and the dependent variable in a study are said to covary only when an
increase in the value of the former is directly accompanied with

750
corresponding change either positively or negatively, in the latter. The most
straightforward approach for determination of causation (cause-and-effect
relationship) between two variables is application of the ANCOVA that
completely eliminates the effects of the covariates from the dependent
variable.
The opposite of Deterministic Covariation is Probabilistic Covariation.
Probabilistic Covariation is when the effect in the dependent variable is a
function of simultaneous manipulation of two or more independent
variables. In the case of probabilistic covariation, none of the two or more
independent variables can by itself alone be a necessary and sufficient cause
of the dependent variable; though all the independent variables are
collectively necessary for producing effect on the dependent variable
(Kpolovie, 2016; 2010). In other words, Probabilistic Covariation refers to a
causal relationship in which manipulation of each of the independent
variables increases the probability of change in the dependent variable, but
does not invariably produce the change. In probabilistic covariation, Two-
Way ANCOVA, Two-Way ANOVA, Three-Way ANOVA and or
Multiple regression is adopted for determination of causation or cause-
and-effect relationships between the independent variables and the
dependent variable. Where manipulation of one or more independent
variable(s) cause changes in two or more dependent variables, Multivariate
Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) is the suitable statistical tests to use.
Aptly put, the ANCOVA statistical test is adopted in investigation to
statistically control for factors that were not or cannot be controlled for
methodologically by methods such as random assignment or randomization.
Such factors may include sequencing or carry-over effect due to pre-test,
and some variables that definitely have linear relationships with the
dependent variable. Whenever there is probable evidence that a factor or
factors that cannot be controlled for methodologically might have an effect
on the dependent variable, ANCOVA should be used in the data analysis to
statistically control for, eliminate, hold constant, or covary such factor(s).
With the effect of the covariate adjusted for (held constant or partialed
out), the results of ANCOVA are interpreted in a manner that is similar to
that of any other analysis of variance. The only exception is that with
analysis of covariance, the adjusted means of the various groups instead of
the ordinary means are used. Adjusted means are the means of the various
groups after the effect of the covariate on them has been partialed out or

751
removed. There are five major situations that call for application of
ANCOVA. And the assumptions of ANCOVA are similar to those of other
parametric inferential statistics, and particularly to those of ANOVA.

USES OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE

According to Kpolovie (2018), there are five main situations in which
analysis of covariance is necessarily used for analyzing research data,
namely:
Determination of change
Elimination of the effect of nuisance variables
Reduction of the error term
Adjustment of the group means
Use of randomization

Determination of change
The first major situation for use of analysis of covariance is when the
investigation is aimed at determination of change that has taken place as a
result of the introduction of experimental treatment between the pretest and
the posttest. Here, the pretest measure is taken and treated as the covariate.

Elimination of nuisance variables effects

The second major use of ANCOVA is when the investigation is aimed at
elimination of the effect(s) of at least one nuisance or extraneous variable
from the experiment. The extraneous variable is identified and incorporated
to the study and measured validly and reliably like the dependent variable.
In the analysis of data generated with each subject having two scores, one
on the dependent variable and the other on the nuisance variable; the
extraneous variable is then treated as the covariate for its effect to be held
constant on or partialed out from the dependent variable. In both the first
and second situations, with the effects of the covariate adjusted for,
controlled, held constant, partialed out or eliminated; only the effect of the
independent variable (i.e., the main grouping variable) is examined on the
dependent variable.

752
ANCOVA reduces the error term
Analysis of covariance reduces the error term in ANOVA. The error term in
ANOVA which is decreased with the use of analysis of covariance is the
denominator that is also known as within group mean squares (MSWithin) or
mean square error (MSError). The smaller or lower the denominator, the
greater the probability of the calculated F to be statistically significant.
Analysis of covariance is able to reduce the error term because it adjusts for
(partials out) the effect of extraneous variables on the dependent variable.
The reduction of the error term accounts for why some times when data on
the dependent variable are analyzed with ANOVA, the difference is not
statistically significant; but when subjected to ANCOVA, significant
difference is found among the various groups that constitute the
independent variable. In other words, ANCOVA takes the portion of the
variance in the dependent variable that is not attributable to the independent
variable and removes it from the error term of an ordinary ANOVA. With
this adjustment, the subjects’ scores no longer vary because of the
covariate, and the remaining variance in the dependent variable is
accurately accounted for by only the independent variable, and can
therefore more easily attain statistical significance.

ANCOVA adjusts the group means

In every investigation that requires analysis of covariance for testing the
null hypothesis, the nuisance or confounding variable known as covariate
almost always influence or affect the mean differences among the various
groups on the dependent variable either negatively or positively. When the
covariate contributes to increase the mean differences on the dependent
variable among the various groups, it is said to be an unwanted positive
influence. Conversely, when the effect of the covariate reduces the mean
difference among the groups on the dependent variable, it is said to be an
unwanted negative influence. From the way that the influence of
extraneous variable or the covariate on the mean differences among the
dependent variable is described (‘unwanted positive’ or ‘unwanted
negative’), it is clear that no influence of the covariate in any form is
needed in the experiment.
It is only analysis of covariance that ensures that contributions of
covariates to the mean differences on the dependent variable among the

753
various groups is adjusted for, removed or partialed out to remain only the
mean differences that are totally attributable to the manipulation of the
independent variable. That is, one of the primary reasons for execution of
ANCOVA is to ascertain the true group differences on the dependent
variable that is purely due to the effect of only the independent variable
without any contribution of any confounding variable.
Analysis of covariance adjusts the group means on the dependent
variable downward where the covariate had unwanted positive influence. In
situations that the covariate had unwanted negative influence on the group
means, ANCOVA adjusts the mean differences upward to ensure that only
the effect of the independent variable determines the group means on the
dependent variable. Such adjustment of group means on the dependent
variable culminate in the increment of differences between group means
that is due to the independent variable alone and reduces the error term by
removing variance that is attributable to the covariate.

ANCOVA uses randomization

Elimination of the contribution of confounding or nuisance variables on the
dependent variable with regard to the independent variable is also the
reason that random sampling and randomization of subjects into the various
groups in the experiment is a crucially essential condition for analysis of
covariance to be done correctly. Use of intact groups is not recommended
for application of ANCOVA because intact groups increase possibility of
larger differences in the covariates that might confound results of the
investigation. Howell (2002; 2013; 2016) has therefore emphasized that for
making of causal statement about relationship between variables and for
data interpretation in research, effective randomization is of indispensable
value. Random assignment of both subjects and treatment conditions must
be done to ensure that the experimental and control groups do not differ
greatly from the onset of the experimentation.
It should be recalled that randomization is the best method for
elimination of confounding variables; and it is one of the three conditions
(covariation of events, time-order relationship, and elimination of
extraneous variables) necessarily demanded for establishment of cause-and-
effect relationship between variables (Kpolovie, 2016; 2010). An
experiment in which subjects are assigned randomly to the treatment

754
conditions is the ideal situation for application of analysis of covariance.
With effective random assignment of subjects into groups, the magnitude of
the covariate means for the different groups are equal; and any difference
between the groups, supposing the covariate was measured before the
treatments were applied, can only be due to chance occurrence. It is under
this condition that analysis of covariance best reduces the error term and
eliminates every bias in the means of the dependent variable by changing
group differences in the covariate to ensue true causation by the
independent variable alone.
With random assignment of subjects, analysis of covariance ensures that
any differences that exist on the pre-test are to be attributed to chance, and
the experimental and control groups will have equal means on the post-test
in the absence of a real treatment effect. Any difference in the post-test
must have been caused exclusively by the manipulation of the independent
variable.

ASSUMPTIONS THAT UNDERLIE ANCOVA

The three assumptions of ANOVA (normal distribution of the population,
independence of observation and homoscedasticity of variance) are also
applicable to analysis of covariance. There are three additional assumptions
that underlie analysis of covariance as follows.

Valid and reliable measurement of the covariate

The covariate in an ANCOVA, like the dependent variable, must be validly
and reliably measured without error or bias. The power of an ANCOVA
largely depends on the accuracy with which the covariate is measured. The
more the random error in the covariate; the greater the tendency for the
various groups to differ or vary on the dependent variable. Consistent group
difference on the covariate leads to serious bias in the results of the
dependent variable. The smaller the validity and reliability in the
measurement of the covariate, the greater the error term in ANCOVA, the
smaller the correlation between the covariate and the dependent variable,
and the smaller the F-ratio to be obtained; leading to lower probability for

755
the calculated ANCOVA F to be significant statistically (Field, 2013;
Cohen, 2008).

Linearity of the dependent variable and covariate

relationship
Analysis of covariance is anchored on the assumption that a high linear
correlation exists between the dependent variable and the covariate. It is
only with such relationship that the adjustment for differences in the group
means as well as the adjustment of the dependent variable for the effect of
the covariate which ANCOVA typically does, will yield optimally accurate
results. As a matter of fact, a variable that does not correlate highly with the
dependent variable cannot be and should never be included in an
experiment as the covariate. As the term for the nuisance variable implies,
covariate; it must covary highly with the dependent variable so that its
removal, adjustment for or partialed out statistically; will not be a mere
unnecessary time and effort wastage. Nothing, technically speaking, will be
gained by studying a variable that does not correlate well or does not highly
covary with the dependent variable as the covariate in an experiment.
Furthermore, if the relationship between the dependent variable and the
covariate in an experiment is curvilinear, application of ANCOVA in the
data analysis could only produce misleading results.

Homogeneity of regression
Homoscedasticity of regression is a very important assumption of
ANCOVA that the regression coefficients or slopes of the various groups
are all equal in the population. The assumption denotes that the correlation
between the covariate and the dependent variable is the same in each of the
groups when the variance of the dependent variable and the covariate are
the same or equal for all groups. This assumption also implies that there is
no interaction or at least no significant interaction between the covariate
and the independent variable because interaction can obscure or confound
the main effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Just
as homogeneity of variance is necessary for analysis of covariance, so is
homogeneity of the regression slopes or coefficients in the population.

756
EFFECT OF LUMOSITY TRAINING SCHEDULE
ON RECALL OF NONSENSE SYLLABLES
Kpolovie (2011) investigated the effects of Lumosity Training and Brain-
Boosting Food on learning. Findings indicated that training the brain with
Lumosity exercises or games significantly improved learning as the two
experimental groups that received lumosity training twice a day
significantly demonstrated learning more than the two groups that received
brain-boosting food/supplements which in turn, learned significantly better
than the two control groups in the study. As a follow-up, Kpolovie (2018)
studied the effect of Lumosity Training Schedule on the recall of nonsense
syllables. A random sample of 150 Tenth Grade students, each aged 15
years, was drawn for the investigation. They were randomized into five
groups that were randomly assigned different schedule of Lumosity
Training as experimental conditions. Each of the five groups had 30
students. The Lumosity Training Schedule for the groups were as follows:
Group 1 00 minute of lumosity training per day
Group 2 06 minutes of lumosity training per day
Group 3 12 minutes of lumosity training per day
Group 4 18 minutes of lumosity training per day
Group 5 24 minutes of lumosity training per day.

Before the commencement of the experimental training, which was the

first day, they were presented with a list of 200 nonsense syllables on a
projector screen for 20 minutes. After which the list was removed. Then,
they were given a valid and reliable test that required them to individually
recall the nonsense syllables as much as possible and write them out clearly
on their answer scripts. The test lasted for 30 minutes. Each subject’s
number of correct recalls of the nonsense syllables was recorded as the
person’s pre-treatment test (pre-test, in short) score.
Then for the next 60 days, while group 2 received 06 minutes lumosity
training each day; group 3 received 12 minutes lumosity training daily;
group 4 received 18 minutes lumosity training per day; and group 5 did
lumosity training for 24 minutes each day. In each case, the training began
in the morning at 6.30am before their breakfast at 7.30am. Subjects in
group 1, the control group, were not exposed to the lumosity training. The
experimental treatment lasted for as long as 60 days that was judged long

757
enough for the training to cause some changes in the subjects, if at all
lumosity training could positively or negatively affect the subjects’ memory
or recall ability; and the 60-day period was long enough for the subjects to
have forgotten the nonsense syllables as well as the pre-test that they took.
This measure was to reduce possibility of carry-over and test-wise effects.
After the last day of the experimental exposition, the entire 150 subjects
were presented the same 200 nonsense syllables for 20 minutes after which
the nonsense syllables were removed. Then, the same test on the nonsense
syllables that required the subjects to recall and write out as much of the
nonsense syllables as possible was administered to them. At the end of 30
minutes that the test lasted, the number of correct responses made by each
of the subjects was recorded as his/her post-treatment test (post-test) score.
The data collected for that investigation are used in this chapter as shown in
Table 11.1 to illustrate execution of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA).

Table 11.1 Chapter 11 Table 1 Data.sav – Effect of Lumosity Training

schedule on recall of nonsense syllables

758
759
760
 * Nonsense syllables pre-test = NSPre
Nonsense syllables post-test = NSPost
Lumosity training schedule = LumosityTS (1 = 00minpd; 2 = 06minpd;
3 = 12minpd; 4 = 18minpd; 5 = 24minpd).

Research questions
Eleven (11) research questions (1 omnibus and 10 pairwise) were answered
at the end of the study with respect to the effect of Lumosity training
Schedule on recall of nonsense syllables when the Pre-test effect is
covaried:
1. What is the effect of Lumosity training schedule on the subjects’
recall of nonsense syllables when the influence of the pre-treatment
test has been covaried out as measured by their means and standard
deviations?
In other words, the omnibus research question is – do the five groups
differ in their means and standard deviations on the recall of

761
 nonsense syllables when the influence of the Pre-test has been held
constant (controlled for)?
2. What is the difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those
who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those
who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) when
the Pre-test is covaried?
3. What is the difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those
who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those
who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) when
the Pre-test is covaried?
4. What is the difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those
who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those
who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) when
the Pre-test is covaried?
5. What is the difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those
who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those
who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when
the Pre-test is covaried?
6. What is the difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those
who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) and
those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd)
when the Pre-test is covaried?
7. What is the difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those
who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) and
those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd)
when the Pre-test is covaried?
8. What is the difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those
who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) and
those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd)
when the Pre-test is covaried?
9. What is the difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those
who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) and
those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd)
when the Pre-test is covaried?
10. What is the difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those
who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) and

762
 those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd)
when the Pre-test is covaried?
11. What is the difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those
who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) and
those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd)
when the Pre-test is covaried?

Alternate Hypotheses
Eleven alternate hypotheses (1 omnibus and 10 pairwise) were postulated in
the study as follows:
1. There is a significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on the
recall of nonsense syllables when the pre-treatment test (Pre-test)
influence has been covaried (held constant or controlled for).
2. There is a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables
by those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd)
and those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day
(06minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
3. There is a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables
by those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd)
and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day
(12minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
4. There is a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables
by those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd)
and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day
(18minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
5. There is a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables
by those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd)
and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day
(24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
6. There is a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables
by those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day
(06minpd) and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per
day (12minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
7. There is a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables
by those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day

763
 (06minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per
day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
8. There is a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables
by those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day
(06minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per
day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
9. There is a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables
by those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day
(12minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per
day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
10. There is a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables
by those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day
(12minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per
day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
11. There is a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables
by those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day
(18minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per
day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.

Null Hypotheses
Similarly, eleven corresponding null hypotheses (1 omnibus and 10
pairwise) were postulated and tested at .05 in the study (Kpolovie, 2018) as
follows:
1. There is no significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on recall
of nonsense syllables when the Pre-treatment test (Pre-test) influence
has been covaried (held constant or controlled for).
2. No significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by
those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd)
when the Pre-test is covaried.
3. No significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by
those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and
those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd)
when the Pre-test is covaried.
4. No significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by
those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and

764
 those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd)
when the Pre-test is covaried.
5. No significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by
those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and
those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd)
when the Pre-test is covaried.
6. No significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd)
and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day
(12minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
7. No significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd)
and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day
(18minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
8. No significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd)
and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day
(24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
9. No significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by
those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd)
and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day
(18minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
10. No significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by
those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd)
and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day
(24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
11. No significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by
those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd)
and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day
(24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.

EXECUTION OF ANCOVA WITH SPSS DIALOG

BOXES SELECTION
Step 1. Boot the computer.

765
Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking its icon on the computer,
click for instance.

Step 3. Enter the data carefully and accurately in the IBM SPSS Statistics
Data Editor just as shown in Table 11.1 with each subject’s three scores
(NSPre, NSPost and Lumosity) in one row consistently. On completion of
the data entry, move cursor to and click Variable View at the extreme left
bottom of the Data View. With this click, the Variable View of the IBM
SPSS Statistics Data Editor appears. In the first row under Name column,
type NSPre where is currently bearing VAR00001. In the second row under
Name column, type NSPost in place of VAR00002. In the third row under
Name column, type Lumosity in place of VAR00003. In the first, second
and third rows under Label column, type NSPre-test, NSPost-test and
LumosityTS, respectively. Under Measure column, select Scale for the
first row and second row. Nominal should be selected for the third row as
the independent variable, Lumosity, is a grouping or categorical variable.
Under Values column, click the ellipsis (small dotted blue box) for
the third row to have its dialog box in which you specify the value and label
for each group, level or category of the Lumosity Training Schedule. In
the Value Labels dialog box as shown in Figure 11.1, type 1 in the Value
box and 00minpd in the Label box. Then click Add for the value label to
be added into the big box at the right of Add.

Table 11.1 Value Labels for 00minpd

766
 In the box for Value, type 2, and in the box for Label, type 06minpd as
shown in Figure 11.2. Then, click Add for this value label to be added into
the big box at the right of Add.

Table 11.2 Value Labels for 06minpd

Type 3 in the box for Value and 12minpd in the box for Label (see
Figure 11.3); and click Add for it to be added into the big box.

Table 11.3 Value Labels for 12minpd

767
 In the Value box, type 4. In the Label box, type 18minpd. After that,
click Add for this information to be added into the big box at the right of
, illustrated in Figure 11.4.

Table 11.4 Value Labels for 18minpd

Type 5 in the Value box and 24minpd in the Label box as illustrated in
Figure 11.5; and click Add. A click on the Add moves the value label into
the big box.

Table 11.5 Value Labels for 24minpd

768
 Now, all the levels of the independent variable, Lumosity, have been
entered and moved into the big box as shown in Figure 11.6.

Table 11.6 Value Labels with all entries completed

Click OK to return to the Variable View when all necessary naming and
specification of the variables have been done as illustrated in Figure 11.7.

Figure 11.7 Completed Variable View of Data Editor

To return to the Data View window of the IBM SPSS Statistics Data
Editor, move cursor to and click Data View at the extreme left bottom of
the Variable View. The Data View now has all the variables well labelled
as presented in Figure 11.8. The entire data as entered correctly and labelled
are ready for the analysis proper.

769
Figure 11.8 Data View completed

770
Figure 11.8 Continued

771
Figure 11.8 Continued

772
Figure 11.8 Continued

773
Figure 11.8 Continued

774
Figure 11.8 Continued

775
 Figure 11.8 Continued

Step 4: Save the data. Click File, and click Save As. Alternatively, click the
Save this document icon in the Toolbar to have the Save Data As
dialog box displayed. Type the document’s name (Chapter 11 Table 1
Data.sav) in the File name box as shown in Figure 11.9 and click Save to
proceed.

776
 Figure 11.9 Save Data As… Chapter 11 Table 1 Data.sav

Step 5: Analyze the data by clicking Analyze General Linear

Model Univariate as indicated in Figure 11.10.

Figure 11.10 Analyze General Linear Model Univariate

777
 On clicking the Univariate, its main dialog box appears as presented in
Figure 11.11. All the major ANCOVA statistical operations will be done in
or via the Univariate main dialog box. Do not get tired of returning back to
this main menu as you will be referred to it a number of times.

Figure 11.11 Univariate dialog box

Click and highlight NSPost-test and click the right-pointed arrow

that is directly facing Dependent Variable. Click and highlight NSPre-test
and move it to the Covariate(s) box by clicking the right-pointed arrow
that is pointing at it directly. Lastly, click and highlight LumosityTS
and move it to the Fixed Factor(s) box by clicking the right-pointed arrow
that is directly facing Fixed Factor(s) as exemplified in Figure 11.12.

778
 Figure 11.12 Univariate dialog box with variables moved to the right accordingly

Select MM Means pushbutton to have Univariate: Estimated

Marginal Means dialog box (see Figure 11.13) where much of the
statistical operations will be done.

Figure 11.13 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means

779
 Highlight Lumosity by clicking on it. Then, click the right-pointed
arrow that is facing Display Means for box so that it (Lumosity)
moves there as shown in Figure 11.14.

Figure 11.14 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means with Lumosity moved to Display
Means for box

Check the checkbox of Compare main effects as can be seen in Figure

11.15. The check activates Confidence interval adjustment.

780
Figure 11.15 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means with Compare main effects checked

Click the small downward-pointed black arrow to have its pulldown

menu in which you click or check Bonferroni that is not too liberal and not
too stringent for adjustment of the Confidence interval as shown is Figure
11.16.

Figure 11.16 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means with Bonferroni checked for
Confidence interval adjustment

Click Continue to return to the main Univariate dialog box. In it click

Options for its dialog box to appear as in Figure 11.17 in which you check
the checkbox of the specific statistical operations that you want the IBM
SPSS Statistics to perform.

781
 Figure 11.17 Univariate: Options

Check the checkbox for each of Descriptive statistics, Estimates of

effect size, and Homogeneity tests as shown in Figure 11.18.

782
 Figure 11.18 Univariate: Options with three statistical operations checked

Click Continue to return to Univariate main menu. In it, select Plots

pushbutton and Univariate: Profile Plots dialog box will appears as shown
in Figure 11.19.

783
 Figure 11.19 Univariate: Profile Plots

Lumosity is already highlighted. So, click the right-pointed arrow

that is facing Horizontal Axis for Lumosity (currently in Factors box) to
get moved into that Horizontal Axis box at the right as illustrated in
Figures 11.20 and 11.21. When the independent variable (Lumosity) enters
the Horizontal Axis box, it automatically activates the Add button
that is located near Plots.

784
 Figure 11.20 Univariate: Profile Plots with Lumosity moved to Horizontal Axis

Then click Add for the Lumosity to be added in the plots. On clicking
the , Lumosity disappears from the Horizontal Axis box and rather
appears in the large box just below Plots as shown in Figure 11.21.

785
 Figure 11.21 Univariate: Profile Plots with Lumosity Added

Click Continue to return to Univariate main dialog box when the entire
analysis has been done. Simply click OK in the Univariate main dialog box
and SPSS will rum the analysis and produce the output as presented in
Output 11.1.

SECTION B – ANOVA FOR COMPARISON OF THE

F WITH THAT OF ANCOVA

786
For the purpose of clarification comparison, just very quickly perform
normal ANOVA (i.e., One-Way ANOVA) for the Nonsense Syllables Pre-
Test (NSPre) and Nonsense Syllables Post-Test (NSPost) so that you can
observe whether for the same NSPost scores, the F values arrived at with
ANCOVA is exactly the same as the F values arrived at with ANOVA.
Note that doing this One-Way ANOVA is not necessary, and it is not part
of the ANCOVA. In fact, the One-Way ANOVA does not have to be
reported and interpreted with the ANCOVA output as ANCOVA is on its
own a totally sufficient and completely adequate statistical test. I am just
performing the One-Way ANOVA here to further illustrate that indeed,
ANCOVA reduces the Within-Groups Variance (the Mean Square Within)
that serves as the final denominator, and increases the F value.
Activate the data saved as Chapter 11 Table 1 Data.sav as in Figure
11.8. Click Analyze Compare Means One-Way ANOVA (see
Figure 11.22).

Figure 11.22 Analyze Compare Means One-Way ANOVA

On clicking the One-Way ANOVA, its dialog box appears as in Figure

11.23.

787
 Figure 11.23 One-Way ANOVA dialog box

Highlight NSPre-test [NSPre] and NSPost-test [NSPost] in the left box

and move them into the Dependent List field at the right by clicking the
right-pointed arrow facing the Dependent List box. Then, highlight
LumosityTS [Lumos…] in the left box and move it into the Factor panel
at the right, illustrated in Figure 11.24. Recall always that to move a
variable in the left box to the right box you simply click the specific right-
pointed arrow when the variable is highlighted.

Figure 11.24 One-Way ANOVA dialog box with variables moved to the right

788
 Click Options pushbutton to have the One-Way ANOVA: Options
dialog box as in Figure 11.25.

Figure 11.25 One-Way ANOVA: Options

Check the checkbox for Descriptive, Homogeneity of variance test and

Mean plot, demonstrated in Figure 11.26. Click Continue to return to the
main One-Way ANOVA menu.

Figure 11.26 One-Way ANOVA: Options with necessary operations checked

789
 Click Post Hoc pushbutton so that One-Way ANOVA: Post Hoc
Multiple Comparisons can also be done. The dialog box is shown in
Figure 11.27.

Figure 11.27 One-Way ANOVA: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons dialog box

Check Bonferroni (see Figure 11.28); and click Continue to return to

the One-Way ANOVA main menu. Finally, click OK to have the output as
shown in Section B of Output 11.1.

790
 Figure 11.28 One-Way ANOVA: Post Hoc with Bonferroni checked

Output 11.1 Chapter 11 Output 1.spv – Effect of

LumosityTS on recall

791
792
793
794
SECTION B OF OUTPUT 11.1 One-Way ANOVA

795
796
Means Plots

797
798
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 11.1 – EFFECT OF
LUMOSITY TRAINING SCHEDULE
There are 13 segments in the Output 11.1 (8 for the ANCOVA proper and 5
for the Section B ANOVA follow-up test) on the effect of Lumosity training
schedule on recall of nonsense syllables. They are the Univariate Between-
Subjects Factors, Descriptive Statistics, Levene’s Test of Equality of Error
Variances, Tests of Between-Subjects Effects, Estimated Marginal Means
for LumosityTS, Pairwise Comparisons, Univariate Tests, and Profile Plots.
Others are the Oneway Descriptives, Test of Homogeneity of Variances,
ANOVA, Post Hoc Tests of Multiple Comparisons with Bonferroni, and
Means Plots. Each of these segments of the Output 11.1 is lucidly
interpreted herein.

799
Univariate Analysis of Variance Between-Subjects
Factors
This table merely lists the Value Label (00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd,
18minpd and 24minpd) respectively for the five levels of LumosityTS
(1.00, 2.00, 3.00, 4.00 and 5.00). The N (number of cases) for each of the
five levels is 30.

Descriptive Statistics
The Descriptive Statistics table has presented the nonsense syllables post-
test (NSPost-test) Mean, Std. Deviation and N for each of the five levels of
LumosityTS. The table could serve as part of the answers to the research
questions. There is equal N of 30 for each level of the independent variable.
The recall of nonsense syllables has a Mean and Std. Deviation respectively
of 30.0000 and 4.82808 for 00minpd, 35.2667 and 5.07144 for 06minpd,
43.6000 and 5.64831 for 12minpd, 51.0667 and 5.18575 for 18minpd, and
54.1000 and 4.38925 for 24minpd. In all, the NSPost-test mean ranges from
30.0000 for 00minpd LumosityTS to 54.1000 for 24minpd LumosityTS.
The Total has 150 N, 42.8067 Mean and 10.42821 Std. Deviation.

Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances

This table has indicated that the assumption of equality of error variances is
met (not violated) because the F of 1.436 has .225 Sig. that is greater than
the chosen .05 alpha. In other words, the null hypothesis that the error
variances are significantly equal across the five groups is retained. That is,
the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances that the null hypothesis
that the error variances of the dependent variable are equal across the
groups (the five levels of LumosityTS) is sustained. Thus, meeting the
important requirement for ANCOVA test. The Levene’s Test of Equality of
Error Variances was based on “Intercept + NSPre + Lumosity” design.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

The Tests of Between-Subjects Effects table presents the core results of the
ANCOVA statistical test for rejection or otherwise of the tenability of the
omnibus null hypothesis. The main concern of the investigation which is

800
summarised in this ANCOVA table is whether the five levels or treatment
conditions of Lumosity training schedule (LumosityTS) produce
significantly different scores on the dependent variable (recall of nonsense
syllables at the post-test). Information in the row in the table for the
independent variable (Lumosity) takes adequate care of the main concern of
the investigation. The Lumosity row has shown 12489.509 Type III Sum of
Squares, 4 df, 3122.377 Mean Square, 126.725 F, .000 (read as less than
.0005) Sig., and .779 Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2). The .000 Sig. is less than
the classically chosen alpha level of .05. Therefore, the omnibus null
hypothesis which is the first null hypothesis of the experimental study that
“there is no significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on recall of
nonsense syllables when the Pre-treatment test (Pre-test) influence has been
covaried (held constant)” is rejected. Thus, the alternate hypothesis that
indeed “there is a significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on recall
of nonsense syllables when the Pre-treatment test (Pre-test) influence has
been covaried (held constant)” is sustained. In other words, there is
preponderance of overwhelming evidence that the five LumosityTS groups
(00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd, 18minpd, and 24minpd) significantly differ
in their means and standard deviations on the recall of nonsense syllables
after controlling for the effect of the Pre-test [F(4, 144) = 126.725, p < .05,
ƞp2 = .779, an overwhelmingly large effect size]. The Pairwise
Comparisons that will be discussed in a short while will reveal the specific
pairs of Lumosity training schedule that have statistically significant
difference.

EFFECT SIZE IN THE ANCOVA ON NONSENSE

SYLLABLES RECALL
Effect Size in ANCOVA, measured with Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2), is
computed as the Sum of Squares Effect (SSEffect) over the Sum of Squares
Effect plus Sum of Squares Error (SSError). The Effect is the actual
independent variable of interest, which is Lumosity in this investigation.
Therefore, the Sum of Squares Effect in the current example is indeed, the
Sum of Squares Lumosity (SSLumosity). From the Tests of Between-Subjects
Effects table of Output 11.1, it can be seen that the Sum of Squares

801
Lumosity is 12489.509. It can equally be discerned from the Tests of
Between-Subjects Effects table that the Sum of Squares Error is 3548.017.
Thus, while the numerator of the Partial Eta squared is the SSLumosity which
is 12489.509, the denominator of the Partial Eta Squared is the SSLumosity
plus SSError, which is 12489.509 plus 3548.017 that is equal to 16037.526.
Therefore, the Partial Eta Squared is simply 12489.509 ÷ 16037.526 that is
equal to .779 as shown in the Lumosity row of the last column of the Tests
of Between-Subjects Effects table.
Perhaps, you may prefer explanation of the Effect Size in ANCOVA that
is measured with Partial Eta Squared (ƞp2) in equation form as presented
thus in Equation 11:1.

Since the Sum of Squares Effect in this case is actually the Sum of
Squares Lumosity, the Equation 11:1 can accordingly be specifically
rewritten as in Equation 11:2.

The Sum of Squares Lumosity is 12489.509; and the Sum of Squares

Error is 3548.017. Therefore, replacing the symbols in the Equation 11:2
with their actual values for the effect of Lumosity training schedule on
Nonsense Syllables recall Post-Test (NSPost-test) when the Pre-test
Nonsense Syllable Pre-test (NSPre) is controlled for or eliminated, the
Partial Eta Squared becomes:

=
The Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) of .779 is a marvellously Large Effect Size
in line with Cohen (1988) classification. This Effect Size (Partial Eta
Squared) denotes that Lumosity training schedule accounts for
approximately 78% or specifically, 77.9%, of variance in the Post-test recall
of nonsense syllables (NSPost-test) when the influence of the nonsense
syllables Pre-test (NSPre-test) is removed, eliminated, or controlled for.
I have in previous chapters discussed that the determination of Effect
Size in ANOVA models is measured with Partial Eta Squired, and that the

802
Partial Eta Squired (ɳp2) is interpreted as:
.000 - .009 = Trivial Effect Size
.010 - .059 = Small Effect Size
.060 - .139 = Medium Effect Size
.140 and above = Large Effect Size.
Another important finding, though not really the concern of this study, is
contained in the row that presents results for the covariate, the Nonsense
Syllables Pre-test (NSPre); showing 137.617 Type III Sum of Squares, 1 df,
137.617 Mean Square, 5.585 F, .019 Sig., and .037 Partial Eta Squared.
This row specifies whether there is a significant association between the
dependent variable, recall of nonsense syllables post-treatment test scores
(NSPost-test) and the covariate, recall of nonsense syllable pre-treatment
test scores (NSPre-test) when the effect of the independent variable
Lumosity training schedule (LumosityTS) is statistically controlled. The
Sig. for the covariate is .019 that is smaller than the .05 alpha; therefore,
association between the dependent variable and the covariate is statistically
significant when Lumosity training schedule is held under control. This also
implies that if the NSPre-test (Nonsense Syllables Pretest) were not
statistically eliminated, held constant or covaried out, it could have
significantly influenced the findings of the study (the pure effect of NSPost-
test on the dependent variable, recall of nonsense syllables).
In all, the Tests of Between-Subjects Effects has presented the Type III
Sum of Squares, df, Mean Square, F, Sig., and Partial Eta Squared (each of
these serving as a column) for each of the sources of variation, namely:
Corrected Model, Intercept, NSPre, and Lumosity. The F for each of these
sources is significant as the Sig. for it is lower than the .05 classical level of
significance. The table has equally displayed the Type III Sum of Squares
(SSTIII), df, and Mean Square for Error to be 3548.017, 144 and 24.639,
respectively. While the Total has 291065.000 SSTIII and 150 df, the
Corrected Total has 16203.393 SSTIII and 149 df, respectively.

Estimated Marginal Means for LumosityTS NSPost-

test
This table is very useful as it presents information for partly answering the
research questions. Furthermore, the Estimated Marginal Means serve as
the basis for Pairwise Comparisons. The Estimated Marginal Means table

803
has displayed the Nonsense Syllables Post-test (NSPost-test) Mean, Std.
Error, and 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound and Upper Bound for the
five levels of Lumosity training schedule, LumosityTS, (00minpd,
06minpd, 12minpd, 18minpd, and 24minpd). For instance, 00minpd and
06minpd respectively have 30.010 and 35.296 Mean, .906 and .906 Std.
Error, 28.219 and 33.505 Lower Bound, and 31.802 and 37.088 Upper
Bound at 95% Confidence Interval. The Covariates appearing in the model
are evaluated at the following values: NSPre-test = 29.5867.

Pairwise Comparisons of NSPost-test

This Pairwise Comparisons table has presented the Nonsense Syllables
Post-test (NSPost-test) Mean Difference (I-J), Std. Error, Sig., and 95%
Confidence Interval for Difference Lower Bound and Upper Bound. The
Pairwise Comparisons of NSPost-test is crucially important in ANCOVA
because each of the other null hypotheses beside the omnibus one is tested
with information in this table. That is, the null hypotheses 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10, and 11 are tested with information in the appropriate rows of the
Pairwise Comparison of NSPost-test table.
On the whole, every Pairwise Comparison Mean Difference that is
statistically significant, has an asterisk attached to it, with Sig. that is less
than .05, and both the Lower Bound and Upper Bound 95% Confidence
Interval for Difference completely fall either below zero or completely
above zero. A Pairwise Mean Difference that is not significant statistically,
has no asterisk, Sig. that is greater than .05, and the Lower Bound and
Upper Bound 95% Confidence Interval for Difference has one side below
zero and the other side of it is above zero. Whenever the NSPost-test Mean
of (I) LumosityTS is smaller than the NSPost-test Mean of the (J)
LumosityTS, the Mean Difference has a negative sign as a prefix because
the Mean (J) is subtracted from the Mean (I).
Null hypothesis 2 that “there is no significant difference between recall
of nonsense syllables by those who did not receive Lumosity training any
day (00minpd) and those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day
(06minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried” is rejected because the -5.286*
Mean Difference has Sig. of .001 that is less than .05 chosen alpha. There is
a significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those who
did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those who

804
received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) when the Pre-test
is covaried in favour of the latter.
Null hypothesis 3 that “there is no significant difference between recall
of nonsense syllables by those who did not receive Lumosity training any
day (00minpd) and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per
day (12minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried” is rejected because the Mean
Difference of -13.568* has .000 Sig. (read as less than .0005) that is smaller
than .05 classically chosen alpha. Therefore, there is indeed a significant
difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those who did not
receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those who received 12
minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried
in favour of the latter.
Null hypothesis 4 that “there is no significant difference between recall
of nonsense syllables by those who did not receive Lumosity training any
day (00minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per
day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried” is rejected. Reason for the
rejection is that the Mean Difference of -21.015* has .000 Sig. (read as less
than .0005) is smaller than the chosen alpha of .05. Therefore, there is a
significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those who did
not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those who received
18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is
covaried in favour of those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per
day.
Null hypothesis 5 that “there is no significant difference between recall
of nonsense syllables by those who did not receive Lumosity training any
day (00minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per
day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried” is rejected. Reason for the
rejection is that the Mean Difference of -24.113* has Sig. of .000 that is less
than the .05 chosen alpha. Therefore, there is a significant difference
between recall of nonsense syllables by those who did not receive Lumosity
training any day (00minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried in favour of the
experimental group (those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per
day).
Null hypothesis 6 that “there is no significant difference between recall
of nonsense syllables by those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training
per day (06minpd) and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training

805
per day (12minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried” is rejected. The rejection
is because the Mean Difference of -8.282* has .000 Sig. that is less than .05
alpha. There is therefore a significant difference between recall of nonsense
syllables by those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day
(06minpd) and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day
(12minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried. The difference is in favour of
12minpd (those who received 12 minutes per day Lumosity training).
Null hypothesis 7 that “there is no significant difference between recall
of nonsense syllables by those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training
per day (06minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training
per day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried” is rejected. Reason for
rejecting null hypothesis 7 is that the Mean Difference of -15.729* has Sig.
of .000 that is less than the classically chosen alpha of .05. There is
therefore a statistically significant difference between recall of nonsense
syllables by those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day
(06minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day
(18minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried. The difference favours those who
received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd).
Null hypothesis 8 that “there is no significant difference between recall
of nonsense syllables by those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training
per day (06minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training
per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried” is rejected. This rejection
is because the Mean Difference of -18.827* has .000 Sig. (read as less than
.0005) that is lower than .05 classically chosen alpha. Therefore, there is a
significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those who
received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) and those who
received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test
is covaried. The difference is in favour of those who received 24 minutes
Lumosity training per day (24minpd).
Null hypothesis 9 that “there is no significant difference between recall
of nonsense syllables by those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training
per day (12minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training
per day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried” is rejected. The reason for
rejecting it is that the Mean Difference of -7.447* has Sig. of .000 (read as
less than .0005) which is smaller than the chosen alpha of .05. Therefore,
there is indeed a statistically significant difference between recall of
nonsense syllables by those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per

806
day (12minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per
day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried. The difference is in favour of
the latter (those who had 18minpd Lumosity training).
Null hypothesis 10 that “there is no significant difference between recall
of nonsense syllables by those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training
per day (12minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training
per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried” is rejected. This rejection
is because the Mean Difference of -10.545* has Sig. of .000 which is less
than the classically chosen alpha of .05. Therefore, there is a significant
difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those who received 12
minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) and those who received 24
minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried.
The significant mean difference is in favour of those who had 24 minutes
Lumosity training per day.
Null hypothesis 11 that “there is no significant difference between recall
of nonsense syllables by those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training
per day (18minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training
per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is covaried” is retained (failed to
reject). Reason for the failure to reject null hypothesis 11 is that the Mean
Difference of -3.098 has Sig. of .169 that is greater than the classically
chosen alpha of .05. Thus, the alternate hypothesis that “there is a
significant difference between recall of nonsense syllables by those who
receive 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) and those who
received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test
is covaried” is discarded. What seems to be like a mean difference between
the two levels of Lumosity training (18 minutes per day and 24 minutes per
day) with regard to the post-test scores on recall of nonsense syllables when
the pre-test is controlled for, is merely a function of chance that is not
consistent; and cannot qualify for a significant difference.
In addition to testing ten of the null hypotheses, information in the
Pairwise Comparison of NSPost-test section of the Output 11.1 can also be
used to answer the research questions. The Pairwise Mean Difference in
each situation, is an answer to the corresponding research question as
outlined in Table 11.1a. Each significant difference is in favour of the group
with more minutes of exposure to LumosityTS per day.

807
 Table 11.1a Answers to the research questions
No Research Question Answer Hypothesis
Decision
i. What is the effect of Lumosity 00minpd Significant
training schedule on the subjects’ M=30.010 F(4, 144) =
recall of nonsense syllables when the SD=4.82808 126.725, p
influence of the pre-treatment test 06minpd < .05, ɳp2 =
has been covaried out as measured M=35.296 .779
by their means and standard SD=5.07144
deviations? In other words, the 12minpd
omnibus research question is – do M=43.578
the five groups differ in their means SD=5.64831
and standard deviations on the recall 18minpd
of nonsense syllables when the M=51.025
influence of the Pre-test has been SD=5.18575
held constant? 24minpd
M=54.123
SD=4.38925
ii. What is the difference between recall -5.286 Significant
of nonsense syllables by those who p < .05
did not receive Lumosity training
any day (00minpd) and those who
received 6 minutes Lumosity
training per day (06minpd) when the
Pre-test is covaried?
iii. What is the difference between recall -13.568 Significant
of nonsense syllables by those who p < .05
did not receive Lumosity training
any day (00minpd) and those who
received 12 minutes Lumosity
training per day (12minpd) when the
Pre-test is covaried?
iv. What is the difference between recall -21.015 Significant
of nonsense syllables by those who p < .05
did not receive Lumosity training

808
 any day (00minpd) and those who
received 18 minutes Lumosity
training per day (18minpd) when the
Pre-test is covaried?
v. What is the difference between recall -24.113 Significant
of nonsense syllables by those who p < .05
did not receive Lumosity training
any day (00minpd) and those who
received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is covaried?
vi. What is the difference between recall -8.282 Significant
of nonsense syllables by those who p < .05
received 6 minutes Lumosity
training per day (06minpd) and those
who received 12 minutes Lumosity
training per day (12minpd) when the
Pre-test is covaried?
vii. What is the difference between recall -15.729 Significant
of nonsense syllables by those who p < .05
received 6 minutes Lumosity
training per day (06minpd) and those
who received 18 minutes Lumosity
training per day (18minpd) when the
Pre-test is covaried?
viii. What is the difference between recall -18.827 Significant
of nonsense syllables by those who p < .05
received 6 minutes Lumosity
training per day (06minpd) and those
who received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is covaried?
ix. What is the difference between recall -7.447 Significant
of nonsense syllables by those who p < .05
received 12 minutes Lumosity

809
 training per day (12minpd) and those
who received 18 minutes Lumosity
training per day (18minpd) when the
Pre-test is covaried?
x. What is the difference between recall -10.545 Significant
of nonsense syllables by those who p < .05
received 12 minutes Lumosity
training per day (12minpd) and those
who received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is covaried?
xi. What is the difference between recall -3.098 Not
of nonsense syllables by those who significant
received 18 minutes Lumosity p > .05
training per day (18minpd) and those
who received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is covaried?

Univariate Tests
The Univariate Tests table presents the NSPost-test Sum of Squares, df,
Mean Square, F, Sig., and Partial Eta Squared for Contrast and Error. The F
is 126.377 with .000 Sig. (read as less than .0005), and is statistically
significant as p < .05; and the Partial Eta Squared is .779. That is, tenability
of the omnibus null hypothesis tested by the Univariate Tests is rejected
[F(4, 144) = 126.725, p < .05, ɳp2 = .779]. This F indicates the effect of
LumosityTS on the basis of linearly independent pairwise comparisons
among the estimated marginal means.

Profile Plots
The Profile Plots serve as pictorial illustration of answers to the research
questions. The Plots indicate the Estimated Marginal Means of Post-test
recall of Nonsense Syllables as a function of the Lumosity training schedule
of 00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd, 18minpd, and 24minpd. Consistent
increase in the recall of Nonsense Syllables (from a mean of 30.000 for

810
00minpd to a mean of 54.123 for 24minpd) in direct accordance with the
increase in the length of exposure to the experimental treatment condition
(Lumosity Training Schedule) can most easily be depicted as pictorially
captured by the Profile Plots.

SECTION B: ONE-WAY ANOVA AS A FOLLOW-UP

TEST

Oneway Descriptives
The Oneway Descriptives table is a display of the N, Mean, Std. Deviation,
Std. Error, 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Lower Bound and Upper
Bound, the Minimum and Maximum of recall of nonsense syllables for
each of the LumosityTS levels (00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd, 18minpd, and
24minpd) at the Pre-test (NSPre-test) and at the Post-test (NSPost-test). For
instance, the N is 30 for each of the LumosityTS levels both at NSPre-test
and NSPost-test. At the NSPre-test, the Mean is 29.5333 for 00minpd,
29.4333 for 06minpd, 29.7000 for 12minpd, 29.8000 for 18minpd, and
29.4667 for 24minpd; the Total has 150 N and 29.4667 Mean. That is, at the
NSPre-test the recall of nonsense syllables means ranged only from 29.4333
to 29.8000. At the NSPost-test, the recall of nonsense syllables has the
Mean of 30.0000 for 00minpd, 35.2667 for 06minpd, 43.6000 for 12minpd,
51.0667 for 18minpd, and 54.1000 for 24minpd. The Total has 150 N and
42.8067 mean. That is, at the NSPost-test the recall of nonsense syllables
means ranged from 30.0000 and consistently increased to 54.1000. While
mean for Total during NSPre-test is 29.5867, the mean for Total during
NSPost-test is 42.8067. All the other values in the table can easily be read
and interpreted similarly.

Test of Homogeneity of Variances

This table displays the Levene Statistic, df1, df2, and Sig. for four different
parameters (Based on Mean, Based on Median, Based on Median and with
adjusted df, and Based on trimmed mean) for NSPre-test and for NSPost-
test. In each of the instances, the Sig. is greater than .05. Therefore, the
ANOVA assumption of equality of variances is met (not violated).

811
ANOVA
The ANOVA table has shown that for NSPre-test, the Sum of Squares
Between Groups is 2.973, df Between Groups is 4, and the Mean Square
Between Groups is .743. The Within Groups at NSPre-test has 3693.400
Sum of Squares, 145 df, and 25.472 Mean Square. The Total Sum of
Squares and df are respectively 3696.373 and 149. The F is .029 with .998
Sig. Since the Sig. of .998 is greater than the classically chosen .05 alpha,
the omnibus null hypothesis of no significant effect of Lumosity training
schedule on recall of nonsense syllables at the Pre-test is retained (not
rejected).
The Effect Size, measured with Partial Eta Squared is .001 that is got by
dividing the Sum of Squares Between Groups (SSB) by the Total Sum of
Squares (SST). In simple One-Way ANOVA, Sum of Squares Between
Groups is equivalent to Sum of Squares Effect in higher ANOVA models;
and the Sum of Squares Within Groups in One-Way ANOVA is an
equivalent of Sum of Squares Error in higher ANOVA models.
Furthermore, Sum of Squares Total in simple One-Way ANOVA is equal to
the Sum of Squares Between Groups plus the Sum of Squares Within
Groups. That is why, the Partial Eta Squared (ƞp2) equation in the simple
One-Way ANOVA can merely be given as in Equation 11:3.

Partial Eta Squared of .001 is interpreted or classified as ‘Trivial Effect

Size’. That is, Lumosity training schedule accounts for just .1% of the
variance in Pre-test recall of nonsense syllables (NSPre-test). The results
showing total lack of effect of Lumosity training schedule on recall of
Nonsense Syllables at the Pre-test is obvious because at that point, all the
groups were equal as none of them has been exposed to the experimental
treatment yet. More so, membership of each of the groups, and the type of
treatment condition for each group were by complete randomization which
guaranteed equality of the construct under study in all the groups.
At the NSPost-test, the Between Groups has 12517.760 Sum of Squares,
4 df, and 3129.440 Mean Square. The Within Groups at the NSPost-test has
3685.633 Sum of Squares, 145 df, and 25.418 Mean Square. The Total Sum

812
of Squares and df are 16203.393 and 149, respectively. At the NSPost-test,
the F is 123.118 with .000 Sig. (read as less than .0005). The Sig. (.000) is
less than the classically chosen alpha of .05. Therefore, the omnibus null
hypothesis of no significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on recall
of nonsense syllables at the Post-test is rejected. You could recall that in the
ANCOVA, the F was 126.725 that is greater than the F of 123.118 in the
ANOVA, a F difference of 3.607 in favour of the ANCOVA. Accordingly,
the Error Mean Square in the ANCOVA is 24.639, while in the ANOVA,
the Within Groups Mean Square is 25.418.

Effect Size in the ANOVA

In ANOVA, Effect Size can be measured with Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2).
The Partial Eta Squared in the ANOVA is computed simply as the Sum of
Squares Between (SSB) divided by the Sum of Squares Total (SST). The
Effect Size as measured with Partial Eta Squared in the ANOVA is .773,
as against the .779 Partial Eta Squared in the ANCOVA. In equation
form, the ANOVA Partial Eta Squared is as provided in Equation 11:3
earlier.

The Partial Eta Squared of .773 is a marvellously “Large Effect Size” in

line with Cohen (1988) classification. The Effect Size (Partial Eta Squared)
implies that Lumosity training schedule accounts for 77.3% of variance in
the Post-test recall of nonsense syllables (NSPost-test).

Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons with Bonferroni

This table has shown the Multiple Comparison Pairwise Mean Difference
(I-J), Std. Error, Sig., and 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound and
Upper Bound of recall of nonsense syllables for the five levels of
LumosityTS (00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd, 18minpd, and 24minpd) for
both the NSPre-test and NSPost-test. At the NSPre-test, none of the
Pairwise Comparisons is significant as there is no Mean Difference with

813
asterisk because for each Mean Difference, the Sig. is greater than .05
alpha.
At the NSPost-test, all the Pairwise Comparisons, except one (18minpd
and 24minpd), are statistically significant because the Sig. in each of the
cases is less than the classically chosen .05 alpha. Consequently, there is
asterisk attached to each of the Mean Differences to show that the mean
difference is significant at the .05 level. The difference in each case is in
favour of the Lumosity TS that has higher mean, the group with the
lumosity training schedule which invariably received more minutes of the
experimental exposure.

Means Plots
There are two Means Plots, one for NSPre-test and the other for NSPost-
test. The first Means Plots is for the NSPre-test and it shows that for each of
the five levels of LumosityTS, the mean is approximately within 29.43 and
29.80. The second Means Plots clearly show remarkable increment
(depicting significance) from the mean of 30.00 for 00minpd through mean
of approximately 35.00 for 06minpd, 44.00 for 12minpd, to 51.00 for
18minpd. The mean for 24minpd LumosityTS is approximately 54.00,
higher than that of 18minpd, though not significant.

SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS

ANCOVA was performed for the effect of Lumosity training schedule
(LumosityTS) on recall of nonsense syllables Post-test (NSPost-test) when
the effect of the nonsense syllables Pre-test (NSPre-test) is covaried. The
assumptions for execution of ANCOVA were met as the Levene’s Test of
Equality of Error Variances was not significant (p > .05) and the covariate
(NSPre-test) had significant linear relationship with the dependent variable
(NSPost-test) [F(1, 144) = 5.585, p < .05, ɳp2 = .037]. The ANCOVA of the
main concern in the study showed a statistically significant effect of
LumosityTS on recall of nonsense syllables when the NSPre-test is
controlled for [F(4, 144) = 126.725, p < .05, ɳp2 = .779]. To ascertain the
pairwise mean differences that were significant statistically, Pairwise
Comparisons done revealed significant Mean Difference (MD) between

814
00minpd and 06minpd [MD = -5.286, p < .05]; 00minpd and 12minpd [MD
= -13.568, p < .05]; 00minpd and 18minpd [MD = -21.015, p < .05];
00minpd and 24minpd [MD = -24.113, p < .05]. There were also
statistically significant Mean Difference (MD) between 06minpd and
12minpd [MD = -8.282, p < .05]; 06minpd and 18minpd [MD = -15.729, p
< .05]; 06minpd and 24minpd [MD = -18.827, p < .05]; 12minpd and
18minpd [MD = -7.447, p < .05]; and 12minpd and 24minpd [MD =
-10.545, p < .05]. In each of the Pairwise Comparisons, the Mean
Difference was in favour of the group that had higher minutes of Lumosity
training per day. The Mean Difference (MD) between 18minpd and
24minpd was not significant [MD = -3.098, p > .05]. Profile Plots was
drawn to pictorially illustrate the recall of nonsense syllables Means across
the five levels of LumosityTS.
One-Way ANOVA was done as follow-up to ascertain the results
supposing the NSPre-test was not controlled for. Results showed that effect
of LumosityTS on the NSPre-test is not significant at all [F(4, 145) = .029,
p > .05, ɳp2 = .001]. Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons confirmed that none of
the pairwise comparisons differ significantly as the Sig. in each case is
greater than .05 alpha. Means Plots for the nonsense syllables recall during
the Pre-test showed means that ranged from approximately 29.43 to 29.80.
But the effect of LumosityTS on the NSPost-test was significant
statistically [F(4, 145) = 123.118, p < .05, ɳp2 = .773]. Post Hoc Multiple
Comparisons showed significant pairwise Mean Difference (MD) between
00minpd and 06minpd [MD = -5.26667, p < .05]; 00minpd and 12minpd
[MD = -13.60000, p < .05]; and 00minpd and 18minpd [MD = -21.06667, p
< .05]; 00minpd and 24minpd [MD = -24.10000, p < .05]. There were also
statistically significant Mean Difference (MD) between 06minpd and
12minpd [MD = -8.33333, p < .05]; 06minpd and 18minpd [MD =
-15.80000, p < .05]; 06minpd and 24minpd [MD = -18.83333, p < .05];
12minpd and 18minpd [MD = -7.46667, p < .05]; and 12minpd and
24minpd [MD = -10.50000, p < .05]. In each of the Pairwise Comparisons,
the Mean Difference was in favour of the group that was exposed to more
minutes of Lumosity training per day. The Mean Difference (MD) between
18minpd and 24minpd was not significant [MD = -3.03333, p > .05].
Means Plots was drawn to pictorially illustrate the recall of nonsense
syllables Means across the five levels of LumosityTS. It showed that the
mean consistently increased from one level of LumosityTS (00minpd with

815
mean of 30.00 as the lowest) to 24minpd with a mean of approximately
54.00 as the highest.

Step 6. View the entire output again by scrolling up and down.

Step 7. Save the output. Click the Save this document icon in the Toolbar
to have the Save Output As dialog box. In it, type the suitable name,
Chapter 11 Output 1.spv, in the File name box; and click Save.

Step 8. Print the output and then the data. In each case, be on the window
and click the Print tool in the Toolbar. Then, click OK to have the
document printed.

Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS Statistics by closing each of SPSS window that is
open on the computer.

Step 10. Shut down the system by clicking Start, Power and Shut down
accordingly.

ANCOVA EXECUTION WITH SPSS SYNTAX

Analysis of Covariance, ANCOVA, can be performed very easily by
applying IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax. What matters most here is correct
entry of the Syntax into the SPSS Syntax Editor. The needed Syntax for
the analysis is as given in Syntax 11.1.

Syntax 11.1 Chapter 11 Syntax 1.sps – Syntax for

performing ANCOVA

816
 Switch the computer on and let it boot fully. Launch IBM SPSS
Statistics by clicking its logo on your system. Then, wait for it to fully
get ready. When due, close the Welcome to IBM SPSS Statistics dialog
box that is superimposed on the SPSS Data Editor.
Retrieve the Chapter 11 Table 1 Data.sav. To do this, click Open this
document tool in the Toolbar. This will produce the Open Data dialog box.
In it, look for the file name, Chapter 11 Table 1 Data.sav, click it and
press the Enter key on the Keyboard. This action opens the data as shown
Figure 11.8.
Click Window and from its pulldown menu, click Go to Designated
Syntax Window. With this, the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor
opens. Correctly enter the Command given in Syntax 11.1. Use the help
offered by SPSS in prompting you while typing the Syntax. When done, the
Syntax Editor will look like Figure 11.29.

817
 Figure 11.29 Chapter 11 Syntax 1.sps

Highlight the entire Syntax and click Run Selection icon . With
this click, IBM SPSS Statistics completely performs the analysis and
produces the results in the Viewer window as presented in Output 11.2.
Alternatively, do not highlight the Syntax; simply click Run and in its
pulldown menu, click All and the whole analysis gets done and the results
produced in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer as illustrated in Output 11.2.

Output 11.2 Chapter 11 Output 2.sps – Effect of

Lumosity Training schedule on recall

818
819
820
821
SECTION B OF OUTPUT 11.1 One-Way ANOVA

822
823
Means Plots

824
825
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 11.2
The Output 11.1 is the same with Output 11.2; though while the former was
arrived at through dialog boxes point and click method, the latter was a
product of IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax application on the data. Therefore,
the same interpretation for Output 11.1 goes for the Output 11.2. Any
hypothesis that is rejected, using Output 11.1 is also rejected with the use of
Output 11.2. Pairwise Multiple Comparisons that are significant in Output
11.1 are the ones that are statistically significant in Output 11.2.
Follow the remaining SPSS data analysis protocols to eventually shut
down your system.
View output

826
Save the output as Chapter 11 Output 2.spv and the Syntax as Chapter
11 Syntax 1.sps

Print the output

Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system

Surely, there is no unit of these protocols that you have not mastered.
But keep practicing them. The more the rehearsals done on them, the better
the level of mastery.

EFFECT OF LUMOSITY TRAINING SCHEDULE

ON INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ)
Part of the Lumosity training investigation sought to determine the effect of
Lumosity training schedule on Intelligence Quotient of the participants
(Kpolovie, 2018a; 2018b; 2018). Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT) that
validly and reliably measures fluid intelligence (Kpolovie, 2017) was
administered to the 150 participants before (pre-test) and after (post-test)
exposure to the experimental treatment conditions. Recall that the
experimental treatment conditions were the daily Lumosity Training
Schedule that the five groups had to take for 60 days:
00 minutes Lumosity training per day for the 30 subjects in Group 1
(00minpd)
06 minutes Lumosity training per day for the 30 subjects in Group 2
(06minpd)
12 minutes Lumosity training per day for the 30 subjects in Group 3
(12minpd)

827
 18 minutes Lumosity training per day for the 30 subjects in Group 4
(18minpd)
24 minutes Lumosity training per day for the 30 subjects in Group 5
(24minpd).
The Intelligence Quotients of the subjects at pre-test and post-test are as
tabulated in Table 11.2.

Table 11.2 Chapter 11 Table 2 Data.sav – Pre-treatment and post-treatment

IQ of the subjects

828
829
Research questions
One omnibus research question and ten pairwise research questions were
answered at the end of the study with respect to the effect of Lumosity
Training Schedule (LumosityTS) on Intelligence Quotient, IQ, when the IQ

830
Pre-test effect is controlled for or held constant. The eleven research
questions are as enumerated.
1. What is the effect of Lumosity Training Schedule on the subjects’
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) when the influence of the Pre-treatment IQ
test has been controlled for or held constant as measured by their
means and standard deviations? (That is: Do the five Groups differ in
their IQ means and standard deviations when the influence of the IQ
pre-test has been held constant?)
2. What is the difference between the IQ of those who did not receive
Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those who received 6
minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) when the Pre-test is
controlled for?
3. What is the difference between the IQ of those who did not receive
Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those who received 12
minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) when the Pre-test is
controlled for?
4. What is the difference between the IQ of those who did not receive
Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those who received 18
minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is
controlled for?
5. What is the difference between the IQ of those who did not receive
Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those who received 24
minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is
controlled for?
6. What is the difference between the IQ of those who received 6
minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) and those who
received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
7. What is the difference between the IQ of those who received 6
minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) and those who
received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
8. What is the difference between the IQ of those who received 6
minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) and those who
received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?

831
 9. What is the difference between the IQ of those who received 12
minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) and those who
received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
10. What is the difference between the IQ of those who received 12
minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) and those who
received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
11. What is the difference between the IQ of those who received 18
minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) and those who
received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?

Alternate Hypothesis
Eleven alternate hypotheses (1 omnibus and 10 pairwise) were postulated in
the study as itemised.
1. There is a significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on the
subjects’ Intelligence Quotient (IQ) when the pre-treatment test (Pre-
test) influence has been controlled for (held constant).
2. There is a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd)
when the Pre-test is controlled for.
3. There is a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and
those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd)
when the Pre-test is controlled for.
4. There is a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and
those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd)
when the Pre-test is controlled for.
5. There is a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and
those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd)
when the Pre-test is controlled for.

832
 6. There is a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd)
and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day
(12minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
7. There is a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd)
and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day
(18minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
8. There is a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd)
and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day
(24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
9. There is a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd)
and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day
(18minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
10. There is a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd)
and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day
(24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
11. There is a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd)
and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day
(24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.

Null Hypothesis
Similarly, eleven corresponding null hypotheses (1 omnibus and 10
pairwise) were postulated as follows and tested at .05 alpha in the study
(Kpolovie, 2018; 2018a).
1. There is no significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on the
subjects’ Intelligence Quotient (IQ) when the pre-treatment test (Pre-
test) influence has been controlled for (held constant).
2. There is no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient
of those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd)
and those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day
(06minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.

833
 3. There is no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient
of those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd)
and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day
(12minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
4. There is no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient
of those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd)
and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day
(18minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
5. There is no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient
of those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd)
and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day
(24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
6. There is no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient
of those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day
(06minpd) and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per
day (12minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
7. There is no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient
of those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day
(06minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per
day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
8. There is no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient
of those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day
(06minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per
day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
9. There is no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient
of those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day
(12minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per
day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
10. There is no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient
of those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day
(12minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per
day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.
11. There is no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient
of those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day
(18minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per
day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.

834
ANCOVA WITH SPSS DIALOG BOXES POINT
AND CLICK
Step 1. Boot the computer.

Step 2. Launch IBM SPSS Statistics by clicking its icon on the

computer screen.

Step 3. Enter the data in Table 11.2 carefully and accurately. Follow all the
procedures that were used to enter, name and label the recall of Nonsense
Syllables scores to enter, name and label the dependent variable
(Intelligence Quotient Post-Test), the independent variable (Lumosity
Training Schedule), and the covariate (Intelligence Quotient Pre-Test).
Ensure that the three scores of each participant consistently constitute one
row in the SPSS Data Editor exactly as shown in Table 11.2. In the SPSS
Data View, respectively Name and Label the Intelligence Quotient Pre-
Test as IQPre and Pre-Test IQ, the Intelligence Quotient Post-Test as
IQPost and Post-test IQ, and the Lumosity Training Schedule as
Lumosity and LumosityTS. After entry of the data in the Data View of the
IBM SPSS Statistics Data Editor and the naming and labelling of the
variables in the Variable View, the Variable View of the IBM SPSS
Statistics Data Editor will look like Figure 11.30.

Figure 11.30 Variable View with the variables named and labelled.

When you return to the Data View of the SPSS Data Editor by clicking
Data View at the extreme bottom left of the Variable View, the entire data
as entered and named will look like Figure 11.31.

835
Figure 11.31 Data Editor with the data entered, named and labelled

836
Figure 11.31 Continued

837
Figure 11.31 Continued

838
Figure 11.31 Continued

839
Figure 11.31 Continued

840
Figure 11.31 Continued

841
 Figure 11.31 Continued

Step 4. Save the data as Chapter 11 Table 2 Data.sav by clicking the Save
this document icon in the Toolbar and typing the document name in
the File name box of the Save Data As, and finally clicking Save to get the
data saved for subsequent use when the need arises.

842
 Figure 11.32 Save Data As… Chapter 11 Table 2 Data.sav

Step 5. Analyze the data. Click Analyze General Linear Model

Univariate as illustrated in Figure 11.33.

Figure 11.33 Analyze General Linear Model Univariate

843
 A click on the Univariate produces the main Univariate dialog box,
illustrated in Figure 11.34, in which the requisite statistical operations will
be performed.

Figure 11.34 Univariate main dialog box

Click to highlight Post-test IQ in the left box and move it into the
Dependent Variable box at the right by clicking the right-pointed arrow
that is directly facing the Dependent Variable panel. Select
LumosityTS in the left box and move it into the Fixed Factor(s) box at the
right by clicking the right-pointed arrow that is facing the Fixed
Factor(s) box directly. Select Pre-test IQ in the left box and move it into
the Covariate(s) field at the right. The movement is like in other situations
that is done by clicking the right-pointed arrow that is facing the
Covariate(s) box at the right. When done, the Univariate dialog box will
look as exemplified in Figure 11.35.

844
 Figure 11.35 Univariate dialog box with variables moved right

Click EM Means pushbutton and it will produce Univariate:

Estimated Marginal Means dialog box as illustrated in Figure 11.36.
Much of the ANCOVA statistical operations will be done in this menu.

Figure 11.36 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means menu

845
 Select Lumosity at the left in Factor(s) and Factor Interactions box
and transfer it with the help of the right-pointed arrow into the Display
Means for panel at the right as shown in Figure 11.37. The movement
activates Compare main effects.

Figure 11.37 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means with the independent variable
(Lumosity) moved to the right.

Check the checkbox of Compare main effects. Be watching carefully to

observe that checking the Compare main effects checkbox in turn activates
Confidence interval adjustment, shown in Figure 11.38.

846
 Figure 11.38 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means with compare main effects checked

Click the small black bottom-pointed arrow to have its pulldown

menu (see Figure 11.39).

Figure 11.39 Estimated Marginal Means showing Confidence interval adjustment

pulldown menu

Click Bonferroni for adjustment of the Confidence interval as shown

in Figure 11.40.

847
 Figure 11.40 Univariate: Estimated Marginal Means with Bonferroni selected

Click Continue to return to the Univariate main dialog box and select
Options pushbutton to have the Univariate: Options dialog box, illustrated
in Figure 11.41.

848
 Figure 11.41 Univariate: Options

Check the checkbox for each of Descriptive statistics, Estimates of

effect size and Homogeneity tests as demonstrated in Figure 11.42.

849
 Figure 11.42 Univariate: Options with the necessary operations checked

Click Continue to return to the main Univariate dialog box. In it, select
Plots pushbutton for Univariate: Profile Plots dialog box to appear as
given in Figure 11.43.

850
 Figure 11.43 Univariate: Profile Plots

With the independent variable (Lumosity) highlighted in the Factors

panel at the left, click the right-pointed arrow that is facing
Horizontal Axis. This click moves the Lumosity into the Horizontal Axis
as can be discerned in Figure 11.44. Notice as this movement activates Add
that is near Plots in the dialog box.

851
 Figure 11.44 Univariate: Profile Plots with Lumosity moved accordingly

Click the activated Add, , to have the Lumosity change its

location by disappearing from the Horizontal Axis box and moving down
automatically to appear in the big box that is just under Plots, presented in
Figure 11.45.

852
 Figure 11.45 Univariate: Profile Plots with Lumosity Added

Get back to the Univariate main dialog box by clicking Continue. Now,
all the required statistical operations have been done. It is just ready for the
results to be displayed. So finally, move cursor to, and click OK for IBM
SPSS Statistics to run the analysis and produce the results immediately in
the Viewer window as presented in Output 11.3.

ONE-WAY ANOVA AS ANCOVA FOLLOW-UP

853
ONE-WAY ANOVA is done as a follow-up to see how the results of the
analysis could have been without controlling for the IQ Pre-test
(covariate). For the purpose of having an idea of the effect of Lumosity
training schedule on Intelligence Quotient (IQ) when the influence of the
pre-test has not been eliminated with ANCOVA, execute One-Way
ANOVA for the data. Activate the Data Editor containing the dataset
(Chapter 11 Table 2 Data.sav) exactly as in Figure 11.31.
Click Analyze Compare Means One-Way ANOVA as
shown in Figure 11.46.

Figure 11.46 Analyze Compare Means One-Way ANOVA

In the One-Way ANOVA dialog box, presented in Figure 11.47, move

Pre-test IQ and Post-test IQ from the left into the Dependent List box at
the right by highlighting them and clicking the right-pointed arrow .
Also select Lumosity and move it from the left box into the Factor box at
the right by clicking the right-pointed arrow as exemplified in Figure
11.48.

854
 Figure 11.47 One-Way ANOVA dialog box

Figure 11.48 One-Way ANOVA with variables moved accordingly

Click Post Hoc pushbutton for the One-Way ANOVA: Post Hoc
Multiple Comparisons dialog box to appear as shown in Figure 11.49 in
which you select one of the listed possible tests, Bonferroni checkbox in
this example, and click Continue.

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 Figure 11.49 One-Way ANOVA: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons dialog box

Select Options pushbutton to have the One-Way ANOVA: Options

dialog box. In it, check the checkbox for each of Descriptive,
Homogeneity of variance test, and Means plot as exhibited in Figure
11.50.

Figure 11.50 One-Way ANOVA: Options with Descriptive, Homogeneity of variance test,
and Mean plot checked

856
 Click Continue to get back to the One-Way ANOVA main menu.
Finally, click OK to have SPSS run the analysis and produce the results as
presented in Section B of Output 11.3.
Please, note that the One-Way ANOVA that is done in the example is not
necessary as it is not part and parcel of ANCOVA. It was only put here to
illustrate in this situation that ANCOVA is the most appropriate statistical
test to apply. Never ever run from performing ANCOVA by applying One-
Way ANOVA in an investigation that requires elimination of specific
covariates. Perform ANCOVA whenever ANCOVA is the test to be used as
I have explained at the beginning of this chapter. In a situation that after
performing the ANCOVA, you executed ANOVA as follow-up test, it is the
ANCOVA output that must be reported for data-based decisions to be made.

Output 11.3 Chapter 11 Output 3.spv – ANCOVA for

effect of Lumosity training on IQ

857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 11.3 – EFFECT OF
LUMOSITY TRAINING SCHEDULE ON IQ
The Output 11.3 has 13 parts (8 for the ANCOVA proper and 5 for the
Section B [ANOVA follow-up test]) on the effect of Lumosity training
schedule on Intelligence Quotient. They are the:
Univariate Between-Subjects Factors
Descriptive Statistics
Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Estimated Marginal Means for LumosityTS
Pairwise Comparisons
Univariate Tests
Profile Plots
Oneway Descriptives
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
ANOVA
Post Hoc Tests of Multiple Comparisons with Bonferroni
Means Plots.
Each of these segments of the Output 11.3 is very aptly interpreted.

865
Univariate Analysis of Variance Between-Subjects
Factors
This table merely lists the Value Label (00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd,
18minpd and 24minpd) respectively for the five levels of LumosityTS
(1.00, 2.00, 3.00, 4.00 and 5.00). The N (number of cases) for each of the
five levels is 30.

Descriptive Statistics
The Descriptive Statistics table has presented the Intelligence Quotient
Post-test (IQPost-test) Mean, Std. Deviation and N for each of the five
levels of LumosityTS. The table could serve as part of the answers to the
research questions. There is equal N of 30 for each level of the independent
variable. The Intelligence Quotient Post-test has a Mean and Std. Deviation
respectively of 107.2333 and 11.02875 for 00minpd, 106.4000 and
11.30334 for 06minpd, 109.6000 and 11.10328 for 12minpd, 106.4333 and
8.79531 for 18minpd, and 109.4333 and 11.20247 for 24minpd. The total
has 150 N, 107.8200 Mean and 10.67901 Std. Deviation.

Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances

This table has indicated that the assumption of equality of error variances is
met (not violated) because the F of 1.870 has .119 Sig. that is greater than
the chosen .05 alpha. In other words, the null hypothesis that the error
variances are significantly equal across the five groups is retained. That is,
the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances that the null hypothesis
that the error variances of the dependent variable (Intelligence Quotient) is
equal across the groups (the five levels of LumosityTS) is sustained. Thus,
meeting the important requirement for ANCOVA test. The Levene’s Test of
Equality of Error Variances was based on “Intercept + IQPre + Lumosity”
design.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

The Tests of Between-Subjects Effects table has presented the main results
of the ANCOVA statistical test for rejection or otherwise of the tenability of
the omnibus null hypothesis. The main concern of the investigation which

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is summarised in this ANCOVA table is whether the five levels or treatment
conditions of Lumosity training schedule (LumosityTS) produce
significantly different scores on the dependent variable (Intelligence
Quotient at the post-test) when the pre-test IQ is controlled for. Information
in the row in the table for the independent variable (Lumosity) takes
adequate care of the main concern of the investigation. The Lumosity row
has shown 164.025 Type III Sum of Squares, 4 df, 41.006 Mean Square,
3.177 F, .016 Sig., and .081 Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2). The .016 Sig. is less
than the classically chosen alpha level of .05. Therefore, the omnibus null
hypothesis which is the first null hypothesis of the experimental study that
“there is no significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on Intelligence
Quotient when the Pre-treatment IQ test (IQPre-test) influence has been
controlled for (held constant)” is rejected. Thus, the alternate hypothesis
that “there is a significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on the
subjects’ Intelligence Quotient (IQ) when the pre-treatment test (Pre-test)
influence has been controlled for (held constant)” is sustained. In other
words, there is a statistically significant evidence that the five LumosityTS
groups (00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd, 18minpd, and 24minpd) significantly
differ in their means and standard deviations on Intelligence Quotient after
controlling for the effect of the IQ pre-test. The Pairwise Comparisons that
will be discussed in a short while from now will reveal the specific pair or
pairs of Lumosity training schedule that have statistically significant
difference.

EFFECT SIZE IN THE ANCOVA

Effect Size in ANCOVA is measured with Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) that is
computed as the Sum of Squares Effect (SSEffect) divided by the Sum of
Squares Effect plus Sum of Squares Error (SSError). Note that the ‘Effect’ is
the actual independent variable of interest, which is ‘Lumosity’ in this case.
Therefore, the Sum of Squares Effect in the current example is indeed, the
Sum of Squares Lumosity (SSLumosity). From the Tests of Between-Subjects
Effects table, it can be seen that the Sum of Squares Lumosity is 164.025. It
can as well be discerned from the Tests of Between-Subjects Effects table
that the Sum of Squares Error is 1858.856. Thus, while the numerator of the

867
Partial Eta squared is SSLumosity (164.025); the denominator of the Partial
Eta squared is SSLumosity plus SSError (i.e., 164.025 + 1858.856) that is equal
to 2022.881. Therefore, the Partial Eta Squared is simply 164.025 ÷
2022.881 that is equal to .081 as shown in the Lumosity row of the last
column of the Tests of Between-Subjects Effects table.
Perhaps, you may comprehend the Effect Size in ANCOVA that is
measured with Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) better in equation form as follows.

Since the Sum of Squares Effect in this case is actually the Sum of
Squares Lumosity, the Equation 11:4 can accordingly be specifically
rewritten as given in Equation 11:5.

The Sum of Squares Lumosity is 164.025; and the Sum of Squares Error
is 1858.856. Therefore, replacing the symbols in Equation 11:5 with their
actual values for the effect of Lumosity training schedule on Post-test IQ
when the Pre-test IQ is controlled for or eliminated, the Partial Eta Squared,
ɳp2, is as in Equation 11:5.

The Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) of .081 is a ‘Medium Effect Size’ in

accordance with the classification by Cohen (1988). This Partial Eta
Squared or Effect Size practically means that Lumosity training schedule
(LumosityTS) accounts for 8.1% of the variance in Intelligence Quotient
(IQPost-test) when the influence of the Intelligence Quotient Pre-test
(IQPre-test) is held constant, removed, eliminated or controlled for.
Another important finding, though not really the concern of this study
but in line with ANCOVA assumption, is contained in the row that presents
results for the covariate, the Intelligence Quotient Pre-test (IQPre). This
row has shown 14831.644 Type III Sum of Squares, 1 df, 14831.644 Mean
Square, 1148.963 F, .000 Sig. (read as less than .0005), and .889 Partial Eta
Squared. This row specifies whether there is a significant association

868
between the dependent variable, Intelligence Quotient post-treatment test
scores (IQPost-test) and the covariate, Intelligence Quotient pre-treatment
test scores (IQPre-test) when the effect of the independent variable
Lumosity training schedule (LumosityTS) is statistically controlled for. The
Sig. for the covariate is .000 that is smaller than the .05 alpha; therefore,
association between the dependent variable and the covariate is statistically
significant when Lumosity training schedule is held under control.
In all, the Tests of Between-Subjects Effects table has presented the
Type III Sum of Squares, df, Mean Square, F, Sig., and Partial Eta Squared
(each of these serving as a column) for each of the sources of variation,
namely: Corrected Model, Intercept, IQPre, and Lumosity (each of these
sources serves as a row). The F for each of these sources is significant as
the Sig. for it is lower than the chosen .05 classical level of significance.
The table has equally displayed the Type III Sum of Squares (SSTIII), df,
and Mean Square for Error to be 1858.856, 144 and 212.909, respectively.
While the Total has 1760765.000 SSTIII and 150 df, the Corrected Total
has 16992.140 SSTIII and 149 df.

Estimated Marginal Means for LumosityTS Post-test

IQ
This table is very useful as it presents information for partly answering the
research questions. Furthermore, the Estimated Marginal Means serve as
the basis for Pairwise Comparisons as well as the Profile Plots. The
Estimated Marginal Means table has displayed the Intelligence Quotient
Post-test (Post-testIQ) Mean, Std. Error, and 95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound and Upper Bound for the five levels of Lumosity training
schedule, LumosityTS, (00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd, 18minpd, and
24minpd). For instance, 00minpd and 06minpd respectively have 106.882
and 107.963 Mean, .656 and .658 Std. Error, 105.586 and 106.664 Lower
Bound, and 108.179 and 109.263 Upper Bound at 95% Confidence Interval.
The Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following
values: Pre-test IQ = 105.9667.

Pairwise Comparisons of Post-test IQ

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This Pairwise Comparisons table has presented the Post-test Intelligence
Quotient (Post-test IQ) Mean Difference (I-J), Std. Error, Sig., and 95%
Confidence Interval for Difference Lower Bound and Upper Bound. The
Pairwise Comparisons of Post-test IQ is crucially important in the
ANCOVA because each of the other null hypotheses beside the omnibus
one is tested with information in this table. That is, the null hypotheses 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 are tested independently with information in the
appropriate rows of the Pairwise Comparisons of the Post-test IQ table.
On the whole, every Pairwise Comparison Mean Difference that is
statistically significant, has an asterisk attached to it, with Sig. that is less
than .05, and both the Lower Bound and Upper Bound 95% Confidence
Interval for Difference completely fall either below zero or completely
above zero. A Pairwise Mean Difference that is not significant statistically,
has no asterisk attached, the Sig. is greater than .05, and the Lower Bound
and Upper Bound 95% Confidence Interval for Difference has one side
below zero and the other side of it is above zero. Whenever the Post-test IQ
Mean of (I) LumosityTS is smaller than the Post-test IQ Mean of the (J)
LumosityTS, the Mean Difference has a negative sign as a prefix because
the Mean (J) is subtracted from the Mean (I).
The null hypothesis 2 that “there is no significant difference between
the Intelligence Quotient of those who did not receive Lumosity training
any day (00minpd) and those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per
day (06minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for” is retained (not rejected)
because the -1.081 Mean Difference has Sig. of 1.000 that is more than .05
chosen alpha. There is indeed, no significant difference between the IQ of
those who did not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those
who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) when the Pre-
test is controlled for.
The null hypothesis 3 that “there is no significant difference between
the Intelligence Quotient of those who did not receive Lumosity training
any day (00minpd) and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training
per day (12minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for” is retained (not
rejected) because the Mean Difference of -2.558 has .066 Sig. that is higher
than .05 classically chosen alpha. Therefore, there is indeed, no significant
difference between the Intelligence Quotient of those who did not receive
Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those who received 12 minutes
Lumosity training per day (12minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for.

870
 The null hypothesis 4 that “there is no significant difference between
the Intelligence Quotient of those who did not receive Lumosity training
any day (00minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training
per day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for” is retained (failed to
reject). Reason for the retention is that the Mean Difference of -1.433 has
1.000 Sig. that is greater than the chosen alpha of .05. Therefore, there is no
significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of those who did
not receive Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and those who received
18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is
controlled for.
Null hypothesis 5 that “there is no significant difference between the
Intelligence Quotient of those who did not receive Lumosity training any
day (00minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per
day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for” is retained. Reason for
the retention is that the Mean Difference of .384 has Sig. of 1.000 that is
greater than the .05 chosen alpha. Therefore, there is indeed, no significant
difference between the Intelligence Quotient of those who did not receive
Lumosity training any day (00minpd) and their counterparts who received
24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is
controlled for.
Null hypothesis 6 that “there is no significant difference between the
Intelligence Quotient of those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training
per day (06minpd) and those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training
per day (12minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for” is retained. The
retention is because the Mean Difference of -1.477 has 1.000 Sig. that is
greater than .05 alpha. There is therefore no significant difference
statistically between the Intelligence Quotient of those who received 6
minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) and those who received 12
minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) when the Pre-test is
controlled for.
The null hypothesis 7 of “no significant difference between the
Intelligence Quotient of those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training
per day (06minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training
per day (18minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for” is retained. Reason
for retaining the null hypothesis 7 is that the Mean Difference of -.352 has
Sig. of 1.000 that is greater than the classically chosen alpha of .05. There is
therefore, no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of

871
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) and
those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) when
the Pre-test IQ is controlled for.
The null hypothesis 8 that “no significant difference between the
Intelligence Quotient of those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training
per day (06minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training
per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for” is retained (failed to
reject). This non-rejection is because the Mean Difference of 1.465 has
1.000 Sig. that is higher than .05 classically chosen alpha. Therefore, there
is, indeed, no significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity training per day (06minpd) and
those who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when
the Pre-test is controlled for.
Null hypothesis 9 of “no significant difference between the Intelligence
Quotient of those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day
(12minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day
(18minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for” is retained (failed to reject).
The reason for retaining the null hypothesis is that the Mean Difference of
1.125 has Sig. of 1.000 which is greater than the chosen alpha of .05.
Therefore, there is indeed, no statistically significant difference between the
Intelligence Quotient of those who received 12 minutes Lumosity training
per day (12minpd) and those who received 18 minutes Lumosity training
per day (18minpd) when the Pre-test IQ is eliminated or held constant.
The null hypothesis 10 that “there is no significant difference between
the Intelligence Quotient of those who received 12 minutes Lumosity
training per day (12minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for” is rejected.
This rejection is because the Mean Difference of 2.942* has Sig. of .019
which is less than the classically chosen alpha of .05. Therefore, there is a
statistically significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of those
who received 12 minutes Lumosity training per day (12minpd) and those
who received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for. The significant mean difference is in favour of
those who had 12 minutes Lumosity training per day. You can see that the
mean difference has asterisk attached to it as a sign that it is significant at
the .05 alpha level. Furthermore, the 95% Confidence Interval for
Difference Lower Bound and Upper Bound are both above zero, indicating

872
significance of the mean difference. It can quickly be noted that of all the
pairwise mean difference comparisons, this is the only one that is
significant statistically.
The null hypothesis 11 that “there is no significant difference between
the Intelligence Quotient of those who received 18 minutes Lumosity
training per day (18minpd) and those who received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test is controlled for” is retained
(failed to reject). Reason for the failure to reject null hypothesis 11 is that
the Mean Difference of 1.818 has Sig. of .547 that is greater than the
classically chosen alpha of .05. Thus, the alternate hypothesis that “there is
a significant difference between the Intelligence Quotient of those who
received 18 minutes Lumosity training per day (18minpd) and those who
received 24 minutes Lumosity training per day (24minpd) when the Pre-test
is controlled for” is discarded. What seems to be like a mean difference
between the two levels of Lumosity training (18 minutes per day and 24
minutes per day) with regard to the post-test Intelligence Quotient when the
pre-test is controlled for, is merely a function of chance that is not
consistent; and cannot qualify for a significant difference.
In addition to testing 10 of the 11 null hypotheses, information in the
Pairwise Comparisons of Post-test IQ can very suitably be used to answer
the 11 research questions. The Pairwise Mean Difference in each
comparison, is an answer to the corresponding research question. For
research questions 2 and 3 for instance, the Mean Difference of -1.081 and
-2.558, respectively, could serve as the answers as illustrated in Table 11.2a.

Table 11.2a Answering of the 11 research questions

No Research Question Answer Hypothesis
Decision
i. What is the effect of Lumosity Training 00minpd Significant
Schedule on the subjects’ Intelligence M=106.882 F(4, 144) =
Quotient (IQ) when the influence of the SD=11.02875 3.177, p <
Pre-treatment IQ test has been controlled 06minpd .05, ɳp2 =
for or held constant as measured by their M=107.963 .081
means and standard deviations? SD=11.30334
(That is: Do the five Groups differ in 12minpd
their IQ means and standard deviations

873
 when the influence of the IQ pre-test has M=109.440
been held constant for?) SD=11.10328
18minpd
M=108.316
SD=11.20247
24minpd
M=106.498
SD=10.67901
ii. What is the difference between the IQ of -1.081 Not
those who did not receive Lumosity significant
training any day (00minpd) and those p > .05
who received 6 minutes Lumosity
training per day (06minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
iii. What is the difference between the IQ of -2.558 Not
those who did not receive Lumosity significant
training any day (00minpd) and those p > .05
who received 12 minutes Lumosity
training per day (12minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
iv. What is the difference between the IQ of -1.433 Not
those who did not receive Lumosity significant
training any day (00minpd) and those p > .05
who received 18 minutes Lumosity
training per day (18minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
v. What is the difference between the IQ of .384 Not
those who did not receive Lumosity significant
training any day (00minpd) and those p > .05
who received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
vi. What is the difference between the IQ of -1.477 Not
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity significant
training per day (06minpd) and those p > .05

874
 who received 12 minutes Lumosity
training per day (12minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
vii. What is the difference between the IQ of -.352 Not
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity significant
training per day (06minpd) and those p > .05
who received 18 minutes Lumosity
training per day (18minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
viii. What is the difference between the IQ of 1.465 Not
those who received 6 minutes Lumosity significant
training per day (06minpd) and those p > .05
who received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
ix. What is the difference between the IQ of 1.125 Not
those who received 12 minutes Lumosity significant
training per day (12minpd) and those p > .05
who received 18 minutes Lumosity
training per day (18minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
x. What is the difference between the IQ of 2.942 Significant
those who received 12 minutes Lumosity p < .05
training per day (12minpd) and those
who received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?
xi. What is the difference between the IQ of 1.818 Not
those who received 18 minutes Lumosity significant
training per day (18minpd) and those p > .05
who received 24 minutes Lumosity
training per day (24minpd) when the
Pre-test is controlled for?

Univariate Tests

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The Univariate Tests table presents the Post Test IQ Sum of Squares, df,
Mean Square, F, Sig., and Partial Eta Squared for Contrast and Error. The F
is 3.177 with .016 Sig. The F of 3.177 is statistically significant as the Sig.
of .016 is less than .05 alpha; and the Partial Eta Squared is .081. That is,
the omnibus null hypothesis tested by the Univariate Tests should be
rejected [F(4, 144) = 3.177, p < .05, ɳp2 = .081]. This F indicates the effect
of LumosityTS on the basis of linearly independent pairwise comparisons
among the estimated marginal means.

Profile Plots
The Profile Plots serve as pictorial illustration of answers to the research
questions. The Plots indicate the Estimated Marginal Means of Post-test
Intelligence Quotient as a function of the Lumosity training schedule of
00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd, 18minpd, and 24minpd. The covariates
appearing in the model on which the Profile Plots is based was evaluated at
the following values: Pre-test IQ = 105.9667.

SECTION B: ONE-WAY ANOVA AS FOLLOW-UP

TEST: Oneway Descriptives
The Oneway Descriptives table is a display of the N, Mean, Std. Deviation,
Std. Error, 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Lower Bound and Upper
Bound, the Minimum and Maximum of Intelligence Quotient for each of
the LumosityTS levels (00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd, 18minpd, and
24minpd) at the Pre-test Intelligence Quotient (Pre-test IQ) and at the Post-
test Intelligence Quotient (Post-test IQ). For instance, the N is 30 for each
of the LumosityTS levels both at Pre-test IQ and Post-test IQ. At the Pre-
test IQ, the Mean is 106.3333 for 00minpd, 104.3333 for 06minpd,
106.1333 for 12minpd, 104.0000 for 18minpd, and 109.0333 for 24minpd.
The Total has 150 N and 105.9667 Mean. That is, at the Pre-test IQ, the
Intelligence Quotient means ranged from 104.0000 to 109.0333.
At the Post-test IQ, the Intelligence Quotient has the Mean of 107.2333
for 00minpd, 106.4000 for 06minpd, 109.6000 for 12minpd, 106.4333 for
18minpd, and 109.4333 for 24minpd. The Total has 150 N and 107.8200
mean. That is, at the Post-test IQ, the Intelligence Quotient means ranged

876
from 106.4000 to 109.6000 in no particular order. While the mean for Total
during Pre-test IQ is 105.9667, the mean for Total during Post-test IQ is
107.8200. All the other values in the table can easily be read and interpreted
in a similar manner.

Test of Homogeneity of Variances

This table displays the Levene Statistic, df1, df2, and Sig. for four different
parameters (Based on Mean, Based on Median, Based on Median and with
adjusted df, and Based on trimmed mean) for Pre-test IQ and for Post-test
IQ. In each of the instances, the Sig. is greater than .05. Therefore, the
ANOVA assumption of equality of variances is met (not violated).

ANOVA
The ANOVA table has shown that for Pre-test IQ, the Sum of Squares
Between Groups is 483.067, df Between Groups is 4, and the Mean Square
Between Groups is 120.767. The Within Groups at Pre-test IQ has
16189.767 Sum of Squares, 145 df, and 111.654 Mean Square. The Total
Sum of Squares and df are respectively 16672.833 and 149. The F is 1.082
with .368 Sig. Since the Sig. of .368 is greater than the classically chosen
.05 alpha, the omnibus null hypothesis of no significant effect of Lumosity
training schedule on Intelligence Quotient at the Pre-test is retained (not
rejected). The Effect Size, measured with Partial Eta Squared is .029 that is
got by dividing the Sum of Squares Between Groups (SSB) by the Total
Sum of Squares (SST). That is, Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) for ANOVA in
equation as rationalized earlier in this chapter (Equation 11:3) is:

That is, Lumosity training schedule accounts for just 2.9% of the
variance in Pre-test Intelligence Quotient (Pre-test IQ). With the complete
randomization done to constitute the five groups to arrive at the treatment
condition that each of the groups was to have, the IQ of the subjects across
the groups before exposure to the experimental treatment was bound to be

877
about equal, not different statistically exactly as confirmed by this result
that the p > .05.
At the Post-test IQ, the Between Groups has 301.640 Sum of Squares, 4
df, and 75.410 Mean Square. The Within Groups at the Post-test IQ has
16690.500 Sum of Squares, 145 df, and 115.107 Mean Square. The Total
Sum of Squares and df are 16992.140 and 149, respectively. At the Post-test
IQ, the F is .655 with .624 Sig. The Sig. (.624) is greater than the
classically chosen alpha of .05. Therefore, the omnibus null hypothesis of
no significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on Intelligence Quotient
at the Post-test is retained (not rejected). The Effect Size as measured with
Partial Eta Squared is .018. In equation form, Partial Eta Squared (ɳp2) for
One-Way ANOVA is as given earlier as Equation 11:3:

The Effect Size (Partial Eta Squared) implies that Lumosity training
schedule accounts for only 1.8% of variance in the Post-test Intelligence
Quotient (Post-test IQ). It could be deduced at this point as a confirmatory
evidence that if not for the very special role that ANCOVA plays, there
could not have been a significant effect of Lumosity training schedule on
Intelligence Quotient at the Post-test when the influence of the Pre-test has
been controlled for as revealed by the ANCOVA results where the F
(3.177) was significant (p < .05). I mean that while with the ANCOVA, F
(3.177) was significant (p < .05); with ANOVA, F (.655) is insignificant (p
> .05) because ANCOVA statistically increases the power and precision of
the F test by increasing the F ratio via eradication of the effect of the
concomitant variable that is called covariate from the dependent variable.

Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons with Bonferroni

This table has shown the Multiple Comparisons Pairwise Mean Difference
(I-J), Std. Error, Sig., and 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound and
Upper Bound of Intelligence Quotient for the five levels of LumosityTS
(00minpd, 06minpd, 12minpd, 18minpd, and 24minpd) for both the Pre-test
IQ and Post-test IQ. At the Pre-test IQ, none of the Pairwise Comparisons is

878
significant as there is no Mean Difference with asterisk because for each
Mean Difference, the Sig. is greater than .05 alpha.
At the Post-test IQ too, none of the Pairwise Comparisons is significant
statistically because the Sig. in each of the Pairwise Comparisons is greater
than the classically chosen alpha of .05. Consequently, there is no asterisk
attached to any of the Pairwise Mean Differences. The total absence of
asterisk in the Mean Differences show that no single mean difference is
significant at the .05 alpha level. That is, Lumosity training schedule has no
significant effect on Intelligence Quotient, both at the Pre-test IQ and at the
Post-test IQ.
Note that while the Multiple Comparisons results of the Post-test
Intelligence Quotient in the ANOVA was not precise and powerful enough
to depict a significant Mean Difference between any pair of the means; the
Pairwise Comparisons in the ANCOVA was powerful and precise enough to
spot a statistically significant difference among the Post-test means when
the Pre-test IQ was held constant, controlled for or eliminated. The mean
difference between 12minpd and 24minpd of Lumosity training schedules is
significant in the ANCOVA Post-test IQ, but it is not significant in the
ANOVA Post-test IQ.

Means Plots
There are two Means Plots, one for Pre-test IQ and the other for Post-test
IQ. The first Means Plots is for the Pre-test IQ and it shows that for each of
the five levels of LumosityTS, the mean is approximately within 104 and
109. The second Means Plots clearly shows that the means range closely
from approximately 106.40 for 06minpd Lumosity training group to 109.60
for 12minpd Lumosity training group. The IQ means do not vary widely
enough for any significant difference. So, conclusively, Lumosity training
schedule has no significant effect on the Intelligence Quotient. The pattern
of the curves in the two Means Plots show similarity which depicts
association or relationship between the Pre-test Intelligence Quotient (Pre-
test IQ) and the Post-test Intelligence Quotient (Post-test IQ) across the five
experimental conditions.

SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS

879
ANCOVA was executed for the effect of Lumosity training schedule
(LumosityTS) on Intelligence Quotient Post-test (Post-test IQ) when the
effect of the Intelligence Quotient Pre-test (Pre-test IQ) is controlled for,
held constant or eliminated. The assumptions for execution of ANCOVA
were met as the Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances was not
significant (p > .05) and the covariate (Pre-test IQ) had significant linear
relationship with the dependent variable (Post-test IQ) [F(1, 144) =
1148.963, p < .05, ɳp2 = .889]. The ANCOVA of the main concern in the
study showed a statistically significant effect of LumosityTS on Intelligence
Quotient when the Pre-test IQ is controlled for [F(4, 144) = 3.177, p < .05,
ɳp2 = .081]. To ascertain the pairwise mean differences that were significant
statistically, Pairwise Comparisons done revealed significant Mean
Difference (MD) for only one pair, 12minpd and 24minpd, [MD = 2.942, p
< .05]. All the other Pairwise Comparisons showed total lack of significant
Mean Difference (MD). For instance, between 00minpd and 06minpd [MD
= -1.081, p > .05]; 00minpd and 12minpd [MD = -2.558, p > .05]; and
00minpd and 18minpd [MD = -1.433, p > .05]; 00minpd and 24minpd [MD
= .384, p > .05]; between 06minpd and 12minpd [MD = -1.477, p > .05];
06minpd and 18minpd [MD = -.352, p > .05]; 06minpd and 24minpd [MD
= 1.465, p > .05]; 12minpd and 18minpd [MD = 1.125, p > .05]; and
between 18minpd and 24minpd [MD = 1.818, p > .05]. Profile Plots was
drawn to pictorially illustrate the Intelligence Quotient clustered Mean
Differences across the five levels of LumosityTS.
The One-Way ANOVA that was done was as a follow-up to ascertain the
results supposing the Pre-test IQ was not controlled for. Results showed that
effect of LumosityTS on the Pre-test IQ is not significant at all [F(4, 145) =
1.082, p > .05, ɳp2 = .029]. Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons confirmed that
all of the pairwise comparisons were not significant as each Sig. was greater
than .05 alpha. Means Plots for the Intelligence Quotient at the Pre-test
showed means that ranged from approximately 104.00 to approximately
109.03.
Similarly, the effect of LumosityTS on the Post-test IQ was not
significant statistically [F(4, 145) = .655, p > .05, ɳp2 = .018]. Post Hoc
Multiple Comparisons showed total lack of significant Pairwise Mean
Difference (MD) between 00minpd and 06minpd [MD = -.83333, p > .05];
00minpd and 12minpd [MD = -2.36667, p > .05]; and 00minpd and

880
18minpd [MD = .80000, p > .05]; 00minpd and 24minpd [MD = -2.20000,
p > .05]. There was also lack of statistically significant Mean Difference
(MD) between 06minpd and 12minpd [MD = -3.20000, p > .05]; 06minpd
and 18minpd [MD = -.03333, p > .05]; 06minpd and 24minpd [MD =
-3.03333, p > .05]; 12minpd and 18minpd [MD = 3.16667, p > .05];
12minpd and 24minpd [MD = .16667, p > .05]. The Mean Difference (MD)
between 18minpd and 24minpd too was not significant [MD = -3.00000, p
> .05]. Means Plots was drawn to pictorially illustrate the Intelligence
Quotient Means across the five levels of LumosityTS. It showed that the
means are close by, ranging only from 106.40 for 06minpd to 109.60 for
12minpd without consistency of direction across the five LumosityTS
levels. The curves in the Means Plots for Pre-test IQ and Post-test IQ were
alike to indicate high positive correlation or association between the Pre-
test IQ and Post-test IQ.

Step 6. View the output once more, taking notes of necessary details,
particularly with regard to answering the research questions and testing the
null hypotheses.

Step 7. Save the output. Click Save this document icon in the Toolbar.
It produces the Save Output As dialog box. Type the suitable name for the
document, Chapter 11 Output 3.spv in this case, in the File name box and
click Save. With this, the output is well saved for future reference.

Step 8. Print the output and the data. The printing procedure is very simple
as explained repeatedly in previous chapters. Perform similar actions of
clicking the Print tool in the Toolbar; and clicking OK in the Print dialog
box.

Step 9. Exit IBM SPSS Statistics simply by closing each of the SPSS
windows that are open on your system.

Step 10. Shut down the computer. Click Start Power Shut
down.

881
ANCOVA WITH IBM SPSS SYNTAX FOR
LUMOSITYTS ON IQPOST
The SPSS Programming Language, Commands Syntax, for performing
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) is given in Syntax 11.2. All that is
required of you is to unmistakably type the Syntax with the aid of SPSS
prompting into the IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor. Whenever you are
to execute ANCOVA for data on some other variables, only the names and
labels of the variables that you will have to substitute with the variable
names in this example. Every other thing remains the same as shown in
Syntax 11.2. The Syntax 11.2 contains the exact SPSS Commands that can
be used to execute the ANCOVA in this example that deals with the effect
of Lumosity Training Schedule on Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

Syntax 11.2 Chapter 11 Syntax 2.sps

882
 The first part of the Syntax, from the beginning to the first period (full
stop), is used to execute the ANCOVA that is the core concern of this
example (effect of Lumosity Training on Intelligence Quotient when the
influence of the pre-treatment IQ test is completely eliminated, held
constant, or controlled for by statistically treating the IQ Pre-test as
covariate). The second part of the Syntax is used to perform One-Way
ANOVA (which is not the concern of this example really) but given here
merely to illustrate what the output could have been if not for the
elimination of the pre-test effect with the special statistical test, called
ANCOVA.
Switch on the computer and allow it to fully boot. Launch IBM SPSS
Statistics by clicking its icon on the computer. Wait until it gets
completely set and close the superimposed dialog box on the Data Editor.
Key in the data carefully without any mistake; after which you name and
label the variables accordingly. But since the data in question have already
been entered and saved earlier, simply retrieve the data. The data retrieval is
done by selecting File Open Data for the Open Data dialog
box to appear. Alternatively, it can be done by clicking the Open data
document icon in the Toolbar for the Open Data dialog box to appear.
Look for the name with which the data document was saved, Chapter 11
Table 2 Data.sav, click it and press the Enter key in the Keyboard. This
opens the data file as earlier exhibited in Figure 11.31.
Move cursor to and click Window to have its pulldown menu. In the
Window pulldown menu, click Go to Designated Syntax Window (see
Figure 11.51).

Figure 11.51 Window Go to Designated Syntax Window

883
 By clicking the Go to Designated Syntax Window, the IBM SPSS
Statistics Syntax Editor gets activated as shown in Figure 11.52.
Alternatively, click File, select New, and click Syntax to have the IBM
SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor. It is in this window that the Syntax 11.2,
given earlier, must be typed in accurately to perform the analysis.

Figure 11.52 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor

Key in the Syntax 11.2 with all accuracy. It is very simple to accurately
enter the Syntax because, once you type the first alphabet of each word or
phrase, SPSS automatically prompts you by providing words or phrases in
the Syntax Command that begin with the alphabet. You simply click the
very word or phased that you wanted to type. It is only the names and labels
of your variables that require you to type as you have done in the Variable
View. When you correctly key in the entire Syntax, the IBM SPSS
Statistics Syntax Editor will look like Figure 11.53.

884
 Figure 11.53 IBM SPSS Statistics Syntax Editor with the entered syntax

To have SPSS perform the analysis and produce the output in the
Viewer window, click Run and in its pulldown menu, click All. With this,
IBM SPSS Statistics performs the whole analysis and produces the results
in the IBM SPSS Statistics Viewer window as presented in Output 11.4.

Output 11.4 Chapter 11 Output 4.spv

885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
INTERPRETATION OF OUTPUT 11.4
Output 11.4 is the same as Output 11.3. While the latter (Output 11.3) was
arrived at through IBM SPSS Statistics dialog boxes point and click
method, the former (Output 11.4) was a product of IBM SPSS Statistics
Syntax application on the data. Therefore, the same interpretation for
Output 11.3 suitably goes for the Output 11.4. Any hypothesis that is
rejected, using Output 11.3 is also rejected with the use of Output 11.4. The
only Pairwise Multiple Comparison that is significant in Output 11.3 is the
one that is statistically significant in the Output 11.4; while the Pairwise
Multiple Comparisons that are not significant in Output 11.3 are also not
significant in Output 11.4.
Follow the remaining SPSS data analysis protocols to eventually shut
down your system.
View output

Save the output as Chapter 11 Output 4.spv and the Syntax as Chapter
11 Syntax 2.sps

893
 Print the Output and Syntax

Exit IBM SPSS

Shut down the system.

Surely, there is no unit of these protocols that you have not mastered.
But keep practicing them. The more the rehearsals done on them, the better
the level of mastery.

894
Appendix A: Minimum suitable sample
size from population

MINIMUM SAMPLE SIZE POPULATION

8.00 10.00
10.00 25.00
20.00 30.00
30.00 40.00
40.00 60.00
50.00 70.00
60.00 80.00
70.00 90.00
80.00 100.00
90.00 110.00
100.00 120.00
110.00 150.00
120.00 170.00
130.00 200.00
140.00 210.00
150.00 250.00
160.00 300.00
170.00 320.00
180.00 340.00

895
190.00 400.00
200.00 450.00
210.00 500.00
220.00 500.00
130.00 600.00
140.00 650.00
150.00 700.00
260.00 800.00
270.00 900.00
280.00 980.00
290.00 1,000.00
300.00 1,200.00
310.00 1,400.00
320.00 1,600.00
330.00 1,900.00
340.00 2,300.00
350.00 3,000.00
360.00 4,000.00
370.00 5,000.00
380.00 10,000.00
390.00 1,000,000.00
400.00 5,000,000.00
410.00 10,000,000.00
420.00 100,000,000.00
420.00 1,000,000,000.00
420.00 100,000,000,000.00

896
420.00 1,000,000,000,000.00

897
 Appendix B: IBM SPSS SYNTAX
Summary

Syntax 1.1 Chapter 1 Syntax 1.sps

FREQUENCIES VARIABLES=Gender
/STATISTICS=RANGE MINIMUM MAXIMUM MODE
/ORDER=ANALYSIS.
FREQUENCIES VARIABLES=Scores
/STATISTICS=RANGE MINIMUM MAXIMUM
STDDEV MEAN MEDIAN
/FORMAT=NOTABLE
/ORDER=ANALYSIS.

Syntax 2.1 Chapter 2 Syntax 1.sps

EXAMINE VARIABLES=ATEB BY MaritalStatus
/PLOT BOXPLOT STEMLEAF HISTOGRAM
/COMPARE GROUPS
/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES
/CINTERVAL 95
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOTOTAL.
EXAMINE VARIABLES=ATEB
/PLOT BOXPLOT STEMLEAF HISTOGRAM
/COMPARE GROUPS
/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES
/CINTERVAL 95
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOTOTAL.

Syntax 2.2 Chapter 2 Syntax 2.sps

898
MEANS TABLES=ATEB BY MaritalStatus
/CELLS=MEAN COUNT STDDEV MEDIAN GMEDIAN SEMEAN
SUM MIN
MAX RANGE FIRST LAST VAR KURT SEKURT SKEW
SESKEW HARMONIC GEOMETRIC SPCT NPCT.

Syntax 2.3 Chapter 2 Syntax 3.sps

DESCRIPTIVES VARIABLES=ATEB
/SAVE
/STATISTICS=MEAN SUM STDDEV VARIANCE RANGE
MIN MAX SEMEAN KURTOSIS SKEWNESS.

Syntax 2.4 Chapter 2 Syntax 4.sps

FREQUENCIES VARIABLES=MaritalStatus
/ORDER=ANALYSIS.
FREQUENCIES VARIABLES=ATEB
/NTILES=4
/STATISTICS=STDDEV VARIANCE RANGE
MINIMUM MAXIMUM SEMEAN MEAN
MEDIAN MODE SUM SKEWNESS
SESKEW KURTOSIS SEKURT
/HISTOGRAM NORMAL
/ORDER=ANALYSIS.

Syntax 3.1 Chapter 3 Syntax 1.sps

T-TEST GROUPS=Gender(1 2)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=BSCS
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).

Syntax 3.2 Chapter 3 Syntax 2.sps

T-TEST GROUPS=MaritalStatus(0 1)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=ATEB

899
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).

Syntax 4.1 Chapter 4 Syntax 1.sps

T-TEST
/TESTVAL=72.24
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=LExEurope
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).

Syntax 4.2 Chapter 4 Syntax 2.sps

T-TEST
/TESTVAL=100
/MISSING=ANALYSIS
/VARIABLES=IQ_WJIII
/CRITERIA=CI(.95).

Syntax 5.1 Chapter 5 Syntax 1.sps

T-TEST PAIRS=Husband WITH Wife (PAIRED)
/CRITERIA=CI(.9500)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS.

Syntax 5.2 Chapter 5 Syntax 2.sps

T-TEST PAIRS=GS_A WITH AS_A (PAIRED)
/CRITERIA=CI(.9500)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS.

Syntax 6.1 Chapter 6 Syntax 1.sps

ONEWAY LumEfficacy BY BulbTypes
/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES HOMOGENEITY
/PLOT MEANS
/MISSING ANALYSIS
/POSTHOC=SCHEFFE BONFERRONI QREGW
ALPHA(0.05).

900
Syntax 6.2 Chapter 6 Syntax 2.sps
UNIANOVA LumEfficacy BY BulbTypes
/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/INTERCEPT=INCLUDE
/POSTHOC=BulbTypes(SCHEFFE
BONFERRONI QREGW)
/PLOT=PROFILE(BulbTypes) TYPE=BAR
ERRORBAR=NO MEANREFERENCE=NO
/EMMEANS=TABLES(BulbTypes)
COMPARE ADJ(LSD)
/PRINT ETASQ DESCRIPTIVE
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/DESIGN=BulbTypes.

Syntax 7.1 Chapter 7 Syntax 1.sps

UNIANOVA MetMath BY InsTec PRS
/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/INTERCEPT=INCLUDE
/POSTHOC=InsTec PRS(QREGW)
/PLOT=PROFILE(PRS*InsTec) TYPE=LINE ERRORBAR=NO
MEANREFERENCE=NO YAXIS=AUTO
/EMMEANS=TABLES(InsTec) COMPARE ADJ(BONFERRONI)
/EMMEANS=TABLES(PRS) COMPARE ADJ(BONFERRONI)
/EMMEANS=TABLES(InsTec*PRS)
/PRINT ETASQ DESCRIPTIVE
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/DESIGN=InsTec PRS InsTec*PRS.

Syntax 8.1 Chapter 8 syntax 1.sps

GLM Baseline Physiological Social Psychological
/WSFACTOR=Interventions 4 Polynomial
/MEASURE=Comprehensive_Health
/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/PLOT=PROFILE(Interventions) TYPE=BAR ERRORBAR=NO
MEANREFERENCE=YES

901
/EMMEANS=TABLES(Interventions) COMPARE
ADJ(BONFERRONI)
/PRINT=DESCRIPTIVE ETASQ
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/WSDESIGN=Interventions.
T-TEST PAIRS=Baseline Baseline Baseline Physiological
Physiological Social WITH Physiological
Social Psychological Social Psychological
Psychological (PAIRED)
/CRITERIA=CI(.9500)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS.

Syntax 8.2 Chapter 8 Syntax 2.sps

GLM Year1SP Year2SP Year3SP Year4SP Year5SP
/WSFACTOR=Year 5 Polynomial
/MEASURE=Performance
/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/PLOT=PROFILE(Year) TYPE=BAR ERRORBAR=NO
MEANREFERENCE=YES
/EMMEANS=TABLES(Year) COMPARE ADJ(BONFERRONI)
/PRINT=DESCRIPTIVE ETASQ
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/WSDESIGN=Year.
T-TEST PAIRS=Year1SP Year1SP Year1SP Year1SP
Year2SP Year2SP Year2SP Year3SP Year3SP
Year4SP WITH Year2SP Year3SP Year4SP Year5SP
Year3SP Year4SP Year5SP Year4SP Year5SP
Year5SP (PAIRED)
/CRITERIA=CI(.9500)
/MISSING=ANALYSIS.

Syntax 9.1 Chapter 9 Syntax 1.sps

GLM Dual20mg Retrieval20mg Elaboration20mg Dual40mg
Retrieval40mg Elaboration40mg Dual60mg
Retrieval60mg Elaboration60mg
/WSFACTOR=MemDrug 3 Polynomial LearnStrategy 3 Polynomial

902
/MEASURE=LTMemory
/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/PLOT=PROFILE(MemDrug*LearnStrategy) TYPE=LINE
ERRORBAR=NO MEANREFERENCE=NO YAXIS=AUTO
/EMMEANS=TABLES(MemDrug) COMPARE ADJ(BONFERRONI)
/EMMEANS=TABLES(LearnStrategy) COMPARE
ADJ(BONFERRONI)
/EMMEANS=TABLES(MemDrug*LearnStrategy)
/PRINT=DESCRIPTIVE ETASQ
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/WSDESIGN=MemDrug LearnStrategy MemDrug*LearnStrategy.

Syntax 10.1 Chapter 10 Syntax 1.sps

MANOVA Science Technology Engineering Maths BY
Discipline(1,3)
/WSFACTORS=Stem(4)
/WSDESIGN=MWITHIN Stem(1) MWITHIN Stem(2)
MWITHIN Stem(3) MWITHIN Stem(4).
MANOVA Science Technology Engineering Maths BY
Discipline(1,3)
/WSFACTORS=Stem(4)
/DESIGN=MWITHIN Discipline(1) MWITHIN Discipline(2)
MWITHIN Discipline(3).

Syntax 10.2 Chapter 10 Syntax 2.sps

GLM Science Technology Engineering Maths
BY Discipline
/WSFACTOR=Stem 4 Polynomial
/MEASURE=Srep
/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/POSTHOC=Discipline(QREGW GH)
/PLOT=PROFILE(Stem*Discipline) TYPE=LINE
ERRORBAR=NO MEANREFERENCE=NO
YAXIS=AUTO
/EMMEANS=TABLES(Discipline) COMPARE
ADJ(BONFERRONI)

903
/EMMEANS=TABLES(Stem) COMPARE
ADJ(BONFERRONI)
/EMMEANS=TABLES(Discipline*Stem)
/PRINT=DESCRIPTIVE ETASQ
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/WSDESIGN=Stem
/DESIGN=Discipline.
MANOVA Science Technology Engineering Maths BY
Discipline(1,3)
/WSFACTORS=Stem(4)
/WSDESIGN=MWITHIN Stem(1) MWITHIN Stem(2)
MWITHIN Stem(3) MWITHIN Stem(4).
MANOVA Science Technology Engineering Maths BY
Discipline(1,3)
/WSFACTORS=Stem(4)
/DESIGN=MWITHIN Discipline(1) MWITHIN Discipline(2)
MWITHIN Discipline(3).

Syntax 11.1 Chapter 11 Syntax 1.sps

UNIANOVA NSPost BY Lumosity WITH NSPre
/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/INTERCEPT=INCLUDE
/PLOT=PROFILE(Lumosity) TYPE=LINE ERRORBAR=NO
MEANREFERENCE=NO YAXIS=AUTO
/EMMEANS=TABLES(Lumosity) WITH(NSPre=MEAN)
COMPARE ADJ(BONFERRONI)
/PRINT ETASQ DESCRIPTIVE HOMOGENEITY
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/DESIGN=NSPre Lumosity.
ONEWAY NSPre NSPost BY Lumosity
/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES HOMOGENEITY
/PLOT MEANS
/MISSING ANALYSIS
/POSTHOC=BONFERRONI ALPHA(0.05).

Syntax 11.2 Chapter 11 Syntax 2.sps

904
UNIANOVA IQPost BY Lumosity WITH IQPre
/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/INTERCEPT=INCLUDE
/PLOT=PROFILE(Lumosity) TYPE=LINE ERRORBAR=NO
MEANREFERENCE=NO YAXIS=AUTO
/EMMEANS=TABLES(Lumosity) WITH(IQPre=MEAN)
COMPARE ADJ(BONFERRONI)
/PRINT ETASQ DESCRIPTIVE HOMOGENEITY
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/DESIGN=IQPre Lumosity.
ONEWAY IQPre IQPost BY Lumosity
/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES HOMOGENEITY
/PLOT MEANS
/MISSING ANALYSIS
/POSTHOC=BONFERRONI ALPHA(0.05).

905
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content/uploads/Multiple-Prediction-of-Research-Productivity-H-
Index.pdf

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university curriculum with LMSs in the changing world. European
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 Please Leave a Review on Amazon

If this book has enabled you to perform some statistical analysis efficiently,
I’d be very grateful if you took a few minutes to write an honest review on
Amazon.
Your review would be an encouragement for the actualization of the
dream of making more individuals skilful in data analysis with SPSS.
Thank you very much.

Peter James Kpolovie

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