Vol. 45, No. 2 (2022) 313-339, DOI: 10.24874/ti.1456.03.23.

06

Tribology in Industry

REVIEW
www.tribology.rs

A Review of Inorganic Corrosion Inhibitors: Types,

Mechanisms, and Applications

Ahmed A. Al-Amierya,b,*, Emad Yousifc, Wan Nor Roslam Wan Isahaka, Waleed Khalid Al-
Azzawid
aDepartment of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), P.O. Box: 43000, UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia,
bEnergy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology-Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq,
cChemistry Department, College of Science, Al-Nahrain university, Iraq,
dAl-Farahidi University, Baghdad, 10001, Iraq.

Keywords: ABSTRACT
Inorganic
This review paper provides an overview of inorganic corrosion inhibitors,
Corrosion
including their types, mechanisms of action, applications, recent advances,
Inhibitors
and future directions. Inorganic corrosion inhibitors have been widely used to
Types
protect metals and alloys from corrosion in various industries, such as oil and
Mechanisms
gas, chemical, and construction industries. The different types of inorganic
Applications
corrosion inhibitors discussed in this review include metal-based, metal oxide-
based, phosphate-based, silicate-based, and other inorganic inhibitors. The
* Corresponding author: mechanisms of action of inorganic corrosion inhibitors are mainly related to
their adsorption on metal surfaces, formation of protective films, and cathodic
Ahmed A. Al-Amiery and anodic polarization. The paper also highlights the applications of
E-mail: dr.ahmed1975@gmail.com inorganic corrosion inhibitors in different industries and discusses their
effectiveness and limitations. Recent advances in the field of inorganic
Received: 3 March 2023 corrosion inhibitors, such as nanotechnology-based inhibitors, green
Revised: 14 April 2023 inhibitors, combination inhibitors, and computational studies, are also
Accepted: 4 June 2023 reviewed. In conclusion, this paper summarizes the key findings of the review
and provides a future outlook for the development of inorganic corrosion
inhibitors. The review concludes that further research is needed to develop
more effective, environmentally friendly, and economical inorganic corrosion
inhibitors for various industrial applications.
© 2023 Published by Faculty of Engineering

1. INTRODUCTION pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, and galvanic

corrosion, among others [3,4].
Corrosion is a natural process that refers to the
degradation of materials due to chemical Corrosion inhibitors are substances added to
reactions with the environment [1,2]. It can take materials to prevent corrosion by either
various forms, including uniform corrosion, forming a protective layer on the surface or

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altering the corrosion reaction. Inorganic 2. COMPREHENSIVE FOUNDATION

corrosion inhibitors are substances that are
inorganic in nature and are typically used in Inorganic corrosion inhibitors are substances
high-temperature and high-pressure that are added to a metal surface to prevent or
environments, where organic inhibitors may slow down the corrosion process [16]. They work
not be suitable [5,6]. Inorganic and organic by forming a protective layer on the surface of the
inhibitors can be used alone or in combination metal, which prevents or limits contact with
to provide superior corrosion protection [7-9]. corrosive agents. Inorganic corrosion inhibitors
can be classified based on their chemical
Inorganic inhibitors, such as chromates, composition, mode of action, and application.
phosphates, molybdates, and silicates, form a Metal salts such as chromates, molybdates, and
protective layer on the metal surface to prevent phosphates are commonly used as corrosion
corrosion and are often used in industrial inhibitors. They form a passive film on the metal
applications, such as cooling water systems, surface, which protects the metal from corrosion.
boilers, and pipelines [10,11]. Organic Silicates such as sodium silicate, potassium
inhibitors, such as amines, imidazolines, and silicate, and magnesium silicate are also used as
quaternary ammonium compounds, adsorb onto corrosion inhibitors. They form a protective layer
the metal surface and block corrosive agents on the metal surface by reacting with the metal
from reaching the metal. These inhibitors are ions and creating a barrier. Oxides such as
commonly used in the oil and gas industry aluminum oxide and titanium oxide are used as
[12,13]. Combining inorganic and organic corrosion inhibitors. They create a protective
inhibitors can provide a synergistic effect that layer on the metal surface by reacting with the
enhances overall corrosion protection. For metal ions and forming a barrier. Nitrites such as
example, a combination of phosphate and sodium nitrite and potassium nitrite are used as
organic inhibitors has been shown to be corrosion inhibitors for ferrous metals. They
effective in protecting steel in cooling water form a protective layer on the metal surface by
systems. The inorganic phosphate inhibitor reacting with the metal ions and forming a
forms a protective layer on the surface, while the barrier. Phosphates such as zinc phosphate and
organic inhibitor provides additional protection iron phosphate are used as corrosion inhibitors.
by inhibiting corrosion [14,15]. They form a protective layer on the metal surface
by reacting with the metal ions and forming a
The choice of inhibitor and combination used barrier [17].
depends on the specific application and
materials involved. It is important to evaluate The Barrier Mechanism involves the formation of
the properties and performance of each a protective barrier on the metal surface, which
inhibitor to ensure optimal corrosion prevents or limits contact with corrosive agents.
protection. As shown in Figure 1, corrosion can This barrier can be formed by the adsorption of
lead to deterioration, discoloration, and even the inhibitor molecules on the metal surface. The
structural damage over time. passivation mechanism involves the formation of
a passive film on the metal surface, which
prevents or limits contact with corrosive agents.
This passive film can be formed by the reaction of
the inhibitor with the metal ions on the surface.
The cathodic protection mechanism involves the
creation of a cathodic protection system, where
the inhibitor acts as a sacrificial anode and
protects the metal surface from corrosion [18].

Inorganic corrosion inhibitors are widely used in

the oil and gas industry to protect pipelines, storage
tanks, and other equipment from corrosion.
Inorganic corrosion inhibitors are used in the
automotive industry to protect the metal
Fig. 1. The corrosion of metals. components of vehicles from corrosion. Inorganic

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corrosion inhibitors are used in the electronics

2𝑍𝑛 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑍𝑛𝑂 (1)
industry to protect electronic components from
corrosion. Inorganic corrosion inhibitors are used The equation for the reaction of zinc with water
in the construction industry to protect metal to form zinc hydroxide is (Equation 2):
structures such as bridges, buildings, and tunnels 𝑍𝑛 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝐻2 (2)
from corrosion. Inorganic corrosion inhibitors are
used in the marine industry to protect ships and b. Aluminum-based inhibitors [21]: Aluminum
other marine structures from corrosion [19]. is also commonly used as a metal-based
inhibitor. Aluminum reacts with the anions
In conclusion, inorganic corrosion inhibitors play a in the corrosive environment to form a
crucial role in protecting metal structures from protective layer of aluminum oxide or
corrosion. They can be classified based on their aluminum hydroxide on the surface of the
chemical composition, mode of action, and metal.
application. The different mechanisms of inorganic
corrosion inhibitors include the barrier The reaction of aluminum with anions can be
mechanism, passivation mechanism, and cathodic represented based on equation (3):
protection mechanism. Inorganic corrosion
inhibitors have wide applications in various 𝐴𝑙 + 3𝑋 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 ↓ + 3𝑋 (3)
industries such as oil and gas, automotive,
electronics, construction, and marine. where X- represents the anions in the corrosive
environment.

3. TYPES OF INORGANIC INHIBITORS The formation of a protective layer of aluminum

oxide or aluminum hydroxide on the surface of
Inorganic corrosion inhibitors are compounds that the metal can be represented based on equation
are added to a corrosive environment to slow (4 or 5):
down or prevent the corrosion process. These 2𝐴𝑙 + 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝑂2 → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 (4)
inhibitors are widely used in various industries
such as oil and gas, chemical, petrochemical, and OR 4𝐴𝑙 + 3𝑂2 → 2𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (5)
construction. Inorganic corrosion inhibitors can be
classified into several types based on their c. Magnesium-based inhibitors: Magnesium is
chemical composition and mechanism of action. another metal-based inhibitor that is
commonly used in the corrosion protection of
3.1 Metal-based inhibitors steel. Magnesium reacts with the anions in the
corrosive environment to form a protective
Metal-based inhibitors are typically cations of layer of magnesium oxide or magnesium
metals such as zinc, aluminum, and magnesium. hydroxide on the surface of the metal.
These metals form a protective layer on the
surface of the metal, which acts as a barrier The chemical reactions involved in the use of
between the metal and the corrosive magnesium-based inhibitors for the corrosion
environment. This protective layer is typically protection of steel can be described based on
formed by the reaction of the metal cation with equation (6):
the anions in the corrosive environment. Mg + 𝐹𝑒 +2 → Mg +2 + Fe (6)

There are several types of metal-based inhibitors, In this reaction (Equation 6), the magnesium
including: (Mg) acts as a sacrificial anode and undergoes
corrosion in place of the iron (Fe) in the steel.
a. Zinc-based inhibitors [20]: Zinc is a widely As a result, magnesium ions (Mg +2) are released
used metal-based inhibitor in the corrosion into the solution, which react with the ferrous
protection of steel. Zinc reacts with the anions ions (Fe +2) to form a protective layer of
in the corrosive environment to form a magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) 2) on the steel
protective layer of zinc oxide or zinc surface. This layer serves as a barrier to further
hydroxide on the surface of the metal corrosion and protects the steel from further
(Equation 1). degradation.

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In this reaction (Equation 7), magnesium reacts The equation for the formation of cerium oxide
with water to form magnesium hydroxide and on the surface of metal can be represented based
hydrogen gas. on Equation (11):
Mg + 2𝐻2 O → Mg(OH)2 + H2 (7) 𝐶𝑒 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑒𝑂2 (11)
In this reaction (Equation (8)), magnesium reacts Similarly, the formation of cerium hydroxide can
with oxygen to form magnesium oxide. be represented based on Equation (12):
Mg + 2X- → MgX2 (8) 𝐶𝑒 + 2𝐻2𝑂 → 𝐶𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2 (12)
In this reaction, magnesium reacts with anions (X-) The reaction of cerium with anions in the
present in the corrosive environment to form corrosive environment can be represented based
magnesium salt (MgX2), which can form a on Equation (13):
protective layer on the surface of the metal. Overall,
Ce + 2𝑋 − → CeX2 (13)
the use of magnesium-based inhibitors can help
prevent corrosion of steel by forming a protective where X represents the anion.
layer on the metal surface, which reduces the
exposure of the metal to the corrosive environment. Metal-based inhibitors can be used alone or in
combination with other inhibitors to provide
d. Manganese-based inhibitors [22]: Manganese effective corrosion protection. The effectiveness of
is another metal-based inhibitor that is a metal-based inhibitor depends on several
commonly used in the corrosion protection of factors, including the type of metal, the
steel. Manganese reacts with the anions in the concentration of the inhibitor, and the corrosive
corrosive environment to form a protective environment. In conclusion, metal-based
layer of manganese oxide on the surface of the inhibitors are an effective and widely used method
metal. of corrosion protection for steel and other metals.
By forming a protective layer on the surface of the
The equation for the reaction of manganese with metal, metal-based inhibitors can prevent
anions in a corrosive environment to form a corrosion and extend the service life of the metal.
protective layer of manganese oxide on the
surface of the metal can be written according to 3.2 Metal oxide-based inhibitors
Equation (9):
Metal oxide-based inhibitors work by reacting
Mn + 2X − + H2O → MnO2+2𝐻 + + 2X (9) with the metal surface to form a passive oxide
where Mn represents manganese, X − represents layer, which acts as a barrier against corrosion.
the anions present in the corrosive environment, The metal oxide-based inhibitors can be
H2O represents water, MnO2 represents the categorized into three groups: anodic inhibitors,
manganese oxide protective layer, H+ represents cathodic inhibitors, and mixed inhibitors. Anodic
hydrogen ions. inhibitors are substances that prevent the anodic
reaction of metal corrosion by forming a
Additionally, the corrosion of steel can be protective oxide layer on the anode surface [23].
represented based on Equation (10):
Anodic Inhibition: Anodic Inhibitor + Metal →
𝐹𝑒 + 2𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2+2𝑂𝐻 (10) Protective Oxide Layer
where Fe represents iron, H2O represents water, O2
represents oxygen, Fe(OH)2 represents iron(II) Cathodic inhibitors, on the other hand, reduce the
hydroxide, and OH- represents hydroxide ions. cathodic reaction by forming a passive layer on
the cathode surface.
e. Cerium-based inhibitors: Cerium is a relatively
new metal-based inhibitor that has shown Cathodic Inhibition: Cathodic Inhibitor + Metal →
promising results in the corrosion protection of Passive Layer on Cathode Surface
steel. Cerium reacts with the anions in the
Mixed inhibitors are substances that can act on
corrosive environment to form a protective
both anodic and cathodic reactions, and they
layer of cerium oxide or cerium hydroxide on
usually provide more effective protection against
the surface of the metal.
corrosion [24].

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Mixed Inhibition: Mixed Inhibitor + Metal → Oxide preventing the metal from coming into
Layer (Anodic) + Passive Layer on Cathode contact with the corrosive environment.
Surface (Cathodic). Zinc phosphate inhibitors are effective in
acidic and neutral solutions and provide
Metal oxide-based inhibitors include long-term protection against corrosion.
compounds such as zinc oxide, aluminum oxide,
and magnesium oxide. These compounds are The equation for the formation of zinc phosphate
often added to coatings, paints, and other on the metal surface can be represented as in
surface treatments to provide long-term Equation 14:
protection against corrosion. Zinc oxide is
𝑍𝑛 + 3𝐻2𝑃𝑂4− + 2𝐻 + →
commonly used as a corrosion inhibitor in (14)
𝑍𝑛(𝐻𝑃𝑂4)2+3𝐻2𝑂
many industrial applications because it is
effective in preventing the corrosion of iron is reaction shows the formation of an insoluble
and steel. Aluminum oxide and magnesium layer of zinc phosphate (Zn(HPO4)2) on the metal
oxide are also widely used in industrial surface.
applications because they are effective in
preventing the corrosion of aluminum and The mechanism by which zinc phosphate
magnesium alloys. inhibitors provide corrosion protection can be
represented as follows (Equation 15):
Metal oxide-based inhibitors have several 𝑍𝑛(𝐻𝑃𝑂4)2 + 𝐻2𝑂 →
advantages over organic inhibitors. They are (15)
𝑍𝑛2+ + 2𝐻𝑃𝑂4− 4 + 2𝐻 +
generally more stable and have a longer
lifespan than organic inhibitors. They are also The zinc ions (Zn2+) released from the zinc
more effective at high temperatures and phosphate layer react with water to form a
pressures, making them ideal for use in protective layer of zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2) on
industrial applications. Additionally, metal the metal surface, which acts as a barrier against
oxide-based inhibitors are not toxic and can be further corrosion reactions.
used in environmentally sensitive areas [25].
Overall, the corrosion protection provided by
In conclusion, metal oxide-based inhibitors are zinc phosphate inhibitors can be represented
a useful type of inorganic corrosion inhibitor based on Equation (16):
that can provide long-term protection against Metal + Zn(HPO4)2 + H2O → Metal-
corrosion in industrial applications. They are (16)
Zn(OH)2 + 2HPO4
effective at preventing the corrosion of a wide
range of metals and alloys and have several where the metal reacts with the zinc phosphate
advantages over organic inhibitors. Their use inhibitor to form a protective layer of metal-zinc
can help to extend the lifespan of equipment hydroxide and phosphate.
and reduce maintenance costs.
b. Iron Phosphate Inhibitors [27]: Iron
3.3 Phosphate-based inhibitors phosphate inhibitors are used in the food and
beverage industry to prevent the corrosion of
Phosphate-based inhibitors can be classified into stainless equipment. Iron phosphate inhibitors
three types: zinc phosphate, iron phosphate, and work by forming a protective layer of insoluble
calcium phosphate. Each type of phosphate- iron phosphate on the surface of the metal. The
based inhibitor has unique properties and protective layer is highly adhesive, providing
mechanisms of action. long-term protection against corrosion. Iron
phosphate inhibitors are effective in mildly
a. Zinc Phosphate Inhibitors [26]: Zinc acidic and neutral solutions.
phosphate inhibitors are widely used in the
automotive and aerospace industries due to The equation for the formation of iron phosphate
their excellent corrosion protection on the metal surface can be represented based on
properties. Zinc phosphate inhibitors work Equation (17):
by forming a protective layer of insoluble 𝐹𝑒 + 2𝐻𝑃𝑂4−2 → 𝐹𝑒𝐻𝑃𝑂4 (𝑠) + 𝐻2 (𝑔) (17)
zinc phosphate on the surface of the metal,

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Where Fe represents the metal surface and In summary, the use of calcium phosphate
HPO42- represents the iron phosphate inhibitor. inhibitors in the oil and gas industry can be
represented by the chemical equations above,
The protective layer of iron phosphate can be where the inhibitors work by forming a
represented based on Equation (18): protective layer of calcium phosphate on metal
surfaces to prevent corrosion.
FeHPO4(s) → FePO4(s) + H + (aq) (18)
Where FeHPO4(s) represents the insoluble iron d. Phosphate-based inhibitors are effective in
phosphate layer and H+(aq) represents the acidic preventing corrosion due to their ability to
environment required for the formation of the form protective layers on the surface of the
protective layer. metal. The protective layers are highly
adhesive, providing long-term protection
The overall reaction for the use of iron phosphate against corrosion. Additionally, phosphate-
inhibitors to prevent corrosion can be based inhibitors are environmentally friendly
represented based on Equation (19): and cost-effective, making them an attractive
choice for many industries.
Fe + 2H𝑃𝑂4− + 2𝐻 + → FePO4(s) +
(19)
H2(g) One possible equation to represent the protective
This equation shows that the iron phosphate layer formed by phosphate-based inhibitors is
inhibitor reacts with the metal surface and the (Eq. 22):
acidic environment to form a protective layer of
𝑀 + 𝑃𝑂43− → 𝑀 − 𝑃𝑂4 (22)
insoluble iron phosphate, which prevents further
corrosion. (where M represents the metal)

c. Calcium Phosphate Inhibitors [28]: This equation shows how the phosphate ions
Calcium phosphate inhibitors are used in the (PO43-) react with the metal (M) to form a
oil and gas industry to prevent the corrosion protective layer of metal phosphate (M-PO4) on
of pipelines and other equipment. Calcium the surface, preventing corrosion.
phosphate inhibitors work by forming a
protective layer of insoluble calcium Another possible equation to represent the
phosphate on the surface of the metal. The adhesive properties of the protective layer is (Eq.
protective layer is highly adhesive, 23):
providing long-term protection against M − PO4 + H2O → M − OH + H𝑃𝑂43− (22)
corrosion. Calcium phosphate inhibitors are
effective in mildly acidic and neutral This equation shows how the metal phosphate
solutions. layer (M-PO4) reacts with water (H2O) to form
metal hydroxide (M-OH) and hydrogen
The chemical equation for the formation of phosphate ions (HPO4^2-). The metal hydroxide
calcium phosphate on metal surfaces can be is responsible for the strong adhesive properties
represented based on Equation (20): of the protective layer, which helps to provide
long-term protection against corrosion.
2𝐶𝑎2+ + 𝑃𝑂43− → 𝐶𝑎3(𝑃𝑂4)2 (20)

where Ca2+ and PO43- ions react to form calcium Finally, an equation to represent the
phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2). environmental and cost benefits of phosphate-
based inhibitors could be:
The mechanism by which calcium phosphate
Phosphate-based inhibitors + metal → corrosion
inhibitors work can be represented based on
protection + environmental and cost benefits
Equation (21):
Fe + Ca3(PO4)2 → Fe3(PO4)2 + 3Ca (21) This equation shows how the use of phosphate-
based inhibitors can lead to both corrosion
where the calcium phosphate inhibitor reacts
protection and environmental and cost benefits for
with the metal surface to form an insoluble layer
industries. By using these inhibitors, companies can
of calcium phosphate, which provides a
reduce their environmental impact and save money
protective barrier against corrosion.
on corrosion prevention measures.

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In conclusion, phosphate-based inhibitors are Silicate-based inhibitors have several

an effective and environmentally friendly advantages over other types of corrosion
method for preventing corrosion of metals. Zinc inhibitors [31]. They are non-toxic, non-
phosphate, iron phosphate, and calcium flammable, and have a long shelf life. They are
phosphate inhibitors have unique properties also relatively inexpensive and can be easily
and mechanisms of action, making them applied to metal surfaces. Table 1 provides an
suitable for different industries and overview of silicate-based corrosion inhibitors,
applications. including their type, function, classification,
and applications. Table 1, highlights the two
3.4. Silicate-based inhibitors types of silicate-based inhibitors - alkali
silicates and alkali earth silicates - and their
Silicate-based inhibitors are one type of corresponding properties and uses.
inorganic corrosion inhibitors that are Additionally, the table lists the advantages of
commonly used to protect metal surfaces from using silicate-based inhibitors, such as their
corrosion. Silicate-based inhibitors work by non-toxic and non-flammable nature, long shelf
forming a protective layer on the metal surface life, and ease of application.
that helps to prevent the metal from coming
into contact with the corrosive environment. In Table 1. Overview of Silicate-based Corrosion Inhibitors
this article, we will discuss the different types and their Applications.
of silicate-based inhibitors, their properties, Topic Information
and their applications [29]. Type Silicate-based inhibitors
Function Protect metal surfaces from corrosion
Silicate-based inhibitors can be classified into by forming a protective layer
two main types: alkali silicates and alkali earth Classification Alkali silicates and alkali earth
silicates. Alkali silicates are compounds that of Silicate- silicates
are formed by the reaction of alkali metals, such based
inhibitors
as sodium or potassium, with silicic acid. These
Alkali Formed by the reaction of alkali
compounds are soluble in water and can be Silicates metals (sodium or potassium) with
used as corrosion inhibitors in aqueous silicic acid; soluble in water and used
solutions. Alkali earth silicates are compounds as corrosion inhibitors in aqueous
that are formed by the reaction of alkali earth solutions
metals, such as calcium or magnesium, with Alkali Earth Formed by the reaction of alkali earth
Silicates metals (calcium or magnesium) with
silicic acid. These compounds are insoluble in
silicic acid; insoluble in water and
water and are used as corrosion inhibitors in used as corrosion inhibitors in non-
non-aqueous solutions. aqueous solutions
Applications Commonly used in the food and
Alkali silicates are commonly used as corrosion of Alkali beverage industry to protect metal
inhibitors in the food and beverage industry. Silicates equipment from corrosion caused by
acidic solutions such as fruit juices
They are used to protect metal equipment, such and soft drinks
as tanks and pipelines, from corrosion caused Applications Commonly used in the oil and gas
by acidic solutions, such as fruit juices and soft of Alkali Earth industry to protect metal equipment
drinks. Alkali silicates form a protective layer Silicates from corrosion caused by
on the metal surface that helps to prevent the hydrocarbon fluids
metal from coming into contact with the acidic Advantages of Non-toxic, non-flammable, long shelf
solution [30]. Silicate-based life, relatively inexpensive, and easy to
Inhibitors apply to metal surfaces

Alkali earth silicates are commonly used as

In conclusion, silicate-based inhibitors are an
corrosion inhibitors in the oil and gas industry.
effective type of inorganic corrosion inhibitor that
They are used to protect metal equipment, such
can be used to protect metal surfaces from
as pipelines and storage tanks, from corrosion
corrosion. They are available in two main types,
caused by hydrocarbon fluids. Alkali earth
alkali silicates and alkali earth silicates, and are
silicates form a protective layer on the metal
commonly used in the food and beverage and oil
surface that helps to prevent the metal from
and gas industries.
coming into contact with the corrosive fluid.

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3.5. Other inorganic inhibitors 4. MECHANISMS OF ACTION

1. Anodic Inhibitors [32]: Anodic inhibitors are Corrosion is a significant problem that affects
compounds that preferentially form a various industries, including the oil and gas,
protective film on the anode surface, which chemical, and marine industries. Corrosion
slows down the oxidation reaction. These inhibitors are chemical compounds that are used
inhibitors work by oxidizing the metal surface to prevent or slow down the rate of corrosion in
to form a thin, protective oxide layer. metals. Inorganic corrosion inhibitors are one
Examples of anodic inhibitors include type of corrosion inhibitor that is commonly
chromates, molybdates, and phosphates. used. Inorganic corrosion inhibitors can be
classified into several categories, including
2. Cathodic Inhibitors [33]: Cathodic inhibitors are
anodic, cathodic, and mixed inhibitors. The
compounds that preferentially form a protective
mechanism of action for each type of inhibitor is
film on the cathode surface, which slows down
different and depends on the properties of the
the reduction reaction. These inhibitors work by
metal and the environment in which it is used
reducing the hydrogen ions in the electrolyte,
(Figure 2). Anodic inhibitors work by forming a
which decreases the cathodic reaction rate.
protective oxide layer on the metal surface. This
Examples of cathodic inhibitors include zinc and
layer prevents the anodic reaction of the metal,
its alloys, aluminum, and magnesium.
which is the process by which metal ions are
3. Passivators [34]: Passivators are compounds released into the environment. Anodic inhibitors
that form a passive layer on the metal surface, include compounds such as chromates,
which protects the metal from further molybdates, and tungstates [35,36]. These
corrosion. These inhibitors work by forming a inhibitors are effective in environments with a
layer of metal oxide, which prevents further high concentration of oxidizing agents, such as
metal oxidation. Examples of passivators acids and salts [37].
include chromates, phosphates, and silicates.
4. Volatile Corrosion Inhibitors: Volatile
corrosion inhibitors (VCIs) are compounds
that vaporize and form a protective layer on
the metal surface. These inhibitors work by
releasing molecules that attach to the metal
surface and form a thin film. Examples of VCIs
include amines, amides, and carboxylates.
5. Oxygen Scavengers: Oxygen scavengers are
compounds that react with oxygen to prevent
corrosion. These inhibitors work by removing
oxygen from the metal surface, which
prevents the corrosion reaction. Examples of
oxygen scavengers include sulfites, bisulfites,
and hydrazine.
6. pH Adjusters: pH adjusters are compounds that
change the pH of the electrolyte to prevent
corrosion. These inhibitors work by changing
the pH of the electrolyte, which slows down the
corrosion reaction. Examples of pH adjusters
include alkalis, acids, and buffers.

Inorganic corrosion inhibitors play an essential role

in protecting metals and alloys from corrosion. By
understanding the various types of inorganic
corrosion inhibitors and their mechanisms of
action, industries can select the most appropriate Fig. 2. Anodic, cathodic, and mixed inorganic
inhibitor for their specific application. corrosion inhibitors mechanisms.

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Cathodic inhibitors work by reducing the reactive, such as when it is freshly exposed or has
cathodic reaction of the metal. The cathodic a high surface energy. Chemical bonding can
reaction is the process by which the metal gains result in a very strong and stable inhibitor layer,
electrons, which is the first step in the corrosion but it requires a highly reactive metal surface and
process. Cathodic inhibitors include compounds a highly reactive inhibitor molecule [44].
such as zinc, aluminum, and magnesium. These
inhibitors are effective in environments with a Electrostatic attraction is another type of
low concentration of oxidizing agents, such as adsorption mechanism that occurs when the
alkaline solutions [38]. Mixed inhibitors work by inhibitor molecule is attracted to the metal surface
both reducing the anodic and cathodic reactions through electrostatic forces. This type of adsorption
of the metal. Mixed inhibitors include is typically weaker than chemical bonding but can
compounds such as nitrites, nitrates, and occur on a wider range of metal surfaces and
phosphates. These inhibitors are effective in inhibitor molecules. Electrostatic attraction can
environments with a moderate concentration of occur when the metal surface has a net positive or
oxidizing agents, such as neutral solutions. negative charge, or when the inhibitor molecule has
Inorganic corrosion inhibitors can also work by a net positive or negative charge [45].
adsorbing onto the metal surface [39].
Adsorption inhibitors form a protective layer on Physical adsorption is the weakest type of
the metal surface, which prevents the corrosive adsorption mechanism and occurs when the
environment from coming into contact with the inhibitor molecule is attracted to the metal
metal. This mechanism of action is not specific to surface through van der Waals forces or other
any particular type of inorganic corrosion non-specific interactions [46]. This type of
inhibitor and can be used by all types. In adsorption is typically the most common and
summary, the mechanism of action for inorganic occurs on a wide range of metal surfaces and
corrosion inhibitors depends on the properties inhibitor molecules. Table 2 provides examples of
of the metal and the environment in which it is adsorption mechanisms and their corresponding
used. Anodic inhibitors work by forming a chemical bonding types, along with specific
protective oxide layer on the metal surface, examples of inorganic corrosion inhibitor
cathodic inhibitors work by reducing the molecules that exhibit this type of adsorption on
cathodic reaction of the metal, mixed inhibitors a wide range of metal surfaces.
work by both reducing the anodic and cathodic
reactions of the metal, and adsorption inhibitors Table 2. Adsorption mechanisms and examples of
work by forming a protective layer on the metal inorganic corrosion inhibitor molecules.
surface [40]. Understanding the mechanism of Adsorption Chemical Example inorganic Ref.
action for inorganic corrosion inhibitors is mechanism bonding corrosion inhibitor
critical for selecting the most effective inhibitor molecule
for a particular application [41]. C.Sorption Covalent Molybdate (MoO4 2-) [56]
C.Sorption Covalent Chromate (CrO4 2-) [57]
4.1 Adsorption on metal surface C.Sorption Covalent Phosphonates [58]
C.Sorption Covalent Amines [59]
The adsorption of inorganic corrosion inhibitors C.Sorption Covalent Thiourea [60]
onto metal surfaces can occur through a variety P.Sorption VdW Silicates [61]
of mechanisms, including chemical bonding, P.Sorption VdW Aliphatic amines [62]
electrostatic attraction, and physical adsorption. P.Sorption VdW Alkyl phosphates [63]
The type of adsorption mechanism that occurs P.Sorption VdW Benzotriazole [64]
depends on the chemical structure of the Note: C.Sorption. (Chemisorption); P.Sorption
inhibitor molecule, as well as the nature of the (Physisorption); VdW, Van der Waals
metal surface [42].
Regardless of the specific type of adsorption
Chemical bonding is a type of adsorption mechanism, the end result is the same: the
mechanism that occurs when the inhibitor inhibitor molecule forms a protective layer on the
molecule forms a covalent bond with the metal metal surface that prevents the corrosive
surface [43]. This type of adsorption is typically environment from reaching the metal surface.
only possible when the metal surface is highly This protective layer can be very effective at

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reducing the rate of corrosion and can Overall, the formation of a protective film is a key
significantly increase the lifespan of metal mechanism of action for inorganic corrosion
structures in corrosive environments [47]. inhibitors. This protective film acts as a barrier that
prevents corrosive species from coming into
In conclusion, adsorption onto metal surfaces is a contact with the metal surface, thereby reducing
key mechanism of action for inorganic corrosion the rate of corrosion. The effectiveness of this
inhibitors [48. The specific type of adsorption protective film is dependent on a variety of factors,
mechanism that occurs depends on the chemical including the nature of the inhibitor, the
structure of the inhibitor molecule and the nature composition of the corrosive environment, and the
of the metal surface. Chemical bonding, properties of the metal surface. Adsorption
electrostatic attraction, and physical adsorption are isotherms are graphical representations of the
all possible mechanisms of adsorption. Regardless relationship between the amount of inhibitor
of the specific mechanism, the end result is a adsorbed on the metal surface and the
protective layer on the metal surface that can concentration of the inhibitor in the solution. These
significantly reduce the rate of corrosion [49]. isotherms can provide insights into the inhibitor's
adsorption behavior, such as the adsorption
4.2 Formation of protective film capacity, the strength of the interaction between
the inhibitor and the metal surface, and the type of
The formation of a protective film can occur adsorption (i.e., Langmuir or Freundlich) [50-52].
through a variety of mechanisms, including
chemical adsorption, precipitation, and Enthalpy energies are also critical in understanding
complexation. In chemical adsorption, the inhibitor the adsorption behavior of inorganic corrosion
molecules adsorb onto the metal surface and form inhibitors. The enthalpy change during the
a monolayer [50]. This monolayer acts as a barrier adsorption process can indicate whether the
between the metal and the corrosive environment. process is exothermic or endothermic and provide
Precipitation involves the formation of a protective insights into the nature of the interaction between
layer by the reaction of the inhibitor with the the inhibitor and the metal surface. For example, a
corrosive species to form an insoluble compound negative enthalpy change indicates an exothermic
[48]. Complexation involves the formation of a process, which suggests a favorable adsorption
protective layer through the formation of a process and a strong interaction between the
coordination complex between the inhibitor and inhibitor and the metal surface [53]. Therefore, to
the metal surface. fully understand the behavior of inorganic
corrosion inhibitors, the author should consider
The effectiveness of the protective film is both the physisorption mechanism and the
dependent on a variety of factors, including the isotherms and enthalpy energies involved in the
nature of the inhibitor, the composition of the adsorption process. This will provide a more
corrosive environment, and the properties of the comprehensive understanding of the inhibitor's
metal surface. For example, the protective film ability to prevent corrosion and its potential for use
formed by inorganic corrosion inhibitors is often in practical applications.
dependent on the pH of the environment. At high
pH values, inhibitors such as phosphate and 4.3 Cathodic and anodic polarization
molybdate ions form protective films by
precipitation, while at low pH values, silicate and The polarization of the cathodic and anodic
borate ions form protective films by chemical branches of the corrosion process can be affected
adsorption [49]. by inorganic corrosion inhibitors. Understanding
how these inhibitors impact the reactions in each
In addition to the formation of a protective film, branch is crucial for predicting their effectiveness in
inorganic corrosion inhibitors can also act by preventing corrosion [54].
inhibiting the cathodic and anodic reactions that
lead to corrosion. Cathodic inhibitors, such as In the cathodic branch, the inhibitor can influence
nitrate and chromate ions, reduce the rate of the reduction reaction by either inhibiting or
reduction reactions that occur at the metal surface, accelerating it. For instance, inhibitors that create a
while anodic inhibitors, such as zinc and aluminum barrier between the metal surface and the
ions, reduce the rate of oxidation reactions [34]. electrolyte can limit the supply of electrons

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necessary for the reduction reaction, slowing Inorganic corrosion inhibitors can reduce the
down the process. Conversely, inhibitors that rate of corrosion by reducing the cathodic
enhance the adsorption of hydrogen ions can reaction rate and the amount of electrons
increase the rate of the reduction reaction, thus available to form a negative charge on the metal
accelerating the process [55]. surface, or by reducing the anodic reaction rate
and the amount of electrons available to form a
On the other hand, in the anodic branch, the positive charge on the metal surface.
inhibitor can modify the oxidation reaction by
either impeding or facilitating it. For example,
inhibitors that can passivate the metal surface by 5. APPLICATIONS OF INORGANIC CORROSION
forming a protective layer can prevent the INHIBITORS
oxidation reaction from taking place. Conversely,
inhibitors that promote the formation of an oxide Inorganic corrosion inhibitors are chemical
layer on the metal surface can increase the rate of compounds that protect metal surfaces from
oxidation, leading to faster corrosion [56]. corrosion by forming a protective barrier on
the surface. They are typically used in
industrial settings where metals are exposed to
harsh environments such as high temperatures,
acidic or alkaline solutions, and saltwater.
Inorganic corrosion inhibitors are preferred
over organic inhibitors in some applications
due to their thermal stability, resistance to
oxidation, and non-volatility. In this article, we
will discuss the applications of inorganic
corrosion inhibitors in various industries.

1. Oil and gas industry [57]: In the oil and gas

industry, inorganic corrosion inhibitors are
used to protect pipelines, storage tanks, and
other metal structures from corrosion caused
by exposure to acidic gases and fluids,
saltwater, and high temperatures. The most
commonly used inorganic inhibitors in this
Fig. 3. Effects of cathodic and anodic polarizations on industry are zinc, aluminum, and magnesium-
corrosion. based compounds, as they provide excellent
protection against both general and localized
In summary, understanding the effects of corrosion. Additionally, these inhibitors can
inorganic corrosion inhibitors on the also act as scale inhibitors, preventing the
polarization of the cathodic and anodic formation of scale on metal surfaces.
branches can help predict their performance in
2. Power generation [58]: In the power
preventing corrosion. By altering the reactions
generation industry, inorganic corrosion
taking place in each branch, the inhibitors can
inhibitors are used to protect metal surfaces in
either hinder or promote the corrosion process,
boilers, condensers, and other equipment
making them valuable tools for preventing
from corrosion caused by exposure to high-
metal degradation. Figure 3 illustrates the
temperature steam, acidic or alkaline
effects of cathodic and anodic polarizations on
solutions, and oxygen. The most commonly
corrosion and the impact of inorganic corrosion
used inorganic inhibitors in this industry are
inhibitors. Cathodic polarization creates a
phosphates, silicates, and sulfites, which
negative charge on the metal surface and
provide excellent protection against general
accelerates the cathodic reaction, leading to an
and pitting corrosion.
increased rate of corrosion. In contrast, anodic
polarization creates a positive charge on the 3. Automotive industry: In the automotive
metal surface and accelerates the anodic industry, inorganic corrosion inhibitors are
reaction, also increasing the rate of corrosion. used to protect metal parts in engines,

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transmissions, and other components from Table 3. The applications of Inorganic Corrosion
corrosion caused by exposure to heat, Inhibitor.
moisture, and acidic or alkaline solutions. Application Inorganic Corrosion Inhibitor Ref.
The most commonly used inorganic Cooling water Phosphates, silicates,
[59]
inhibitors in this industry are phosphates, systems molybdates, borates
borates, and molybdates, which provide Oil and gas Calcium carbonate, zinc
[60]
excellent protection against corrosion caused production phosphate, iron sulfide
by engine coolant and brake fluid. Concrete
Calcium nitrite, sodium nitrate [62]
reinforcement
4. Aerospace industry [59]: In the aerospace Metal surface Chromium compounds,
[63]
industry, inorganic corrosion inhibitors are treatment chromates, phosphates
used to protect metal surfaces in aircraft Boiler water
Sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfite [64]
engines, airframes, and other components treatment
from corrosion caused by exposure to
saltwater, atmospheric moisture, and other
environmental factors. The most commonly 6. RECENT ADVANCES AND FUTURE
used inorganic inhibitors in this industry are DIRECTIONS
chromates, which provide excellent
protection against both general and localized Inorganic corrosion inhibitors have been
corrosion. extensively studied over the past few decades due
to their cost-effectiveness and environmentally
5. Metalworking industry: In the metalworking friendly nature [65]. These inhibitors can
industry, inorganic corrosion inhibitors are effectively reduce or even eliminate the corrosive
used to protect metal parts during attack on metal surfaces by forming a protective
manufacturing and storage. They are added to layer on the metal surface. Recently, researchers
metalworking fluids, coolants, and lubricants have made significant advances in the field of
to prevent corrosion caused by exposure to inorganic corrosion inhibitors, and these
water, air, and other contaminants. The most advancements are expected to shape the future of
commonly used inorganic inhibitors in this the industry. One of the recent advances in the
industry are borates, nitrates, and field of inorganic corrosion inhibitors is the use of
phosphates, which provide excellent nanoparticles. Nanoparticles have unique
protection against corrosion caused by properties, such as high surface area-to-volume
exposure to water-based fluids. ratio, and can significantly improve the corrosion
resistance of metals. For example, researchers
In conclusion, inorganic corrosion inhibitors have shown that the use of nano-TiO2 can reduce
play a vital role in protecting metal surfaces the corrosion rate of mild steel in acidic solutions
from corrosion in various industries. The [66]. Additionally, the use of graphene oxide (GO)
selection of the appropriate inhibitor depends as a corrosion inhibitor has also been investigated,
on the type of metal, the environment, and the and it has been shown to improve the corrosion
application. The use of inorganic corrosion resistance of metals. Another recent advancement
inhibitors can improve equipment life, reduce in inorganic corrosion inhibitors is the use of ionic
maintenance costs, and increase overall liquids. Ionic liquids are organic salts that are
efficiency. Table 3 shows the various liquid at room temperature and have unique
applications of inorganic corrosion inhibitors. In properties, such as low volatility, high thermal
cooling water systems, phosphates, silicates, stability, and tunable properties. Ionic liquids have
molybdates, and borates are commonly used been shown to effectively reduce the corrosion
inhibitors. For oil and gas production, calcium rate of metals by forming a protective layer on the
carbonate, zinc phosphate, and iron sulfide are metal surface. For example, researchers have
frequently utilized. In concrete reinforcement, shown that imidazolium-based ionic liquids can
calcium nitrite and sodium nitrate are popular reduce the corrosion rate of copper in acidic
choices. In metal surface treatment, chromium solutions. In addition to these recent
compounds, chromates, and phosphates are advancements, future research in the field of
commonly used. Lastly, sodium sulfite and inorganic corrosion inhibitors will likely focus on
sodium bisulfite are often employed in boiler the development of new inhibitors with improved
water treatment as inhibitors.

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properties, such as high efficiency, low toxicity, Overall, recent advancements in inorganic
and low cost. One area of focus will likely be the corrosion inhibitors have shown great promise in
development of inhibitors that are effective in reducing the corrosive attack on metal surfaces.
both acidic and alkaline environments [67]. The use of nanoparticles and ionic liquids has
Additionally, researchers will likely investigate the shown significant improvements in the corrosion
use of new materials, such as metal-organic resistance of metals. Future research in this field
frameworks (MOFs), as corrosion inhibitors . will likely continue to focus on the development
Table 4 outlines recent advances and future of new and improved inhibitors that are effective
directions in the field of inorganic corrosion in a wide range of environments.
inhibitors, with a focus on metal oxides, rare earth
elements, graphene-based materials, organic- 6.1 Nanotechnology-based inhibitors
inorganic hybrids, and green inhibitors. The table
provides examples of recent advancements in Several studies have been conducted to
each category, along with potential future investigate the potential of nanotechnology-
directions for research in the field. based inorganic corrosion inhibitors. One
approach is to use nanoparticles of inorganic
Table 4. Recent advances and future directions of materials such as metals, metal oxides, and metal
inorganic corrosion inhibitors. sulfides. For example, zinc oxide nanoparticles
Category Recent Future Ref. have been found to be an effective inhibitor for
Advances Directions aluminum corrosion in saline solutions. Similarly,
Metal Use of Development of copper nanoparticles have been reported to
Oxides nanostructured new methods for inhibit the corrosion of mild steel in acidic
oxides with the synthesis of
higher surface nanostructured
solutions. Nanoparticles of other materials such
area and oxides with [68-70] as silver, titanium dioxide, and magnesium oxide
improved controlled have also been investigated as corrosion
corrosion morphology and inhibitors [77].
inhibition surface
properties chemistry
Another approach is to modify the surface of the
Rare Discovery of Exploration of
Earth new rare earth- the potential of metal with a nanocoating that contains corrosion
Elements based inhibitors rare earth inhibitors. For example, graphene oxide
with improved elements as [71-73] nanocoatings containing cerium ions have been
inhibition sustainable reported to provide superior corrosion
efficiency corrosion
inhibitors
protection for steel in acidic environments.
Graphene- Use of graphene- Development of
Similarly, a nanocoating containing zinc and
Based based materials new methods for cerium ions has been found to be effective in
Materials as efficient the synthesis of preventing the corrosion of copper in acidic
inhibitors due to graphene-based solutions. Despite the promising results of
their high materials with [74] nanotechnology-based inorganic corrosion
surface area and controlled
unique morphology and inhibitors, there is still a need for further
electronic surface research to fully understand their effectiveness
properties chemistry and potential applications. One area that requires
Organic- Development of Exploration of attention is the toxicity and environmental
Inorganic new organic- the potential of impact of these materials. While some
Hybrids inorganic hybrid organic-
materials with inorganic hybrid
nanomaterials have been shown to be non-toxic,
[75] others may have adverse effects on human health
improved materials as
corrosion sustainable and the environment [78]. Therefore, it is
inhibition corrosion important to conduct comprehensive studies to
properties inhibitors evaluate the safety of these materials. Another
Green Development of Exploration of area that requires attention is the optimization of
Inhibitors new the potential of
environmentally green inhibitors the synthesis and processing methods of
friendly as sustainable [76] nanomaterials to ensure their cost-effectiveness
inhibitors corrosion and scalability for large-scale applications.
derived from inhibitors Furthermore, the durability and stability of
natural products
nanomaterial-based coatings under different

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environmental conditions, such as temperature use of nanotechnology to enhance the

and humidity, need to be investigated to ensure performance of inorganic inhibitors.
their long-term effectiveness. Table 5 showcases
examples of nanotechnology-based inhibitors for Nanoparticles such as graphene, silver, and copper
inorganic corrosion, including silicates, have been used as corrosion inhibitors due to their
phosphates, chromates, molybdates, zirconates, high surface area, excellent conductivity, and
and rare earth metals. The table highlights the reactivity. These nanoparticles can be easily
different types of nanotechnology-based incorporated into coatings and paints to provide
inhibitors and their corresponding examples. long-term protection against corrosion [88].
Future directions for green inorganic inhibitors
Table 5. Examples of nanotechnology-based include the development of more sustainable and
inhibitors of inorganic corrosion inhibitors. eco-friendly inhibitors. The use of renewable
Inhibitor Nanotechnology-based inhibitor Ref. resources such as biomass and waste materials to
Silicates Silica nanoparticles [79] produce inhibitors is gaining momentum. The
Phosphates Zinc oxide nanoparticles [80] design and synthesis of new inorganic inhibitors
Chromates Zinc-chromate nanoparticles [81] with improved corrosion inhibition properties are
Molybdates Molybdenum disulfide nanoparticles [82] also an area of active research [89]. Furthermore,
Zirconates Zirconium oxide nanoparticles [83] the use of computational methods such as
Rare earth metals Cerium oxide nanoparticles [84] molecular dynamics simulations and density
functional theory calculations is expected to
Nanotechnology-based inorganic corrosion provide insights into the mechanism of corrosion
inhibitors offer a promising solution to the inhibition and aid in the design of new inhibitors.
limitations of traditional inorganic corrosion Table 6 summarizes common green inorganic
inhibitors [85]. The use of nanoparticles and corrosion inhibitors, including silicates,
nanocoatings can provide high surface area phosphates, molybdates, zinc-based inhibitors,
coverage, enhanced solubility, and improved and rare earth elements. The table provides a brief
adhesion to the metal surface, resulting in superior description of each inhibitor, along with its
corrosion protection. However, further research is corresponding category. The table also lists the
needed to fully understand the effectiveness, inhibitors under their respective categories for
toxicity, and environmental impact of these easy comparison.
materials, as well as to optimize their synthesis and
processing methods for large-scale applications. Table 6. Summarizing some common green inorganic
corrosion inhibitors.
6.2 Green inhibitors Inhibitor Description Ref.
Silicates Silicate coatings can be used as a
Green inorganic inhibitors are environmentally barrier layer to prevent corrosion of [90]
metals.
friendly corrosion inhibitors that are derived
Phosphates Phosphate coatings have excellent
from natural resources and have minimal impact adhesion and corrosion resistance
on the environment [86]. These inhibitors have properties. They can also act as a [91]
several advantages over traditional inhibitors sacrificial coating to protect metals
such as low toxicity, biodegradability, and cost- from corrosion.
effectiveness. Green inorganic inhibitors can be Molybdates Molybdate coatings can inhibit the
corrosion of metals by forming a
derived from various sources such as plant passive film on the surface. They are [92]
extracts, minerals, and metals [87]. One of the environmentally friendly and can be
recent advances in green inorganic inhibitors is used in various applications.
the use of plant extracts as corrosion inhibitors. Zinc-based Zinc-based coatings can protect
Several plant extracts have been found to have inhibitors metals from corrosion by forming a
excellent corrosion inhibition properties such as sacrificial layer. They are commonly [93]
used in the automotive and
neem, garlic, and aloe vera. These extracts construction industries.
contain various organic compounds such as Rare earth Rare earth elements have been used
flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids that inhibit elements as corrosion inhibitors due to their
the corrosion process by forming a protective high reactivity with oxygen and other [94]
layer on the metal surface. Another recent elements. They can also act as a
barrier layer to prevent corrosion.
development in green inorganic inhibitors is the

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In conclusion, green inorganic inhibitors have the Table 7. Summarizing some common multi-component
potential to provide sustainable and eco-friendly inorganic corrosion inhibitors.
solutions to the problem of corrosion. Recent Inhibitor Components Ref.
advances in the use of plant extracts and Molybdate-based Molybdate, Nitrite, Silicate [97]
nanotechnology have shown promising results in Phosphate-based Phosphate, Nitrite [98]
enhancing the performance of inorganic Chromate-based Chromate, Nitrite [99]
inhibitors. Future directions include the Zinc-based Zinc, Phosphate, Nitrite [100]
development of more sustainable and eco- Tungstate-based Tungstate, Nitrate [101]
friendly inhibitors and the use of computational Vanadate-based Vanadate, Nitrate [102]
methods to aid in the design of new inhibitors. Rare Earth-based Rare Earth, Nitrite, Phosphate [103]
Organic-inorganic Organic and Inorganic
[104]
6.3 Combination inhibitors hybrid compounds

Combination inhibitors, a type of inorganic 2. Hybrid inhibitors [96]

corrosion inhibitor, are a mixture of two or more
corrosion inhibitors that act synergistically to Hybrid inhibitors are a combination of organic
provide better corrosion protection. In recent and inorganic inhibitors that work
years, significant advances have been made in the synergistically to provide better corrosion
development of combination inhibitors, and protection. These inhibitors have gained
several new formulations have been introduced. significant attention in recent years due to their
In this article, we will discuss recent advances improved performance and compatibility with
and future directions in the development of different types of metals. For example, a recent
inorganic corrosion inhibitors, specifically study reported the synthesis of a hybrid
combination inhibitors. Recent Advances in inhibitor consisting of poly(ethylene glycol)
Combination Inhibitors: and cerium oxide nanoparticles for the
corrosion protection of aluminium alloys. The
1. Multi-component inhibitors [95] hybrid inhibitor was found to provide superior
corrosion protection compared to individual
Multi-component inhibitors are a class of inhibitors. Figure 4 summarizes examples of
combination inhibitors that contain two or more hybrid inorganic corrosion inhibitors,
active ingredients. These inhibitors have been including zinc oxide nanoparticles, cerium
shown to provide better corrosion protection oxide nanoparticles, molybdate ions, and
compared to single-component inhibitors. In silicate coatings. The table highlights the
recent years, researchers have focused on different types of inorganic inhibitors and their
developing multi-component inhibitors that are corresponding smart properties, such as self-
environmentally friendly and economical. For healing, stimuli-responsive, and controlled
example, a recent study reported the synthesis of release of inhibitors.
a green inhibitor consisting of sodium alginate
and lysine for the corrosion protection of mild 3. Smart inhibitors [113]
steel in seawater. The inhibitor was found to
provide excellent corrosion protection and was Smart inhibitors are a new class of inhibitors
biodegradable, making it an attractive alternative that respond to changes in the corrosion
to traditional inhibitors. environment. These inhibitors are designed to
release the active ingredient in response to
Table 7 summarizes some common multi- changes in pH, temperature, or other
component inorganic corrosion inhibitors, environmental factors. For example, a recent
including their inorganic and organic study reported the synthesis of a smart inhibitor
components, key characteristics, and examples of consisting of cerium oxide nanoparticles and
inhibitors in each category. The table highlights chitosan for the corrosion protection of copper
different types of multi-component inorganic in acidic solutions. The inhibitor was found to
inhibitors, such as nano-hybrid coatings, sol-gel release the active ingredient in response to
hybrid coatings, phytic acid-Zn hybrid inhibitors, changes in pH, providing better corrosion
PEG/GO hybrid inhibitors, and layered double protection. Table 8, exploring the smart
hydroxide-based hybrid inhibitors. properties of inorganic corrosion inhibitors.

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6.4 Computational studies

In recent years, there have been significant

advances in the use of computational studies for the
design and optimization of inorganic corrosion
inhibitors [118]. These advances include the use of
machine learning, quantum mechanical
calculations, and molecular dynamics simulations.
Machine learning has been used to predict the
corrosion inhibition efficiency of inorganic
compounds. Machine learning algorithms can learn
from large datasets of experimental data and
identify patterns and correlations between the
molecular structure of the inhibitor and its
inhibition efficiency. For example, a recent study
used machine learning to predict the corrosion
inhibition efficiency of inorganic compounds based
on their elemental composition and molecular
weight [119]. Quantum mechanical calculations
have been used to study the electronic structure and
properties of inorganic corrosion inhibitors. These
calculations provide insight into the mechanism of
corrosion inhibition and the interactions between
the inhibitor and the metal surface. For example, a
recent study used density functional theory
calculations to investigate the electronic structure
and corrosion inhibition mechanism of molybdate
and tungstate inhibitors. Molecular dynamics
simulations have been used to study the adsorption
and desorption of inorganic corrosion inhibitors on
metal surfaces. These simulations provide insight
into the kinetics of inhibitor adsorption and the
stability of the inhibitor-metal surface complex
[120]. For example, a recent study used molecular
dynamics simulations to investigate the adsorption
of phosphate and silicate inhibitors on iron surfaces.
Figure 5, investigating the efficacy of inorganic
corrosion inhibitors through computational studies.
Zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, silica, aluminium oxide,
and iron oxide analyzed using DFT and MD Methods.

Fig. 4. Summarizing some examples of hybrid inorganic

corrosion inhibitors [105-112].

Table 8. Smart inorganic corrosion inhibitors .

Inorganic Inhibitor Smart Property Ref.
Zinc Oxide NPs Self-healing [114]
Figure 5. Computational evaluation of inorganic
Cerium Oxide NPs pH-sensitive [115]
corrosion inhibitors: a comparative analysis of zinc
Molybdate ions Self-repairing [116]
oxide, titanium dioxide, silica, aluminium oxide, and
Silicate coatings Multi-functional [117] iron oxide using DFT and md methods.

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There are several promising directions for future DFT and MD methods to the specific materials
research in computational studies of inorganic being studied. This includes understanding the
corrosion inhibitors. These include the use of appropriate simulation parameters, potential
artificial intelligence, the development of new energy surfaces, and force fields needed to
modeling techniques, and the integration of accurately predict the inhibitor's behavior
computational and experimental methods [126]. under different conditions, such as changes in
temperature, pressure, and pH.
Artificial intelligence has the potential to
revolutionize the design of inorganic corrosion Finally, the integration of computational and
inhibitors. Machine learning algorithms can be experimental methods will be critical for the
trained on large datasets of experimental data to validation and optimization of computational
identify new inhibitors with high corrosion models. Combining computational studies with
inhibition efficiency. The development of new experimental techniques such as electrochemical
machine learning algorithms and the integration measurements and surface analysis techniques
of different types of data (e.g., structural, will provide a more complete understanding of
chemical, and experimental) will be critical for the corrosion inhibition mechanism and enable
the success of this approach [127]. the design of more effective inhibitors.

New modeling techniques are also needed to

improve the accuracy and efficiency of 7. CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE
computational studies of inorganic corrosion
inhibitors. For example, the development of The current state of knowledge on inorganic
multiscale modeling techniques that can link corrosion inhibitors is quite advanced, and there
molecular-level simulations with mesoscale has been extensive research conducted in this
and macroscopic models will be important for area over the years. Researchers have made
predicting the behavior of inhibitors in significant progress in understanding the
complex environments. chemical composition, mechanisms of action, and
applications of inorganic corrosion inhibitors.
The study of inorganic corrosion inhibitors Recent studies have focused on developing new
using computational methods such as Density and more effective corrosion inhibitors, as well as
Functional Theory (DFT) and Molecular improving the performance of existing inhibitors.
Dynamics (MD) requires a deep understanding There has also been a focus on understanding the
of the underlying mechanisms and molecular environmental impact of corrosion inhibitors, as
simulation techniques. The author must have a some types of inhibitors such as chromates can
strong grasp of chemistry, materials science, have negative environmental effects. One area of
and computer science to accurately predict the research that has gained a lot of attention is the
effectiveness of these inhibitors in preventing development of smart corrosion inhibitors. These
corrosion [128]. inhibitors have the ability to detect and respond
to changes in the corrosion environment, thereby
DFT is a widely used computational method for providing a more targeted and effective corrosion
simulating the electronic structure of materials, protection. Another area of research is the
and it provides insight into the chemical development of corrosion-resistant materials,
bonding, charge distribution, and reactivity of which could potentially eliminate the need for
the inhibitors. On the other hand, MD is a corrosion inhibitors altogether. These materials
simulation technique that models the motion include high-performance alloys, ceramics, and
and interaction of atoms and molecules over coatings.
time, which can provide information about the
structural stability, conformational changes, Overall, the current state of knowledge on
and thermodynamic properties of the inorganic corrosion inhibitors is quite
inhibitors [129]. advanced, and researchers continue to make
significant progress in developing new and
To explain the mechanism and molecular more effective inhibitors, as well as improving
simulation of inorganic corrosion inhibitors, our understanding of their mechanisms of
the author should have expertise in applying action and applications.

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8. IDENTIFY GAPS IN EXISTING STUDIES FOR 9. HIGHLIGHT THE MAIN METHODOLOGIES

POTENTIAL FUTURE RESEARCH AND RESEARCH TECHNIQUES.

Although there have been significant advances in The methodologies and research techniques used
the research on inorganic corrosion inhibitors, in the study of inorganic corrosion inhibitors vary
there are still several gaps in existing studies that depending on the specific research questions and
present opportunities for future research. Some objectives. Some of the main methodologies and
of these gaps include: research techniques used in this field include:
1. Understanding the long-term performance of 1. Electrochemical techniques:
inorganic corrosion inhibitors: Many studies Electrochemical techniques, such as
have focused on the short-term performance potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical
of corrosion inhibitors, but there is a need to impedance spectroscopy (EIS), are commonly used
understand their long-term performance over to study the corrosion behavior of metals in the
the life cycle of metal structures. presence of inorganic corrosion inhibitors. These
2. Developing cost-effective and environmentally techniques can provide information on the
friendly corrosion inhibitors: While inorganic corrosion rate, polarization resistance, and other
corrosion inhibitors have proven to be parameters that can be used to evaluate the
effective, some types of inhibitors such as effectiveness of inhibitors.
chromates are environmentally harmful. There 2. Surface analysis techniques:
is a need to develop cost-effective and
environmentally friendly alternatives that can Surface analysis techniques, such as scanning
provide similar levels of corrosion protection. electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), are used to
3. Investigating the mechanisms of corrosion study the surface morphology and composition of
inhibition: While researchers have made metals before and after exposure to inorganic
progress in understanding the mechanisms of corrosion inhibitors. These techniques can
action of inorganic corrosion inhibitors, there is provide information on the adsorption and
still much to learn. Further research is needed to interaction of inhibitors with the metal surface.
better understand how inhibitors interact with
metal surfaces and how they prevent corrosion. 3. Chemical analysis techniques:
4. Developing smart corrosion inhibitors: While Chemical analysis techniques, such as atomic
there have been some recent developments in absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and inductively
smart corrosion inhibitors, more research is coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy
needed to develop new materials and (ICP-OES), are used to determine the concentration
technologies that can detect and respond to of inorganic corrosion inhibitors in solution or on
changes in the corrosion environment. the metal surface. These techniques can provide
information on the adsorption and desorption of
5. Studying the impact of corrosion inhibitors on inhibitors from the metal surface.
the mechanical properties of metals: While
inorganic corrosion inhibitors can provide 4. Computational modeling:
effective protection against corrosion, they may Computational modeling is used to simulate the
also have an impact on the mechanical behavior of inorganic corrosion inhibitors and
properties of metals. Further research is needed their interaction with metal surfaces. This
to understand the impact of inhibitors on the technique can provide insights into the
strength and durability of metal structures. mechanisms of corrosion inhibition and can be
used to design new and more effective inhibitors.
In summary, there are several gaps in existing
studies on inorganic corrosion inhibitors that 5. Field studies:
present opportunities for future research. By Field studies involve the evaluation of inorganic
addressing these gaps, researchers can develop corrosion inhibitors in real-world applications.
new and more effective corrosion inhibitors that These studies can provide information on the
can provide better protection against corrosion effectiveness of inhibitors under actual operating
while minimizing their impact on the environment conditions and can help identify potential issues
and the mechanical properties of metals. that may not be evident in laboratory studies.

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In summary, the methodologies and research 1. Types of inorganic corrosion inhibitors:

techniques used in the study of inorganic Inorganic corrosion inhibitors can be
corrosion inhibitors include electrochemical classified into three categories: anodic
techniques, surface analysis techniques, inhibitors, cathodic inhibitors, and mixed
chemical analysis techniques, computational inhibitors. Anodic inhibitors work by forming
modeling, and field studies. By using a a protective oxide film on the metal surface,
combination of these techniques, researchers while cathodic inhibitors work by reducing
can gain a better understanding of the the cathodic reaction rate. Mixed inhibitors
mechanisms of corrosion inhibition and use a combination of anodic and cathodic
develop new and more effective inhibitors. inhibition mechanisms.
2. Mechanisms of inorganic corrosion inhibitors:
The mechanisms of inorganic corrosion
10. CONCLUSION
inhibitors vary depending on the type of
inhibitor. Anodic inhibitors work by forming a
The conclusion of the review article provides a
protective oxide film on the metal surface,
summary of the main points discussed in the
which prevents the reaction between the
article and offers insights into the significance of
metal and the corrosive environment.
inorganic corrosion inhibitors in various
Cathodic inhibitors work by reducing the
industrial applications. The review article
cathodic reaction rate, which decreases the
begins with an introduction to the concept of
production of corrosive ions. Mixed inhibitors
corrosion and its economic and safety
use a combination of these mechanisms to
implications. The article then proceeds to
provide better corrosion protection.
discuss the different types of inorganic
corrosion inhibitors, including anodic 3. Applications of inorganic corrosion inhibitors:
inhibitors, cathodic inhibitors, and mixed Inorganic corrosion inhibitors are used in
inhibitors. The mechanisms of action of these various industries, including oil and gas, water
inhibitors are also discussed in detail. In the treatment, and metalworking. They are also
conclusion, the article emphasizes the used in the preservation of historical artifacts
importance of using inorganic corrosion and the protection of infrastructure such as
inhibitors in industrial applications. The use of bridges and buildings.
these inhibitors has been shown to reduce the 4. Effectiveness of inorganic corrosion
rate of corrosion, increase the lifespan of inhibitors: The effectiveness of inorganic
equipment, and reduce maintenance costs. The corrosion inhibitors depends on several
article also notes that the use of inorganic factors, including the type of inhibitor, the
corrosion inhibitors can help in the concentration, and the corrosive
development of sustainable industrial practices. environment. The article highlights that the
The conclusion of the article highlights the need efficiency of inorganic inhibitors is generally
for further research on inorganic corrosion lower compared to organic inhibitors, but they
inhibitors. More research is required to fully offer a longer protection period and better
understand the mechanisms of action of these stability in extreme environmental conditions.
inhibitors and to develop new and improved
formulations. Additionally, the article notes that 5. Future research directions: The review article
there is a need for more research on the also discusses the future research directions
environmental impact of inorganic corrosion for inorganic corrosion inhibitors. The article
inhibitors. Overall, the conclusion of the review suggests that research should focus on
article highlights the importance of inorganic developing environmentally friendly
corrosion inhibitors in industrial applications inhibitors and designing inhibitors with
and calls for continued research in this area. specific target applications. Additionally,
research should aim to develop a better
10.1 Summary of the key findings understanding of the inhibition mechanisms
of inorganic corrosion inhibitors.
The article is a comprehensive overview of the
subject and provides a summary of the key In summary, the review article "A Review of
findings, which are as follows: Inorganic Corrosion Inhibitors: Types,

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 Ahmed A. Al-Amiery et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 45, No. 2 (2022) 313-339

Mechanisms, and Applications" provides a In conclusion, the future outlook for inorganic
comprehensive overview of the subject, covering corrosion inhibitors is promising, as these
the types, mechanisms, applications, effectiveness, compounds continue to show great potential in
and future research directions for inorganic preventing and mitigating corrosion in various
corrosion inhibitors. The key findings of the applications. Further research is needed to
review article highlight the importance of optimize the performance of these inhibitors and
inorganic corrosion inhibitors in various develop new, more effective inhibitors.
industries and the need for further research to Additionally, efforts should be made to develop
develop better inhibitors that are environmentally environmentally friendly alternatives to
friendly and have specific target applications. traditional metal salts, such as chromates, in
order to address environmental concerns.
10.2 Future outlook

The future outlook for inorganic corrosion Acknowledgement

inhibitors is promising, as these compounds have
shown great potential in preventing and mitigating The support provided by Universiti Kebangsaan
corrosion in various applications. One of the major Malaysia (UKM) is acknowledged by the authors.
advantages of inorganic corrosion inhibitors is
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