UNIT - 1 GENERAL Asp ECTS OF ENERGY AUDITING INTRODUCTION We are all aware that to run a bi ‘ v usiness, whether 8 or commercial establishment, energy is required eae It may be in the form of electri i Q E city any other form. Most of the energy is obtained from fossil fuel, which is precious and sa also. Therefore, ee should be used in such a way that wastage is minimised Energy auditing is required to identify and minimise the wasta 50 of 8 I ge of energy so th Eevee ‘Gy So that the use of energy ENERGY AUDIT An energy audit is an inspection'survey and analysis of energy flows for energy conservation in a.building, system to reduce the amount of energy input into the system without affecting the output. TYPES OF ENERGY AUDITING The type of Energy Audit to be performed depends on: Function and type of industry. The Energy Audit can be classified into the following two types. (i) Preliminary Audit (ii) Detailed Audit PRELIMINARY ENERGY AUDIT Preliminary energy audit is performed as follows. 1. Establish energy consumption in the organization. Estimate the scope for saving Identify the most likely and the easiest areas for attention. identify the immediate improvements for energy saving. set 2 ‘reference point’ identify areas for more detailed study or measurement. onr on cl“ DETAILED ENERGY AUDIT gives the most accurate esti all projects, accounts This type of audit g Tt considers the interactive effects of md inchdes detailed energy cost saving cak systems, assumptions of p' is then compa’ equme: This is based on the energy ations of energy use. This estimated use is mons and caky charges. BENEFITS OF ENERGY AUDIT ‘Some of the benefits of energy auditing are as follows 1. Usage of energy is quantified. Analysis and identification of losses, in mechanical systems, chemical process Development of energy monitoring system. 4. Conservation of energy and reduction in energy cost. 5. Use of right technology. Use of right equipment for improving efficiency. Reusing and recycling of energy. Benchmarking values of energy consumption. Development of preventive maintenance and quality control programs. REQUIREMENTS TO CONDUCT ENERGY AUDIT The requirements to conduct energy audit are as follows To provide a budget for carrying out-energy audit. To implement the recommendations of the energy auditor. 2 3. Identification of personel for co-ordinating the various activities related with ene auditing. 4. Deciding methodology for detailed energy audit. 5. Previous experience of the energy auditors. 6. Identification of process, plant, equipments for energy audit. 7. Hiring of energy auditing firm. After identification of the plant and the equipments for conducting energy audit Secide the detailed energy auditing methodology.33 METHODG, oy FOR ENERGY AUDIT isiricienss structured methodology is helpful in ¢: ing out th 2 iclont way, Methodology varies from onw and no enorgy audit in a more objectives of eneray auditing should bo futiled ge ton t© Itis important that the methodology seen " adopted o| auditing. Somo of the steps for finalising the aa a Et cS Preparation of single tine dia 2. Collection of bas ary) er, the another. Howe’ T mathodology may be adopted. 'ovin to the extern! auditor before hodology for energy audit are given below. gram of clectrical a: © line data related to energy o tud it ‘ ly of annual energy bill and energy consumption pattern. 4, Identification of energ : y const it eal ‘umption per unit of product and also cost of energy per ystem, onsumption. 5. Site is to be prepared in consultation be present. the plant engineer, so that personel could sur i i Measurements of various electrical parameters of electrical equipments like motor input power, current, power factor, efficiency at existing toad. “During this period establish the load variation of equipments, monitoring of load on continuous basis is required. Energy and material balance, energy loss and wastage analysis are to be done. 8. Provisions in electricity tariff should be analysed to reduce the power cost. 9. Training programme for general awareness may be kept in the scope of energy auditor. | 10. The energy auditor may also study the existing energy monitoring and reporting scheme. ENERGY AUDIT REPORT Energy audit report is a very important document and it should be preserved for future reference. The report should be well-structured and should cover all the aspects of energy auditing. In general Energy audit report should cover the following points 1. Executive summary 2. General aspects of energy auditing 3. Energy tracking system. 4, Utilities infrastructure 5. Assessments and recommendations 6. Operation and maintenance practices.3.4 / Executive Summary The first part of the report should be executive summary. In this the following 5. should be covered, " 1, Find the existing energy consumption and existing energy cost 2. Variation in the energy consumption from the base line or benchmarked Values 3. Recommendation may be classified into short term measure, medium measure and long divided term measure. 4. Benchmarking or energy consumption, equipment wise and plant Wise if benchmarking is not done earlier. 5. Improvement in operation and maintenance practices which will directly or indi affect the energy consumption General aspects of energy auditing The following points are covered under this heading 1. General description of the organization where audit and its activities has b conducted. 2. Audit scope, schedule and methodology. 3. A brief description of facilities like electrical systems and other utilities. 4. Data collection and investigation. Energy tracking system The utilisation of energy for a certain time. Period is collected. Some important poirs for energy tracking system are as follows. ; 1. Collection of data with data logging instrument t 0 track the energy consumption pattern of the equipments. 2. 3. Establishment, of baseline energy usage for all process in KWhr per unit output. Comparing the present energy usage with benchmarked data. Utilities infrastructure Information related with existing electrical,ASSe 8s oye and Hoconmendation Uy the rat and CoNeTTIAY PALLOE the energy ve bightignted. SPRY AHUIELS por tho fatloving points shoul ~ Pertormanee evatuatio 1 Hommanes evaluation ot olectical wyntons anid nana equipmente fa List of options: WW tern of no eont, payback period, . Medi and high investment cont inoluding implementation plan tor "p ° ; tation plan for energy saving scheme, tine wehedulo for Innpte of schemes, availability of equipments and venie ENERGY CONSERVATION BUILDING CODE (ECC) snuation 8 Lor all above sehemos Energy conservation building code has Bray conservation building code has boon dovolopod by Intornational Institute of Energy conservation (WEG), ECBC is mandatory for all commorcial buildings why connected load is 500 KW or more or the maximum dor 40 Mind is GOO KVA or moro, This code: is also mandatory for the building complexes having aroa of 1000 Sq.m or more. This specifies the efficiency Fequirement for the motors used for various purpo! building. Some of the requirements specitied in this code are givon bolow. ode. in the 3 All permanently connected poly phase motors of 0.375 KW or more in the building are expected to operate for more than 1500 hours per yoar and motors of 500 KW or more are expected to operate 500 hours per year with minimum acceptable nominal full load efficiency as shown in Table (1). ‘Table 1 Mat mum Acceptable Motor Efficiency Motor size (KW) | Efficiency in %, 2 pole | Efficiency in %, 4 pole VA 82.2 83.8 1.5 84.1 85. 2.2 85.6 86.4 3.0 86.7 87.4 4.0 87.6 88.3 5.5 88.5 89.2 75 89.5 oot 11.0 90.6 1-0 15.0 91.3 918a yy 36 >. Motor rating should not exceed more than 200% of the calculated maximum jg 3. Motor name plato will indicate the nominal full load efficiency and also full jo. powor factor "ad 4. If the re-winding of motors are not properly done, the damaged motors shouts replaced with new energy officient motor. 5. Certificates shall be obtained and kept in record indicating the motor efficier After re-winding, a new efficiency test should be conducted and similar recor also maintained. SQUIRREL CAGE MOTORS INTRODUCTION ; Squirrel cago induction motors are most commonly used in industry. They cove, almost 90% load of an industry. These motors aro very rugged, reliable and efficien, Tho officiency of any standard squirrel cago induction motor varies form 80% to 90%, while tho efficiency of enorgy efficient motor may be as high as 95%, However the efficiency depends on KW rating of motors, loading, powor quality of the system and various other factors. DC motors and slip ring motors wore used for speed control and high starting torque applications, But with advancomont in technology variable speed drive, DC and slipring induction motor aro replaced by Squirrol cage induction motor. Squirrel cage induction motor roquiros loas maintonanco than D.C motor and slip ring induction motor. Due to squirrol cago induction motors are commonly used in the industries. above roasor CONSTRUCTION OF SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR An Induction motor consists ‘of two main parts namoly stator and rotor. There are {wo typos of Induction motors, Thoy aro squirrel cago Induction motor and stip ring Induction motor, Tho stator construction Is samo for the two types of Induction Motor, The difference In both the typos of motor is only in the construction of the rotor. STATOR CONSTRUCTION Stator Framo Ila tw tho form of cylinder, ‘This is used for supporting the stator, To fix the termina! box, proviaion Is atrangod at tho outor surface. At the circular portions on both ends of the framo, provision Is made to fit the ond cover with frame. Eyo bolt is fitted at the top of the frame, _The stat yesh Se lor core is rade up of larni i , ts punched and bolted together with the frame to amr ee ames . ae eddy current loss. In the inner periphery of the stator core slots are provided for housing the three phase winding. The windings are wound for a particular number poles. The number of poles selected depends upon the requirement of speed. Fig.9.1 shows the stator construction of 36 Induction motor. ROTOR CONSTRUCTION Three phase induction motors are classi construction. d into two types according to their rotor 4. Squirrel cage rotor. 2. Slip ring rotor Rotor shaft Squirrel cage Rotor ‘Skewed rotor stots Ball bearing, Fig.3.2 Squirel cage rotor7 wy 38 The rotor of squirrel cage motor is shown in Fig-3.2 1 punching, bolted togethe consists of laminated silicon ste This core is cylindrical in shape with slots on the outside surface. of copper bars. One bar is placed in each slot. All the ends of copper bars of e short circuited by copper end rings to form a closed circuit not possible to add any external resistance in series with the rotor c : speed control. Motor with this type of rotor is called squirrel cage Induction motor In squirrel cage rotors, the slots are semiclosed or totally closed. The slightly skewed (not parallel to the shaft) to avoid magnetic locking (cogging). Air gap and End shield The airgap between the stator and rotor is always very small. It is small as possible in order to have minimum airgap reluctance. For small rating m: the airgap is from 0.35mm to 0.65mm For large rating machines, the airgap is fro: to 1.5 mm The function of the two end shields is to support the rotor shaft. bearings and attached to the stator frame with the help of studs and bolts. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF INDUCTION MOTOR ey are fit When a three phase supply is fed to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic produced in the airgap of stator and rotor at synchronous speed. The-synchronous so depends on the frequency of supply and the number of poles of the win The synchronous speed can be calculated by the following formula Sycnchronous speed N, = 1208 f = Supply frequency in Hz P — — Number of poles This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor bars and an emf is induced in the rotor bars. (According to Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction). Since the rotor bars short circuited, the emf induces a current in the rotor bars. Due to the interaction of ror current and rotating magnetic field, a torque is produced. This torque rotates the rotor > the same direction in which the magnetic field rotates. The rotor tries to catch the spee: magnetic field but it never does so. Ifit does so, the relative speed would become zero @ “Yen there is no rotor induced emf, no rotor current and no torque to maintain rotat _'® will always be a difference between the speed of rotor and the magnetic field Sl this difference in speed and synchronous speed is called slip.Slip (8) = Whore, Nv, Synchronous « Deed N, = Rotor speod S= Slip n the motor is at noload, the rotor « When the motor is st at Speed will be ron eed andstill, the si De nearer to synchronous speed SUPPIY freq, P will be on the rotor ent eaters Be eney. i: be one and the rotor urrent frequency will be When the motor is loaded, rotor increases and hen increases. Due to this torque also ment of sufficient torque to ad condition of the motor. /elopment of full load torque. tth with di meet the load requirement. This condition is eaten For medium size motor a slip of 49, called full to; © will be sufficient for dev To get high efficiency motor, special de are listed below. 1. INS are incorporated in the machines, which Higher cross-section area of copper is used. Due to this the resistance will be low / ( Lee re as e ) and hence the copper loss will be low, 2. Increase the core length and hence in reduction in core loss. When length of core increases, R will in creases, (since r= £0 ). Hence the core loss is reduced a (since core loss = at) : 3. For the stampings low hysteresis loss magnetic material is used 4. To reduce eddy current loss, the stator and rotor should be specially designed. 5. To reduce windage loss, specially designed fan and fan cover is used. TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS This is one of the important characteristics, whenever a motor is selected for a particular load. The motor should be produced sufficient torque during starting period es well as during running. Fig. (8.8) shows the speed-torque characteristics of an ineuelt! motor, This motor has a moderate starting torque and the pull up torque exceeds load torque.un “wn (ret don i M a ak / Venere ‘ : o- Full ad vor a Pa a. life e eee ee eole allay Hive “ 7 1h u | eH Speed 11ig,3,3 Vorque-speed characteristic of motor The lorque-speed oharmoteristios of the motor and the driven equipment shou te ialohed, [the seleolad motor dapaolly Is greater than the load (.¢., over sized motor) vy, muol satoly Is obtained, “This results in Inefficient operation of motor and wastage of energy To Improve the offlolenoy of. oversized motor, one of he methods is 10 reduce the suprsy voltage, Heduotion in supply voltage will result in reduction in torque also (since T x v4 Hut this reduced torque vill nol do any harm, sines the motor is already oversized and ta: muoh torque is nol required, Meducing the supply voltage will result in reduction in exe loaner ve (vore loss in Aq) motor = - 3) and hence the efficiency of the motor is improved. During starting of motor, the rotor resistance plays an important part. If in resistance is more, slarting torque will be more (since T ~ hy) Torque is proportional to the square of the supply voltage and if the supply voltage § faduced 10 80% the torque will he reduced to 64%, Even at 80% of the supply voltage, Motor will cross the pull out torque and will reach the rated speed, If the voltage is furte feduoed, the motor will Hol be able to overcome the pull out torque and it will not reach 19% talod speed, The value of full load slip ranges from 0.02 to 0,05. Torque slip curve has st aiaht Jing near the zero slip (N, = NM). tis evittent from the curve that a small chang? © © slip Causes 4 large change In the forque, auu cLas SIFICATION OF LOADS FOR INDUCTION MOTOR Tw fi 3. ‘© types of loads are generally used in motors in an indust in an industry. Constant toa 1, Constant load torque 2. Variable toad torque Example Lift, crane and recij my mi 5 a iproce yd rign(WSrauells etal PS comes under the Constant load torque cat ee a equiments, and it remains constant throughtout the Centrifugal pum IPS, fans, category. When the speed incramenn ss, ComPressors comes under variable load torque ases, the torque and the power requirement increases. OPERATING PARAMETERS OF MOTOR Motor power factor ee X i es ezne)inducslonjenetone @ reactive load and the powerfactor is lagging. The lightly | | ‘gging power factor than a loaded motor. Both active and reactive power is required for operation of a motor. Maghetic field is produced by the reactive power (KVAR) while the active power (KW) produces the torque for real work. A lightly loaded motor has more reactive power component and therefore it has poor power factor. If the motor is directly connected with the grid (main supply line), this reactive power is supplied by the grid resulting in loading of the grid. Therefore Electricity supplier (EB) are insisted to provide capacitor banks for power factor improvement. if a capacitor bank is provided in the motor the reactive power will be fulfilled by the capacitor bank. Motor efficiency Efficiency is another important factor which should be taken into account while The efficiency of any motor can be difined as the ratio of mechanical ut. All motors available in the market are not same iciency at its rated purchasing a motor. power output to electrical power inp! efficiency . The name plate of an energy efficient motor indicates its effi voltage, speed and load. Efficiency varies with the loading of the motor. For lightly loaded motor the efficiency will be less than the fully loaded motor. The efficiency also depends on the operating voltage frequency etc. The price of an energy efficient motor is 15 efficient motors. A standard motor has an efficiency of aa efficient motor has an efficiency. of 92% to 95%. The formula for efficiency is % to 30% more than the standard fF 85% to 92%. While an energy Output power . 199 Input power % Efficiency Output power x 100 = (output power + motor josses)MOTOR LOSSES into two parts. The losses can be divide 1. Constant losses of core losses 2. Variable losses Core losses Core losses consists of hyteresiss losses and eddy current losses. The cor, The core losses can be reduced by incras, pr 6 = Sere e the length of the core and therefore the flux density gets reduced ( _ * detends upon the flux density of the core the core of the energy efficient motor is lengthened. This increases the weight of the ma The core loss can be reduced by using thin silicon laminations. Windage and friction losses The friction loss is due to friction in motor bearings. The windage loss is due to po,,, consumed by the ventilation fans and other rotating element of the motor. The bearing depends on the bearing size, type, speed of the motor, load on the motor and the lubricas., used. The friction loss is fixed for a particular design of motor and comparatively smaj Copper losses in stator and Rotor Copper losses constitute almost 50% of total losses in a motor. Stator copper make up to 66% of total copper loss in the motor. The reduction in copper losses results overall losses and increase in efficiency. The quantity of copper and cross section area + the copper wire is more in energy efficient motors. Hence the resistance of stator wince: gets reduced. Hence the stator copper losses is reduced in energy efficient motor. . Rotor current depends on the slip. Rotor losses are also cailed slip losses. If slips reduced, rotor losses will get reduced. This is done by increasing the mass of rotor bey and end rings. Higher conductivity copper is used to reduce the losses in the rotor motors also have aluminium bars resulting in reduction in slip, but aluminium has | conductivity than copper. While replacing a standard efficiency motor with energy effcie" motor, low slip and high speed should be taken into account. Some of th: Stray load losses Stray load losses are the losses duo to leakage fluxes induced by the load curren’ This losses are increased with increaso of load current. Stray losses depend upon the following factors. 1. Stator winding design a 2. Ratio of air gap length to rotor slot opening.AS Ratio of number of rotor slots to stator plots ean be reduce ao iced by caroful dosign of the motor he losses are distributed a follows, Stator copper to: ~ 38% Rotor copper loss, . Core loss oe re ~ 18% Friction and windage loss — 2%, Stray load loss 19%, MEASUREMENT OF EFFICIENCY There are two types of efficiencies used in motor, 1. Nominal efficiency 2. Guaranteed efficiency 1, Nominal e: iency This efficiency is the efficiency obtained by testing a sample motor from a batch of motors of same specification. 2. Guaranteed efficiency It is the efficiency for which manufacturer gives a commitment that the officioncy of motors supplied by them will be equal to or more than the guaranteed by thom. Standards Following is the list of some of thé International standards for testing the efficiency. IEEE — 112 (Institution of Electronic and Electrical Engineers) IEC — 34-2 (International Electro-technical Ccommission) JEC - 37 (Japanese Electro-technical Committee) BS — 269 (British Standards) CSA - 390 (Canadian Standards Association) IS = 4889-Methods of determination of efficiency of rotating machine (Bureau of Indian Standard) standards. Because the he i i ording to different Baraca aR ea Hered 5 different standards. methods of measuring efficiency and the assumptions differ ina 3.14 scording to IEC standard, assumption is made that the Stray losses For xii accord roa Power. Bul in JEG standard, tho assumption is that the and it is 0.5% of stray load ar os, 'S 8789-specities the values of nominal efficiency, full load Speed, full loag 789-speci od , sta break away torque in percentage of full load torque of a standard motor ( UP 0 B7Ky) In IS : 12615 — two types of effiency are mentioned. They are 1. Improved efficiency 2. Higher effieniency The Indian standards Specily the determination of efficiency by summation ofy method, which is described b low, Measurement of Resistance (235 1) Pper winding. if aluminium winding is used, 232 Should be replaced with 225. The value of resistance should be Corrected for 2 operating temperature at full load of the motor. The oj class A insulation, Perating temperature is 75°C fo: Slip measurement 'S:4889 recommends for direct 1. 8. Magnet methogWAS Stropoacope mothod Is. tho most common mo this Methog q single black Madial tino io paintod on ¢ ckgrou no slip is MeasUted by ¢ bat ground, Tho slip ¥ counting the backward motion of the bla "given Period of timo. thod uned for monsuromont of slip. tn One end of tho shaft againat the white ok line for a Loading of motor The motor is loaded by dynamomotor and output may be cata formula ulated by tho following Tx RPM “oa Where, T is torque is Kgm. RPM is the speed of rotation per minuto. No Load Test This test is conducted to find out the following points 1. Noload current 2. Core losses 3. Friction and windage losses The motor is run on noload at rated voltage. Then note the frequency, input power, voltage and current. The input power is the sum of core losses, Copper loss (I2R) in stator and friction and windage losses. The copper losses ([?'R) are subracted from the input power and the remaining losses will be sum of friction and windage losses and core losses. 0 Voltage —— Fig.3.4 Graph for friction and windage losses and iron losses oe‘_. S808 {OM the comp If it is desired to separate the friction and windage | current and input power are measured at different values of voltage and up to 45, voltage. Then voitage is reduced upto a point where further reduction in voltage the current. The stator copper losses (I? R) are deducted from the input power ra, fing » curve is drawn between the watts and voltage. The curve [ine Is extonded backs, that it cuts the y-axis at a point ‘A’ as shown in fig. (3.4) windage losses. If we plot a curve using the value of square of The length OA voltage, then a «, line will be obtained. By extending this line backwards it cuts the point at 8 in yags length OB is friction “and windage loss. DETERMINATION OF ENERGY SAVING OR FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED .. ENERGY SAVING IN INDUCTION MOTORS The energy saving depends on the following factors 1. Load at which motor is operating 2. Running hours 3. Electricity tariff 4. Motor size 5. Type of motor i.e., standard efficiency motor or energy efficient mets: The following formula is used for calculating the Energy saving = KW [se Sen EB & The output at which the motor is operating. Efficiency of standard motor at the operating load. where, KW E, = E, = Efficiency of energy efficiency motor at the same load. R= Running hours in a year. If this energy saving is multiplied by the costunit of electrical energy then we» the total amount for the saved energy. The efficiency varies with the load. Theres? comparison between efficiency of a standard motor and an energy efficiency motor is ME for the same load. : ' Problem ; A 50 KW induction motor with 86% present full load efficiency is being conse nc placement by an 89% efficiency motor. What will be the savings in energy if he oe works for 6000 Hrs. per year and cost of energy is Rs.4.50/KWh?47 Given Output of the induction motor = 5OKW Standard efficiency of motor (E,) E, = 86% Efficiency of energy etticient motor (E,) = 89% Motor working Hours (R) 6000 Hi * rs Cost of energy = Rs.4.50/ Kwh Savings in energy -4 Solution Energy saving = Kw [100 _ 100 E, E, = 50|100 _ 100 | x 6000 86 89 " 300000 (0.039195) 11758.55 Kwh Energy saving x cost / Kwh 11758.55 x 4.5 = Rs.52913.25 DETERMINATION OF LOAD Saving in energy cost The load factor can be calculated by the following formula. p, = E, Where, KW, = Name plate rating of motor. E, = Efficiency as per name plate. E, Measured output at which the motor is working Measured efficiency at which motor is working, Pe Load factor = 5ASSESSMENT OF ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY The cost of energy olficient motor is 15% to 20% more than the cost of stan efficiency motor because of better design and use of high quality material. Since losses will be less, the extra cost can be recovered in a short duration of tine Following methods are used to assess the economic feasibility of investment 1. Simple payback period 2. Net present valuo 3. Life cycle cost method. The simple payback period is the most commonly used method in industrial plan Most plant engineers desire that the investment is made in energy efficient motor sha “ be recovered within a short period of one to three years through energy saving. +. simple payback period is the ratio of cost of new motor and costs of energy saved plus salvage value of tine old motor. The net pressent value is defined as the difference between the present worth of ihe saving and the irnvestment made. The residual life of the equipment is considered. The follovying formula is used to calculate the present net worth of the savings. Pp (14% where, =: Present worth F P = Net annual saving Discount rate N ris the yearly rate for fall of value of money. " Year of saving After calculating the present value for a predetermined number of year, it is compared with the investment. If the NPV is more. than the investment, only then the Investment is assumed to be favourable. Thie pre: sent worth calculation can be simplified for a period of years as per the following equation. : _ Pt +n-1) r(1+n’Lite oyote coat i the cont oF equipment trom pr M Procurement to the ee dinponal, To find out . to eyeto coat, the roReNt VAIO Of Lola cont of Ing i nlue is Adio with the PrOSUIOMONE CORE OF he oquipent Tek Maree oul This alue Is PATO tho cont of WO EqUIPMENIA of aim! Thin mathod Ia usoful when we com: HAT paramotors and similar operating conditions When comparing tho lit eyelo cont, it | i fons in compariaon with tho othor bu Joan CHOICE OF ENERGY & 8 found that tho capital cont of one of the equipment Nits tile eyete ovot tho ontira Mo eyele ' lilo cyolo cont Is more, This is due to the cost of CIENT MOTOR Lotus assumo that a working motor has fallod existing motor into operation attor gotting ro-windod officioncy motor or an onorgy ofticiont motor Tho only choice is putting back the 4 or purchasing a new standard In most of tho casos, it has boon observed that it is difficult to maintain the same efficiency alter re-winding. Somotimos tho officioncy goos down to a largo extent. The reason for decreasing of officiecy is increasing of corclosses due to anne in property of the core material. Many times the number of turns and the size of the wire is also not same as the original motor. Decrease in number of turn results in increase in starting current and reduction in torque. If the motor is too old and it has been rewinded for two times or more, it would be better to replace a new energy saving motor. A survey is required to find out the number of motors older than 15 years. Then the efficiency of these motor is calculated. If the motor is found to have less efficiency, then replace the motor with energy officiont motor. The larger rating motors should be targeted first, Because larger rating motor saves more energy. EFFECT OF VARIATION OF VOLTAGE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF MOTOR If the motor does not operate on voltage for which it is designed, then its efficiency decreases. When the voltage is varied, the operating parameters of the motor are affected. The normal power supply of the motor is designed as follows. 415 + 10% " Voltage Frequency = 50 Hz 45% Combined variation = + 10% Ambient temperature = 50 °C lane the \f the supply voltage and frequency is varied from the Se Uae motor Is to be de-rated as per the manufacturer f ll ecommendation.Over voltage Wihen the supply voltage in inc: point, the core will turated So 15% over voltage both efficiency and pone torque, and breakdown torque will increan wht ievert Under voltage If we compare the efficiencies of motors having differer the efficiency of higher speed motor will be slightly more than the low Similarly, the efficiency of motor with open enclosure will be slightly higher th enclosed rotor. EFFECT OF LOAD VARIATIONS ON EFFICIENCY AND POWER FACTOR The energy efficient motor works well on less than rated load also. The et: of energy efficient motor is almost flat beyond 60% of load. It means that no change in efficiency of the motor takes place beyond 60% of load. Therefo efficient motor is most suitable where load varies 60% to 100%. Energy efficient motor % Load ——— iciency of standard and energy efficient motor Fig.3.5 Comparison of effi Fig. 3.5 shows the com es parison of efficiency between standard and energy effice or. :Power tector ___ Any electrical equipment de which ig required for Gonoratng meen VPP of powes One produces the real work. The wae BC Feit and the othe. (Total power (RVA) = RVAR «Se DOMES De eactve power (KVAR) active power (KW) which sum of The Power factor iS the ratio of active power to total I Kw} A lightly loaded motor has lov Power ie,icos o = the electricity board i Bowertactor. If the power fa i VA | imposes penalty to the cae AAO falls below a certain consumers. UNBALANCED PHASE VOLTAGE 100) 8 30 8 $ = ‘% Unbatamce voling= Fig 3.6 Volage unbalance vs mots losses If the unbalanced voltage is fed to the motor, it will cause torque pulsation, vibration and increase in stress. The motor losses will increase end hence heating willl occur in the machine. ‘The unbalance in voltage is due to the following reasons. 4. Non uniformly distributed single phase load on the Sphase system. 2. “Unidentified single phase to ground fault. 3. Unbalance in supply from the electricity board. 4. Faulty operation of automatic powerfactor improvement equipment, il.3.22 19% of voltage unbala .co will increase the motor losses by 5% Fig.(3.8) she Shows , relation between the variation of voltage and the losses. a INSULATION SYSTEM due to failure of winding insulation. The main reason for Generally low voltage motors fail due to inte The motor fai insulation is due to temperature rise: short circuit. Because no extra insulation is provided between the turns of a coil «, varnish coating of copper wire. Inter-turn fault develops phase to ground fault or oy phase fault. Phase to ground fault damages the core also. Motor is protected by th fuses and thermal over load relay. Both of these protections do not give ade, protection for ground fault. The ground fault does not generate sufficient cur blowing of fuses and the thermal relays take time to operate. Hence a separate g, fault relay with CBCT (Core Balance Current Transformer) is provided to protect the rr, from ground fault. SERVICE FACTOR Service factor represents the margin of the motor capacity. For example if sen. factor of motor is 1.25, the motor should be capable to operate 125% increase in lo: REVIEW QUESTIONS " part-A 4. What are the requirements of energy audit? What are the different types of energy audit? (MQP - I) What is energy audit? (MQP- 1, Apr. 2014) What are the points covered in Energy Audit Report? (MQP - I) What are the benifits from Energy Audit? (MQP - Il) What are the operating parameters of the motor? 2. 3. 4 5. 6. What is the significance of knowing Energy cost? (MQP - I!) 7 8. What are the losses occur in squirrel cage motors? (Apr. 2014) 9. Write the expression for energy saving in induction motor. (Apr. 2014) ) 40. What are the effects load variation on efficiency of induction motor? (MaP =! 11. What are the effects variation of voltage on the performance of the motor? 12. Define service factor in motors. (MQP - I!) 13. Classify the loads for induction motors in the industries with examples. qr! on‘~~? opRanD 2 oN @ 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21% 22. 323 Part-B Explain the types of energy audit, Explain the benefits of energy audit. (Apr. 2014) State the requirements to conduct energy audit. (Apr. 2014) Explain the methodology for energy audit. (MAP - 1) Explain the energy audit report, Discuss in detail the scope of Energy Audit. (MP - 11) Explain the methodly for Energy audit. Explain the principle of operation of induction motor. Explain the special design feature for high efficiency motor. Explain the torque-speed characteristics of induction motor. Explain the operating parameters of induction motor. Explain the losses occur in induction motor. Explain how the efficiency is measured in induction motor? Explain how the energy saving is determined? Explain the assessment of economic feasibility. (Apr. 2014) Explain the choice of energy efficient motor. Explain the effect of variation of voltage on the performance of motor. Explain the effect of load variation of motor on efficiency and power factor. Explain the effect of unbalanced phase voltage on induction motor. Explain the insulation system in induction motors. A 50 Kw induction motor with 86% present full load efficiency is being considered for replacement by an 89% efficiency motor. What will be the savings in energy if the energy if the motor works for 6000 Hrs. per year and cost of energy is Rs.4.50/Kwh? (MQP - 1) Explain the various factors to be considered for energy saving in ae PayUNIT -1V TRANSFORMERS AND CABLES TRANSFORMERS INTRODUCTION ° Transformer is an integral part of an electrical sub-station, Bulk of industrial as ra 8s commercial load is supplied at medium or high voltages as per tho norms of the Sin, Electricity Boards. Because it is always advantageous to supply bulk load at medium or high voltage due to many reasons like reduction in transmission losses, botter voltage regulation etc. Step up transformers are required to step up the voltage at required level for transmis : of power. However the consumer's equipments are not suitable for tho voltage which is received ai their premises. Hence the voltage has to be stepped down, The distribution transformer is required to step down the voltage up to a level which is suitablo for the equipments installed at the consumer premises. In this way every electrical sub-station, the voltage is stepped up or stepped dovin according to the requirement, The medium voltages transmitted are 66KV, S3KV, 22KV and 11KV. These voltages are stepped down to 6.6 KV and 3.3KV as per the consumer requirement. The low voltage system has 415 volt. The efficiency of transformer varies between 97% and 98.8%. This efficiency depends upon the size of transformer, load and Powerfactor of the system. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER A transformer is a static electric machine which _ transfers electrical energy from one Circuit to another circuit without change in its frequency. Due to electromagnetic induction Principle the transfer of energy takes place. |t consists of three essential parts, (1) Primary winding (2) Secondary winding (3) Laminated iron core. A.C supply given to the winding is known as Primary winding. The winding from The rich elscie Supply is taken is called secondary winding. The connection diagram is show" 9.4.1, aeny f- Wid The lwo windings Are wound Over Hn Iron Core having lon toluctance, The on one Js laMINAIET Io reduce eddy current loss. a The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, When an A.C supply i given to primary winding an alternating flux is set up in the core. This alternating fun cuts both the primary and the secondary winding. An emf is induosd in the primary winding according to self induction principle, Recording to raday's mutual induction principle an ‘orf in induced in the secondary winding, If we connect a load to the secondary winding current vill flow through the load, In this way electrical energy is transfered from the pr- mary clroull to the secondary circult, The emt induced in the windings depends upon the number of turns of the windings, If the numbor of tums in the secondary winding is more than that of the primary winding, the emf induced In the secondary winding will be higher than the voltage applicd to the primary winding. This type of transformers are said to be step up transformers, If tho number of turns in the secondary winding is less than that of the primary winding, tho omf Induced in the secondary winding will be less than the voltage applied to the primary winding. This typo of transformers are said to be step down transformer. TRANSFORMER LOSSES ‘Tranoformor loases can be classified as constant losses (Fixed losses) and variable loses (load loses) Fixed louses (or) Constant Loss (Core or Iron losses) Coro losses consists of hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis Losses ro of the transformer, it under goes a Duo to alternating flux setup In the magnetic cor t und ‘ore is a loss of energy in this process. cyclo of magnetisation and do-magnotisation. Due to th itis called hysterosis loss, lt.= K, B,,' 1 V watts Hysteresis loss K, = Hysteresis constant depends on material B,, = Maximum flux density ' = Froquoney in Hz v = Volume of the coro Eddy current losses When the core is subjected to alternating magnotic field, an emt is induced in thy core. This induced emf sets up eddy curront in the core. Due to this eddy current, ei current loss will take place. The eddy current loss is given by Eddy current loss = K, B,,? f? t? watts/m* A 0 Eddy current constant t= Thickness of the core f= Frequency in Hz B,, = Maximum flux density in web/m? The flux in the core is almost constant as the supply voltage V at rated frequency V is always constant. Hence the flux density ‘B,,’ in the core is constant. Hence Hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all loads. Hence the core losses are also called as. constant losses. The core losses are reduced by laminated silicon steel core. Load Losses (Copper losses) Load losses occur due to current flowing through the primary and secondary winding \tis also called as copper losses. This losses depend on the primary and secondary winding resistance. The load losses vary with the load. Hence it is called’ variable losses. The value of resistance depends on the cross-section area (a) of the conductor and the length of conductor () Resistance R = a ‘= Length of conductor in metre P= Specific resistance of the conductor a= Cross-section area of the conductor in m2The resistance also depends on the tomporat nperature: increases of temperature The resistance increases with The primary copper tos: calcula alculated by using the formula 1,2 A, SS iS calculated by la using the f la 1,2 The secondary copper to: Then tot nt te where 1, = Primary current 1, = Secondary current Ry = Primary resistance Secondary resistance EVALUATION OF TRANSFORMER Losses pele ieee ue ae eee ont 25 to 30 years. Therefore while purchasing a : Period should also be evaluated. The combined cost of initial cost of the transformer and the cost of losses over its life period is called Total Ownership Cost (TOC). It is necessary to work out the total ownership cost of the trans- former while purchasing a transformer. To calculate the cost of losses of the transformer over its life period present value method is used. In this method, the present value of the cost of losses for its life period is calculated by using the following formula. i.e., present value of the cost of losses ((1 + i)" - 1] eee 1 i(7+iP © where i is the rate of discount n is the number of years for which the transformer will remain working. For calculating the total ownership cost (TOC) of the transformer, the present value of the transformer losses are calculated at certain discount rate over its life time by using the above formula (1). Many times, it has been observed that the initial cost for purchasing a new transformer of one manufacturer is less than the other transformer. But the TOC may be more due 10 more losses. Therefore the transformer having less TOC should be selected. CASE STUDIES Which of the following transformers is preferable ? load for Life of both the transformers is 15 years and the transformer remains on 8500 Hrs. in @ year. Energy cost is Rs.5.25. earo 45S Transformer Transformer-ti Purchase Price Rs. 3 Lacs Rs.3.15 Lacs No Load Losses 1650 W 1450 W Load Losses 9500 W 7500 W Efficiency at rated Capacity 70 % 70% Solution No of years remain working (n) = 15 Assumption Discount rate (i) = 10% Transformer - 1 No load loss = 1650 watt = 1.650 KW Cost of Energy/unit = Rs. 5.25 No of hours on load in a year = 8500 <. Cost of no load loss per year = No load loss in KW x Hr x costunit ‘ = 1,650 x 8500 x 5.25 = = Rs. 73,631 /- Present value of cost of losses =! ~ zl [(1 + 0.1)'8 <4] 0.1 (1 +0.1)'5 = 7.606 Present value cost of no load loss = 7.606 x 73631 = Rs 560037 Full load loss = 9500 watts Operating load of transformer = 70% of full load <: Load loss at 70% of full load = (0.70)? x 9500 = 4655 watts = 4.655 KW46 st of load loss per year ei ui Load loss in KW » Hour x Cost/unit 4.655 x 8500 x 5.25 = Rs 207729 Present value cost of load losses | PV cost x cost of load loss per year = 7.606 x Rs 207729 = Rs 1579987 ‘, Total ownership cost (TOC) losses = Purchase price + PV cost of noload + PV cost of load losses = 300000 + 560037 + 1579987 = Rs 2440024 Transformer 2 No load losses = 1450 watts = 1.45 KW Cost of energy/unit = Rs 5.25 No of Hous on load per year = 8500 .. Cost of no load loss per year = No load loss in KW x Hours x cost/unit 1.45 x 8500 x 5.25 = Rs 64706 {a +i-1] Present value of these losses = ———__— idee _ [+0181] ~ O41 40.1) = 7.606 PV cost of noload losses = PV cost x cost of noload loss/year = 7.606 x 64706 = Rs 492154 Full load losses‘ = = 7500 walts Load losses at 70% of load = (0.70)? x 7500 3675 watts 3.675 KW uAT Load fone cont/year Lond loss in KW % Hours % costunit 3.675 » 8500 ¥ 5.25 Fis 163997 PV cost x load loss cost/year = 7.606 x 163997 = Rs 1247361 Purchase price + PV cost of noload loss + PY cost of load losses = 315000 + 492154 + 1247361 = Rs 2054515 PV cont of lond losses Total ownor ship cost (TOC) = From the above example, the purchasing price of transformer 1 is lesser thay the transformer 2. But the total ownership cost of transformer 2 is less than the transformer 1. Hence the transformer 2 is preferable. REDUCTION IN TRANSFORMER LOSSES Transformer losses can be reduced during design and construction. By using si. Gon steel core, the core losses can be reduced. Amorphous steel is also used to reduce th core losses. By using thinner laminated core and stepper joints core, the core losses can be reduced. Since copper has low resistance than aluminium, copper windings are used to reduce the copper losses. Energy auditors suggest various ways for reduction of losses to improve the efficiency. Some of them are mentioned below. 1. When two or more transformers are connected in paralled for distribution of load, the lightly loaded transformer is ‘Switched off and its load is distributed by the other transformers. Hence the core loss of that transformer is zero. 2. Core losses depend on the. Primary voltage. When the primary voltage is reduced, the core loss is reduced. But at the same time secondary voltage also reduces. Before going for reduction in primary voltage, it is Necessary to find out the type of load fed by the transformer. If the load is lighting load, (lamp load) then definitely the energy consumption is reduced when reduction of primary voltage. If the voltage is reduced too much, flickering of light will takes place. If motor loads are connected and loaded 80% and above, then reduction in voltage causes increase in current. Hence the load losses will increase. However, if the motors are lightly loaded, then reduction in voltage will improve the power factor and efficiency of the- motor. 3ENERGY ConsERVATION BUILDING CODE Tr code spocifios cortain requiromonts for a transformer requiremon; Some important ‘are mentioned below. 1, Mandatory requirements: 2. Maximum allowable power transformer losses MANDATORY REQUIREMENTS The transformer should be selected in such a way that it has minimum acceptable efficiency at its full load rating. The initial cost and the present value of the cost of losses over its life period of the transformer should be minimum. The transformer used in a building should be high efficiency and high quality and low losses. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE POWER TRANSFORMER LOSSES The following table indicates the maximum allowable losses of 11KV and 22KV transformers. Transformer Maximum Allowable | Maximum Allowable losses capacity in losses at full load in % at full load in KVA of rating - 11KV % of rating 22KV 100 25 27 160 2.3 2.2 250 24 1.8 400 15 15 630 14 1.5 800 14 15 1000 1.2 ; 2 HT AND LT CABLES INTRODUCTION In an electrical system, cable is required to transmit power from one source to one. Itcan carry a small as well as large load. Different sizes of the cables will be reuuron or carrying power at different voltages. Cables can be classified as low voltage an i voltage cables. Gable must be selected and installed in such a way that it shou E e capable to transmit power at the required voltage without damaging itself or the ol! et Connected equipments. Cable must be installed in such a manner that no danger to the person who may come in contact with the cable.40 t Tho temperature rating of the cable munt auit the ambient temperature Say clasaifiod in to two typon 1, Powor cablo 2. Control cable Powor cables aro used to carry bulk powor from one source to other Fy Control cablos aro always low voting , tor of power cable is mado of aluminium. The conductor of contro! cablo is mado of strandod or flexible coppor SELECTION OF CABLES The following points aro to bo considored whilo solecting a cablo for a pay application. 1. System voltage Type of system i.o., earthed or unearthed systom Maximum load current which roquired to be carried by the cablo. Short circuit current and its duration. Voltage drop during starting of motor in normal condition, Future load requirement. Full load requirement. Installation conditions i.e., underground, in duct or in open. PPRNAAERAH Ambient temperature. 10. Closeners with other cables. 11. Depth of cable in case of under ground installation, 12. Installation of cables in hazardous area. 13. Rules and regulations. 14. Economic aspects. CONSTRUCTION OF CABLE The most commonly used conductor materials are copper and aluminiur In power cable aluminium is used as conducting material. In contro! cable copper is us? Copper has better conducting properties than aluminiun is larger surface area for connection. The end terminal of t ‘quipment having copper terminal causes bimotallic offect an This effect is reduced by bimetall as conducting material. The aluminium cable need: aluminium cable with the e aluminium oxide is formed on the metal surface. washers or sheet in between the two terminals. an410 The conductor of power cable cons conductor, Somotimes it may be solid ale sanded, compacted and round. a referred, because the electrical i ists of aluminium an it is stranded pola 80. In high tension ) 'gh tension cable, tho ai Stress¢ 4 5 te control cable consists of high condu normally, aluminium conductors of sire a, nd shaped able, the conductors are i" haped conductors are not iA ee al the edges of the HT cables. sestuplene pete All conductor conforms to 1S:8120. lenge amm is solid circular in cross-section and 95 sqamm. The conductors of size IN Core cable of circular in shape is used up to above 2 INSULATION ’Ssqmm are shaped in three or four core cables. Large variety of isulatin ts 7 9 material is ir The i Fasc asperasteciieteee used in cables. The insulating material used in pu cample cubbet Insulation ie previcey installations, and environmental conditions. Provided for flexible cable. Other insulating material are Poly Vinyl i pc ay E vv eee vate (Crossed Linked Poly Ethylene) , paper ete. For fixed in », power cables with PVC and XLPE insulation are commonly used. In HT cable, the XLPE insulation is provided in its natural colour. If the insulation is added with colour for core identification then this colour destroy the electrical properties of the cable. The isulation should be free from air voids and foreign materials. If these are present in the cable then unequal distribution of electrical stress occurs in the cable. The insulation and outer sheathing compound conforms to IS: 5831. The qualities of the XLPE insulating material are superior than PVC. Hence the XLPE insulated cable are preferred over the PVC in LT installation also. The dielectric loss of XLPE insulation is very low. XLPE insulated cable can carry higher current than the PVC cable of same cross-section area. The XLPE cable can withstand high temperature rise than the PVC cable. Because, the XLPE cable has higher short circuit current withstand capacity than the PVC cable. XLPE cable can be overloaded upto 60% in case ‘of emergency due to failure of one cable. INNER SHEATH q In LT cables, PVC ccompound or plastic is wrapped over the insulation of the ome This will be provided bedding for the armour. In HT cables, a semi Sneae ae shielding is provided over the core insulation, The XLPE insulation ee ane electrical stress. Hence for better performance electrical stress stele a purpose of semi conductor compound shield is to make the oa cal ee reduce electric stress and to carry both leakage and earth feat ere eee metallic tape Screen is provided over the sem conductor compound ae anal ig used as INNer sheath for the cable. To avoid voids: fillers of non-hy9! provided. TRESS materials act as bedding for the cable- ili.all ARMOURING Over the bedding armouring mechanical injury while laying the cable. The armouring cons steel wire. For single core cable, non-magnetic hard drawn round or flat aluminium wirg j, is to protect the cable tre, ists of galvanised flat or roy, js provided. Its purpos provided. OUTER SHEATH A tough outer sheath of PVC compound is convered over the armour or non metal, part of insulation or inner sheath (if itis un armoured cable). In FALS cables (Flame Retardar, Low Smoke) sepcial material is used in the outer sheath. SPECIFICATIONS While ordering a cable, following points are required to be specified. 1. System voltage. 2.. Core size and number of cores. 3. Cable is required for grounded or ungrounded system. 4. Conductor material. 5. Type of armour (i:e.,) flat or round, 6. Type of insulation 7. Relevant IS number. 8. Length of cable in one drum. 9. Ambient conditions 10. Any other special requirement. TESTS Following routine tests are carried out on a cable. 1. Conductor Resistance Test 7 2. High voltage Test 3. Partial Discharge Test (in case of HT cables) Conductor Resistance Test The DC resistance of the cable core is measured at room temperature and corrected to the standard reference temperature of 20°C. High voltage test ie inoresn this tests @ AG voltage of frequency 40-60 Hz’is applied to the cable. This voltage ‘sreased gradudly to full value and maintained continuously for 1 minutes. The voltage