BPCS 188

Applications of Social
Psychology

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
 Expert Committee
Prof. Swaraj Basu
Director, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan

Former Emeritus Professor
Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, New Delhi

Prof. Purnima Singh

Professor
School of Humanities & Social Sciences, IIT, New Delhi

Prof. Swati Patra

Professor of Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Prof. SuhasShetgovekar
Professor of Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delh

Dr. Monika Misra

Sr. Assistant Professor of Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Dr. Smita Gupta (Convener)

Sr. Assistant Professor of Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinator
Dr. Smita Gupta, Discipline of Psychology SOSS, IGNOU

General Editor
Dr. Smita Gupta, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU

January, 2022
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
ISBN:
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information about the School of Social Sciences and the Indira Gandhi National Open University
courses may be obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Registrar,
MPDD.
M/s. Raj Printers, Tronica City, Ghaziabad.

2
Course Preparation Team

Block I Unit Writer Editor (Content, format

Language)

Block I Introduction to Applied Social Psychology [Link] Uddin

Unit 1 Introduction to Applied Social Psychology I Dr. Smita Gupta

Unit 2 Introduction to Applied Social Psychology II Dr. Smita Gupta

Unit 3 Research Methods in Applied Social Psychology II Dr. Smita Gupta

Unit 4 Research Methods in Applied Social Psychology II Dr. Sarika Boora,

Psychologist

Unit 5 Theories of Social Psychology Dr. Arisisudan Tiwari and

Dr. Smita Gupta

Unit 6 Knowldege and Application of Social Psychology Dr. Arisudan Tiwari DIPR,
& RDO and Dr. Smita
Gupta, SOSS, IGNOU

Unit 7 Introduction and Evalution Dr. Babita Prusty

Block II Areas of Application of Social Psychology

Unit 8 Application of Social Psychology to Social Problems Ms. Preeti Sehrawat,

Psychologist

Unit 9 Application of Social Psychology to Health and Ms. Preeti Sehrawat,

well-being Psychologist

Unit 10 Application of Social Psychology to Mental Health I Ms. Preeti Sehrawat,

Psychologist

Unit 11 Application of Social Psychology to Mental Health Ms. Preeti Sehrawat,

II Psychologist

Unit 12 Application of Social Psychology to Education & Dr. Tina D Cuha, SEN
Classroom Inclusion, Learning
Mentor & Key Worker

Unit 13 Application of Social Psychology to Community Dr. Tina D Cuha, SEN

Inclusion, Learning
Mentor & Key Worker

Unit 14 Application of Social Psychology to Environment Ms. Preeti Sehrawat,

Phychologist

Unit 15 Application of Social Psychology in Work Setting Ms. Preeti Sehrawat,

Phychologist

Unit 16 Application of Social Psychology to Sports Ms. Preeti Sehrawat,

Phychologist
3
 COURSE INTRODUCTION

BPCS 188 - Applications of Social Psychology

Applications of Social Psychology is a course which explains the various applications of
social psychology in different areas. This course consists of two blocks.
The first block comprises of seven units. This block explains the definition, nature and
scope of Social Psychology as well as applied social psychology. It also discusses about the
relationship of applied social psychology with other social sciences and the different research
methods used in the field of applied social psychology. The block also deals with the various
theories related to social psychology and their applications.
The second block of this unit is related to applications of social psychology in various fields.
It consists of nine units. This block deals with the applications of social psychology in dealing
with various social problems like, poverty, violence, criminal behaviour, unemployment,
social problems with reference to India (dowry, caste, religion, and language). It also explains
the contribution of social psychology towards enhancing health and well being among
individuals. It discusses about the applications of social psychology in dealing with mental
health problems, educational and classroom settings. It also discusses the contribution of
social psychology towards community, environment, work place culture and sports.

4
COURSE CONTENTS Page No.
Introduction

BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY

Unit 1 Introduction to Applied Social Psychology I 9

Unit 2 Introduction to Applied Social Psychology II 19

Unit 3 Research methods in Applied Social psychology I 29

Unit 4 Research methods in Applied Social psychology II 39

Unit 5 Theories of Social Psychology 48

Unit 6 Knowledge and Application of Social Psychology 60

Unit 7 Intervention and Evaluation 77

BLOCK 2 AREAS OF APPLICATION OF SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY

Unit 8 Application of Social Psychology to social problems 89

Unit 9 Application of Social Psychology to health and well-being 98

Unit 10 Application of Social Psychology to Mental Health I 108

Unit 11 Application of Social Psychology to Mental Health II 115

Unit 12 Application of Social Psychology to education & classroom 121

Unit 13 Application of Social Psychology to community 130

Unit 14 Application of Social Psychology to environment 144

Unit 15 Application of Social Psychology in work setting 153

Unit 16 Application of Social Psychology to Sports 163

5
6
 BLOCK 1
INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

7
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology BLOCK I INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
This block comprises of seven [Link] first unit deals with definition, nature and scope of
Social Psychology. It also deals with the meaning, definition and history of applied social
psychology and tries to explain the context of applied social psychology in India. At the
end, it discusses about features of applied psychology and its difference with basic social
psychology.
The second unit highlights the relationship of applied social psychology with other social
sciences. The unit also describes the roles and functions of applied social psychologists.
The third unit discusses about the different research methods used in applied social psychology
like field study research methods, field experiments, naturalistic observation method, archival
and correlational research. It further discusses about the methods of data collection in
naturalistic observation and the methods used in collecting data through survey research.
The fourth unit is an extension of the third unit, as it discusses about the further aspects of
research methods in applied social psychology. The unit introduces the concept of sampling,
characteristics of sample and the different methods of sampling.
In the fifth unit, you will be explained about the various theories related to social psychology
and their applications.
The sixth unit involves the knowledge and applications of social psychology, with reference
to the meaning of attitudes, its structure types and functions. It also deals about the processes
involved in the attitude formation.
In the seventh unit, which is also the last unit of this block, you will be introduced about the
different types of interventions applied in the field of social Pcychology and how are they
evaluated.

8
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY- I *

Structure
1.0. Objectives
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Definition, Nature and Scope of Social Psychology
1.2.1 Definition of Social Psychology
1.2.2 Social Psychology as a Science
[Link] Social Psychology Applies Scientific Methods of Study
[Link] Social Psychology Studies Individuals’ Thought, Feeling and Behaviour by
Using Observational Methods
[Link] Social Psychology Involve Empirial Methods
[Link] Social Psychology Investigates Social Phenomena
[Link] Researches in Social Psychology Involves Data Collection
[Link] Social Psychology Involves Objectivity
1.2.3 Scope of Social Psychology
1.3. Meaning and Definition of Applied Social Psychology
1.4 Historical Development of Applied Social Psychology
1.5 Contributions of Applied Social Psychology
1.6 Distinction Between Basic and Applied Psychology
1.7. Let Us Sum Up
1.8. Unit End Questions
1.9. Glossary
1.10. Answers To Self-Assessment Questions
1.11. Suggested Readings And References

1.0. OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
● Define social psychology as well as applied social psychology;
● Describe the historical background of applied social psychology,
● Discuss the scope and applications of applied social psychology; and
● Differentiate between the basic fundamental social psychology and the applied social
psychology.

* Dr. Smita Gupta, Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, IGNOU, Delhi.

9
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology 1.1 INTRODUCTION
Social psychology is the branch of psychology which studies human behaviour with reference
to social situations. In a simple language, social psychology can be described as a field which
studies how the behaviour of human being influences and is being influenced by his/her
societal environment. Kurt Lewin who is recognized as the "founder of social psychology"
tried to explain social behaviour. The social psychologists are interested to understand the
urges that operate on individuals and cause them to engage in specific type of social behaviour.
But social behaviour is typically complex and has many contributing causes. Consequently,
explaining social behaviour is a difficult task. To simplify this task, we can assign the multiple
causes of social behaviour to one of two broad categories: the situation and the individual.
Kurt Lewin (1936) proposed a formula and mentioned that social behaviour is a function of
the interaction of the situation and the individual’s characteristics, or
Behaviour = f (social situation × individual characteristics)
Therefore, it is very significant for us to understand the causes that leads an individual to
behave in a particular way in the society. Keeping this in to reference, the present unit will
help you to understand the definition, scope and nature of social psychology. Further, you will
also be explained about the concept of applied social psychology. In that a question might arise
in your mind that ‘how is applied social psychology distinct from basic social psychology?’.
The subsections of the present unit will provide an answer to the question as well.

1.2 DEFINITION AND NATURE OF SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology is an important branch of psychology which studies human interaction, its
manifestations, causes, consequences and the various psychological processes involved in it.

1.2.1 Definition of Social Psychology

Let us see few of the definition of social psychology:
Social psychology is defined as the scientific study of “how we feel about, think about and
behave toward the people around us and how our feelings, thoughts, and behaviours are
influenced by those people in the social context” (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2017).
In a slightly different expression social psychology is defined as a discipline that uses scientific
methods in an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and behaviour of
individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others (Gordon
Allport, 1985, p. 3).

Baron, Byrne and Suls (1989) defined social psychology as “the scientific field that seeks to
understand the nature and causes of individual behaviour in social situations” (p. 6).

Sewell (1989) mentioned that social psychology is an interdisciplinary domain that bridges
the gap between psychology and sociology.

1.2.2 Social Psychology as a Science

Careful explanation of definitions given above reveals that the social psychology is scientific
in nature. This section will elaborate upon certain characterIstics that reveals the scientific
nature of social psychology:
[Link] Social Psychology Applies Scientific Methods of Study
Social psychology is scientific in nature. It applies the scientific method of systematic
10
observation, description and measurement to the study of the human behaviour in social Introduction to Applied
context. Social psychological studies are analyzed and interpreted on basis of the data being Social Psychology- I
collected through direct observation or experiment. Such experiments and observation are
carried out carefully and reported in detail so that other investigators can repeat and verify
the work.
The social psychology scientifically carries out three major activities: description, explanation
and prediction of social behaviours. Social psychology provides a scientific account of social
behaviour based on direct observation rather than on common beliefs. Social psychology also
attempts to explain why people behave in a particular way at a particular social situation. Such
interconnected explanations of social behaviours lead to formation of theories which help in
predicting social behaviours and managing them in a desirable direction.
[Link] Social Psychology Studies Individuals’ Thought, Feeling and Behaviour by
Using Observational Methods
Social psychology adopts scientific methods to study various processes and phenomena.
McDavid and Harari in 1994 pointed out three basic steps that are employed in almost all
researches done in social psychology. They are:
i) The collection of carefully made observations. Careful observation requires gathering
of information about issues and processes of interest, plus an attitude of scepticism.
ii) The ordered integration of these observations and the statement of general principles.
iii) The utilisation of these general principles to predict future observations.
[Link] Social Psychology Involves Empirical Methods
Social psychology is a branch of psychological science in which the researcher studies human
behaviour in field settings as well as laboratory settings. It involves empirical methods for
analysing the collected data and its interpretation.
[Link] Social Psychology Investigates Social Phenomena
Social psychology is a branch of psychological science. Just like the clinical psychologists
are involved in investigating about the symptoms and treatments of mental disorders while
the developmental psychologists are interested in investigating the way people develop across
their life span, this science is all about investigating the ways groups function, the costs and
benefits of social status, the influences of culture, and all the other psychological processes
taking place within a society.
[Link] Researches In Social Psychology Involves Data Collection
People have been called as “everyday scientists” (Nisbett & Ross, 1980), as they try to find
out reasons behind a specific behaviour. This involves listing of various causes and then trying
to analyse, interpret and conclude to its basic cause. For example- if we are unable to perform
nicely in an interview then we try to understand what would have been the reasons behind
such performance. Therefore, the reasons behind any behaviour or phenomena are analysed
on the basis of data collection:
[Link] Social Psychology Involves Objectivity
The studies involved in social psychology is done through minimizing biases and eliminating
subjectivity of researchers. This makes social psychological study to be more objective and
scientific.

1.2.3 Scope of Social Psychology

As mentioned to you earlier also, that the main focus of social psychology is to study
behaviour of an individual in the social context, so the subject matter of social psychology
11
Introduction to Applied is the interactions of the individual with other individuals and society as well. The basic
Social Psychology foundation of this branch of psychology is the social world, based upon the interrelations of
human beings. Few of the scope of social psychology can be discussed as follows:
● It attempts to understand and predict the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of individuals.
It also emphasizes upon the various aspects of attitude including the processes involved
in formation of attitude, attitude structure, attitude change, function of attitudes and
relationship between attitudes and behaviour.
● It contributes toward explaining the various attributions of behaviour. It explains how
and why individual makes choices from their social surroundings. Therefore, social
psychology is used as a reference to understand attributions and personal choices.
● Social cognition is an important area of social psychology which contribute towards
understanding of ways people perceive, deliberate and recollect information related to
social stimuli. Various phenomena studied under social cognition are person perception,
attribution process, schema, stereotypes, etc.
● Social psychology also analyses the social influence of peers and groups over
individual’s behaviour and vice versa. Conformity and prosocial behaviour are two
important results of such influences.
● Social psychologists are also interested to know the reasons why people imitate others’
behaviour, why do they deviate from others and why do certain people to know initiate
actions while others do not. Therefore, these studies help in understanding behaviour of
individual in a society.
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I)
Fill in the Blanks:
1. Social psychology is a branch of ............................... science.
2. Kurt Lewin (1936) proposed a formula and mentioned that social behaviour is a function
of ...........................................................................................
3. ............................... is recognized as the “founder of social psychology” tried to explain
social behaviour.
4. The scientific social psychology carries out three major activities: ...............................,
............................... and ................................

1.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF APPLIED SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
As mentioned to you earlier also that social psychology is the basic science which tries to
understand the social behaviour of human beings, and their cognitions, emotions as well as
motivations related to such behaviour. For example, the social psychologists try to understand
the reasons behind our prosocial behaviour, aggression or why do we change our decisions
in prescence of others? They also try to find out an answer to questions like:Why are we
unable to control our eating habits? Why are some people prone to accidents? Why are some
people more aggressive in behaviour? Understanding these behaviours help them to analyze,
interpret and generalize findings. Yet we also need to understand the strategies with the help
of which we can bring about a change in some one’s aggressive behaviour or eating habits
or accident proneness and so on. These interventions and strategies which can be implied
to change the existing human social behaviour is done with the help of ‘applied’ social
psychologists. Therefore, the main concern of applied social psychology is to find out ways
which can help in bringing about a change or improving the existing human behaviour.

12
The applied social psychology applies the basic research in applied domains, and the findings Introduction to Applied
from each type of research enrich the other. Few of the psychologists have defined the concept Social Psychology- I
of applied social psychology as follows:
According to Keizer, Buunk & Rothengatter (2017)- “Applied Social Psychology combines
the science of social psychology with the practical application of solving social problems that
exist in the real world”.
According to Thompson (2003b) applied social psychology advances by employing
experimental research methodologies; in particular the hypothetico-deductive method.
He explains: ‘‘researchers develop a hypothesis derived from theory and then design an
experiment that will allow cause-and-effect conclusions from the results. This is in contrast
to folk wisdom or qualitative ethnographic research’’.
According to Steg, Buunk and Rothengatter (2008), “Applied social psychology combines
the science of social psychology with the practical application of solving social problems that
exist in the real world”.
The above definitions clearly mention that applied social psychology is a field which uses
psychological methods and scientifically tries to solve human problems. It applies the
social psychological theories, principles, research findings, and experimental methods to
understand social issues and to offer real-world solutions for a variety of social problems.

1.4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF APPLIED SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
By the beginning of the 20th century, the psychologists started taking interest in studying
human behaviour and related cognitive processes outside the boundaries of laboratory. They
were now inclined towards application of the existing theories in societal environment. A
book titled, “The Theory and Practice of Advertising” was authored by Walter Dill Scott
in 1903, in which he suggested that emotional suggestions given by others can influence
the buying habits of consumers. This led to the advent of applied psychology in which the
researches were done to solve the problems of our every day life. Hugo Munsterberg defined
applied psychology in 1908 as a research to adjust to the problems encountered in every
day life. This was followed by the contribution of Hall (1917) who pioneered the Journal of
Applied Psychology.
By the 1920’s, the applied research started gaining much importance in the industries as well.
Influencing consumers’ behaviour; enhancing employee motivation, building team work
were few such instances which were implied in the social environment.
However, it is Kurt Lewin (1840-1947) who is considered to be the pioneer of modern applied
social psychology. He insisted that social psychologists should engage in action research.
Lewin emphasized that social issues should in spire social psychological research. This
research could then be used to provide solutions for social problems. The action research
should be capable of defining, analysing, interpreting social problems and suggesting
solutions. The effectiveness of such solutions can be measured through surveys, case studies,
and controlled experiments. Therefore, Kurt Lewin is considered as the founder of both
applied and theoretical social psychology in the history of psychology.

1.5 CONTRIBUTIONS OF APPLIED SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
The applied social psychology basically refers to the application of basics, theories and
fundamentals of social psychology towards solving human problems. The second block of
13
Introduction to Applied this course deals with the scope of applied social psychology in details. In this unit, we would
Social Psychology try to point out few of the contributions of applied social psychology. Few of them are as
follows:
• To solve human problems and promote wellbeing: The clinical as well as counselling
psychologists utilize psychological theories and apply therapeutical techniques in the
societal context to sort out the mental health problems of individuals and help them
towards wellbeing.
• To contribute towards the existing theories of basic social psychology: The applied
social psychology uses scientific methods to find out facts and suggestions to existing
problems. This contributes toward the existing theories of social psychology.
• To contribute towards enhancing interpersonal relations and communications: The
applied social psychology tries out ways and suggest strategies which can help towards
increasing attachment process in social relationships and thereby contributing towards
enhancing interpersonal relationships and communication among individuals.
• To contribute toward solving real life problems: The field of applied social psychology
tries to influence the human sociability. It also emphasizes upon the role of psychological
‘mindsets’ in interpreting reality, and the use of 'attitude change' techniques to promote
adaptive behaviours.
• To contribute towards reducing social problems: By applying the theories of social
psychology upon the human beings, the field helps in reducing several social problems
like prejudice, discrimination, ageism and social stigma.

Self Assessment Question (SAQ II)

State whether the following statements are “True” or “False”

1. Social psychology is that basic science which tries to understand the growth of human
beings. ( )
2. Emotional suggestions given by others can influence the buying habits of
consumers. ( )
3. The applied social psychology basically refers to the application of basics, theories and
fundamentals of social psychology towards solving human problems. ( )
4. Walter Dill Scott is considered to be the pioneer of modern applied social
psychology. ( )

1.6 DISTINCTION BETWEEN BASIC AND APPLIED

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Till now the concept of basic and applied social psychology should be clear to you. The basic
or fundamental social psychology tries to study the various causes that influences the human
behaviour and various related problems. Whereas, the applied social psychology tries to find
out solution to those problems. In this section we will be discussing the differences between
basic and applied psychology. But, before we discuss about these differences, let us talk
about the similarities between them. Firstly, both of them use scientific methods of research.
Secondly, both of these branches search and evaluate information accurately. Thirdly, both
of them involve objectivity and generalisability in their research findings. Fourthly, the
studies done in the field are flexible because they accept the evidence irrespective of the
consequences. Lastly, both of them aim at describing, predicting, determining causality and
explaining a phenomenon or relationship. It can be said that both the branches complement
each other.
14
 Introduction to Applied
Now let us see the differences between them in the given figure: Social Psychology- I

BASIC SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Approach Since this branch of social Since this branch uses theories to
psychology tries to analyse if a analyse and understand a social
theory is useful for understanding problem, it uses an inductive
social behaviour or not, it uses a approach.
deductive approach.
Aim The basic aim of this branch is to The basic aim of this branch is to
understand practical problems. plan a strategy or intervention to
solve practical problems.
Focus Basic social psychologists focus on Applied social psychologists focus
developing and testing theories. on resolving and understanding
practical problems.
Relevance This branch of social psychology This branch of social psychology
helps in making us aware of our helps us to strive for improving the
values and how these affect our quality of our life.
behaviour.
Purpose Basic social psychologists try to Applied social psychologists try to
frame various theories related to apply many theories, intervention
human social behaviour. techniques and research methods
towards human social behaviour.
Applications It is theory-driven and It desires to solve practical problems
involves hypothesis-testing of the social world.
for fundamental understanding.
Utility It involves observation that can be It involves actions to improve
replicated and generalised. human behaviour and practical life
situations.
Figure 1.1 : Distinction between Basic and Applied Psychology

1.7 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above discussion that social psychology is a field which
analyses our thoughts, feelings and behaviour toward the people around us. It also explains
how others have an influence on our behaviour in the social context. Thus, social psychology
concentrates on studying the interactions of individuals with other individuals and society.
Social psychologists investigate human social behaviour at various levels. Primarily, these
levels are intrapersonal social behaviours, interactions between individuals, interactions
between individual and group. While, applied social psychology is the application of the
theories and intervention to solve practical life situations and human problems. Both basic
and applied psychology are interrelated and complement each other. Both of them have
several similarities as well as differences.

1.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Define social psychology and explain the nature of social psychology.
2. Discuss the scope of social psychology.

15
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology
3 Describe the meaning and definition of applied social psychology.
4. Present an account of historical development of applied social psychology.
5. Discuss the contributions of applied social psychology.
6. Differentiate between the basic and applied social psychology.

1.9 GLOSSARY
Social Psychology: The scientific study of how we feel about, think about and behave toward
the people around us and how our feelings, thoughts, and behaviours are influenced by those
people in the social context.
Applied Social Psychology: The applied social psychology applies the basic research
in applied domains, and the findings from each type of research enrich the other.
Action Research: The process of conduction of research to solve problem.

1.10 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)

SAQ I
1. psychological
2. the interaction of the situation and the individual’s characteristics
3. Kurt Lewin
4. description, explanation and prediction of social behaviours.
SAQ II
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False

1.11 REFERENCESANDSUGGESTED READINGS

Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10thed.). Cengage Learning.
Baron, R. A., & Branscombe, N. R. (2016). Social Psychology (14th ed.). Boston: Pearson/
Allyn & Bacon.
Adinarayan, S. P. (1953). Before and after Independence-A study of racial and communal
attitudes in India. British Journal of Psychology, 44, 108-115.
Adinarayan, S.P. (1957). A study of racial attitudes in India. Journal of Social Psychology,
45, 211-216.
Allport, F. H. (1924). Social Psychology. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Allport, G. (1954). The nature of Prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Allport, G. W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G. Lindzey &
E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (3rd ed., Vol. I, pp. 1-46). New York:
Random House.

16
Asch, S. E. (1952). Social Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology- I
B. F. Skinner (1938). The Behaviour of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: B. F. Skinner Foundation.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliff s, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Baron, R. A., Byrne, D., & Suls, J. (1989). Attitudes: Evaluating the social world. Baron et
al, Social Psychology. 3rd edn. MA: Allyn and Bacon, 79-101.
Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Berkowitz, L. (1962). Aggression: A Social Psychological Analysis. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill.
Dalal, A. K., & Mishra, G. (2001). Social psychology in India: Evolution and emerging trends.
In In A. K. Dalal& G. Misra (Eds.), New Directions in Indian Psychology (vol. 1: Social
Psychology), New Delhi: Sage.
Darley, J. M., &Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of
responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377-383.
Eagly, A. H., &Chaiken, S. (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2008). Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture. Boston, MA:
McGraw-Hill.
Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison.
International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1, 69-97.
Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L., & Kelley, H. H. (1963). Communication and Persuasion. Oxford,
England: Yale University Press.
Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink: A Psychological Study of Foreign Policy Decisions
and Fiascos. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (1982). Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and
Biases. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Kelley, H. H., & Thibaut, J. W. (1978). Interpersonal Relations: A Theory of Interdependence.
New York: Wiley.
LeBon, G. (1908). The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind. London: Unwin (original work
published 1896). Online: [Link]
Lewin, K.(1936). A dynamic theory of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lieberman, M. D. (2010). Social cognitive neuroscience. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G.
Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (5th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 143–193). Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.
McDavid, J. M. & Harari, H. (1994) Social Psychology: Individuals, Groups & Societies.
CBS Publishers: New Delhi
McDougall, W. (1908). An Introduction to Social Psychology. London: Methuen.
McDougall, W. (1920). The Group Mind. London: Cambridge University Press.
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Introduction to Applied Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to Authority. London: Tavistock.
Social Psychology
Misra, G. (1982). Deprivation and development: A review of Indian studies. Indian Educational
Review, 18, 12-33.
Münsterberg, Hugo. 1908. Aus Deutsch-Amerika. Berlin: E.S. Mittler und Sohn.
Münsterberg, Hugo. 1908. On the Witness Stand. New York: Doubleday.
Murphy, G., & Murphy, L. B. (1931). Experimental Social Psychology. New York: Harper
(rev. ed published with T. M. Newcomb in 1937).
Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. (1980). Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social
Judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Pandey, J. (1986). Social-cultural perspectives on ingratiation. In B.A. Mahar & W.B. Mahar
(Ed.), Progress in experimental personality research (Vol. 14). New York: Academic Press.
Pavlov, I.P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the
Cerebral Cortex (translated by G.V. Anrep). London: Oxford University Press.
Ross, E. A. (1908). Social psychology. New York: Macmillan.
Sewell, W. H. (1989). Some reflections on the golden age of Interdisciplinary Social
Psychology. Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 15.
Sherif, M. (1936). The Psychology of Social Norms. New York: Harper.
Singh, A. K. (1981). Development of religious identity and prejudice in Indian children. In D.
Sinha (Ed.), Socialization of the Indian Child (pp.87-100). New Delhi: Concept.
Sinha, D. (1952). Behaviour in a catastrophic situation: A psychological study of reports and
rumours. British Journal of Psychology, 43, 200-209.
Sinha, J. B. P. (1980). Nurturant Task Leader. New Delhi: Concept.
Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition. American
Journal of Psychology, 9, 507-533.
Steg, L., Keizer, K., Buunk, A., & Rothengatter, T. (Eds.). (2017). Applied Social Psychology:
Understanding and Managing Social Problems (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. doi:10.1017/9781107358430.
Thompson, L. L. (2003b). Organizational behaviour: A micro perspective. In L. L. Thompson
(Ed.), The Social Psychology of Organizational Behaviour: Key Readings (pp. 1–6). Hove,
UK: Psychology Press.
WEBSITES:
[Link] accessed on 28/05/2021

18
UNIT 2 INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY II*

Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Relationship between Applied Social Psychology and other Social Sciences
2.2.1 Applied Social Psychology and Basic Social Psychology
2.2.2 Applied Social Psychology and Sociology
2.2.3 Applied Social Psychology and Physiological Psychology:
2.2.4 Applied Social Psychology and Anthropology
2.2.5 Applied Social Psychology and Economics
2.2.6 Applied Social Psychology and Political Science
2.2.7 Applied Social Psychology and Geography
2.2.8 Applied Social Psychology and Linguistics
2.3 Roles and Functions of Applied Social Psychologists
2.3.1 Roles of Applied Social Psychologists
2.3.2 Functions of Applied Social Psychologists
[Link] Evaluation and Planning
[Link] Organising Training Sessions
[Link] Performing Researches
[Link] Performing Interventions
[Link] Designing of Psychosocial assessment tools and Strategies
2. Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Unit End Questions
2.6 Glossary
2.7 Answers to Self- Assessment Questions
2.8 Suggested Readings and Reference

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
● Describe the relationship of applied social psychology with the other Disciplines of
social sciences;
● Explain the roles of applied social psychologists; and
● Delineate various functions of applied social psychologists.

*Dr. Smita Gupta, Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, IGNOU, Delhi.

19
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology 2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you were introduced to the concept of basic and applied social
psychology. Though, there are certain similarities in between both the branches of social
psychology, yet few of the differences also exist between them. In this unit, we will come to
know about the relationship between applied social psychology and other social sciences.
You will also be explained about the roles and functions of applied social psychologists.
This unit will help you to understand the branch of applied social psychology in a broader
way.

2.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN APPLIED SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
Applied social psychology is a field where the psychologists apply theories in social context.
Something that is common in all the disciplines of social sciences is that they use the
observation methods in research and are scientific in nature. Let us examine the relationship
of applied social psychology with other disciplines of social science:

2.2.1 Applied Social Psychology and Basic Social Psychology

As discussed in the previous unit as well, both the social (basic) psychology and applied social
psychology are interrelated and they complement each other. The basic or fundamental social
psychology tries to study the various causes that influences the human behaviour and various
related problems. The social psychologists develop theories to explain social phenomena
ant the applied social psychologists apply these theories to find out solution to behavioural
problems and issues.

2.2.2 Applied Social Psychology and Sociology

Applied social psychology involves application of theories and principles of psychology in
the societal environment. It deals with the behaviour pattern of an individual in relation to his/
her social environment. The social environment of an individual consists of his/her parents,
relatives, friends, enemies, playmates, companions and other related people. While, sociology
is a field that studies about the nature, origin, and development of a society.
Sociology tries to understand the manners, customs and institutions of a society and their
stages of development. It is also concerned about the inter relationships between human beings
in a society. Applied social psychology is concerned with the experience and behaviour of
an individual and sociology is concerned with the role that an individual plays by showing
various behaviours in society. Therefore, there exists a relationship between applied social
psychology and sociology.

2.2.3 Applied Social Psychology and Physiological Psychology

Applied social psychology is a science that deals with modifying human behaviour
and their experiences. These physical or psychological experiences of individuals are
intimately connected with their physiological processes, especially of the nervous system.
Hence, the study of applied social psychology is interconnected to the physiological
processes. Further, the human behaviour is a bodily reaction to the existing physical
and social environment and the physiological psychology attempts to study the nature
of all kinds of physiological processes that is, the functions of all organs of the body.
Therefore, there is a strong relationship between the fields of applied social psychology
and physiological psychology.

20
2.2.4 Applied Social Psychology and Anthropology Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology- II
Applied social psychology attempts to modify or influence the human behaviour while,
Anthropology studies the culture, customs, ritual and practices of different distinct groups
of people and try to understand the differences among them. Since human behaviour is
influenced by these various factors, applied social psychology plays an important role in
understanding the influence of these factors towards changing the human behaviour. Many
of the researches done in the field of Anthropology have tried to understand why people of a
particular tribal community or even whole nation, behave as they do so. These findings have
very much enriched the field applied social psychology. Vis a vis the socio- psychological
theories have also contributed towards understanding the origins of culture, customs, religious
practices etc. Thus, there exists a reciprocal relationship between applied social psychology
and anthropology.

2.2.5 Applied Social Psychology and Economics

The applied social psychology plans interventions for human beings who are directly or
indirectly contributing towards the economy, while, Economics deals with the contributing
factors like income, expenditure, the role of economic institution etc. These economic factors
have an influence upon human behaviour. Applied social psychologists have tried to study
the influence of certain economic factors like that of income on the development of human
behaviour. Further, the factors like poverty and economic deprivation also have a significant
influence upon the development of behaviour since the childhood stage. Thus, applied social
psychology is significantlyinterrelated to economics.

2.2.6 Applied Social Psychology and Political Science

Applied social psychologists try to examine the influence of certain psychological factors
influencing leadership and politics. This has contributed towards analysing behaviour and the
factors which make certain politicians as successful leaders. Political science is a discipline
which deals with the political organisations, institutions and government practices. This takes
place with the help of interaction between political science and applied social psychology.
Attempts have been made to study and analyse the influence of the political system on human
character and behaviour. Psychological analysis has also contributed towards the different
aspects of political behaviour like propaganda, voting behaviour, emergence of public
opinion, mob mentality etc.

2.2.7 Applied Social Psychology and Geography

Applied social psychology tries to apply psychological principles to enhance relationship
among individuals of different societies. While, Geography is an applied social science
which deals with the study of places and relationship between people and their environment.
Therefore, in order to build a good relationship between people and environment, we need
to strengthen the relationships between people first. Therefore, applied social psychology is
interrelated to the discipline of geography.

2.2.8 Applied Social Psychology and Linguistics

Since the role of language development as well as having an expertise of different language
significantly influences the interaction among people, the applied social psychology tries to
interpret the influence of several factors that might affect the development of language since
childhood as well as the tendency of learning a new language. On the hand, the discipline
of linguistics involves scientific study of language and its structure. It studies the language
form, language meaning and language in societal context. Therefore, linguistics is a discipline
which significantly helps the applied social psychologists to understand the influence of
language development and learning among individuals.
21
Introduction to Applied Therefore the above are few of the explanation of the relationship of applied social psychology
Social Psychology to other disciplines of social sciences. Yet there are few disciplines other than social science
like media studies, medical sciences, biology, education, logic and social work which also are
significantly interrelated with the discipline of applied social psychology.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I)

Answer the following questions in brief:
How is applied social psychology related to sociology?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
What is the role of applied social psychologist towards the development of language?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

What can be the significant contribution of the applied social psychologist towards the field
of political science?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
Explain the relationship between applied social psychology and anthropology?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

2.3 ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF APPLIED SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGISTS
By this time, you might have understood the concept of applied social psychology and its
relationship with other social sciences. The individuals who gain an expertise in the field of
applied social psychology are known as applied social psychologists. In this section, we will
discuss about their roles and functions. Before we start discussing about both, it should be
made clear to you that when we talk about the role of an individual, it refers to the part or
the duty that is being played by someone in a particular situation. Whereas, the term function
refers to the natural purpose or contribution made by an individual in a society which is based
upon the roles assigned to them. So, let us discuss about the roles being played by applied
social psychologists:

2.3.1 Roles of Applied Social Psychologists

● The main focus of the applied social psychologists is to solve social problems
of human beings with the help of interventions. Their role is to examine the
factors that can influence a behaviour and also to analyze appropriate technique
22
 required to solve a definite behavioural problem. Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology- II
● The applied social psychologists try to understand and treat the behavioural
issues of individuals in a social environment by applying the theories and
methods of social psychology.
● They attempt to combine the psychological principles in order to understand
any social issue. They even adopt an interdisciplinary approach to their work,
incorporating economic, sociological, and political perspectives.
● The applied social psychologists conduct researches in an unpredictable and
unrestricted environment.
● With an aim to device strategies, the applied social psychologists are
actively involved in studying various educational programs, industrial and
organizational productivity, environmental and health care issues, justice
system reform, and also media related activities like campaigning, advertising
and public relations. They conduct research for academic institutions,
organizations and corporates.
● The applied social psychologists also analyze the success or failure of a specific
experimental social program and provide feedback to the concerned authorities
of the society.
● Some of the applied social psychologists also play an important role in framing
policies for the better human relations in corporate world as well as governmental
organizations. Their role is considered important to bring about a social change.
● With the help of problem- oriented approach, the applied psychologists try to
modify as well as shape up the existing and future social psychological theories.

The above are the few of the expected/assigned roles of applied social psychologists. On the
basis of assigned roles they perform certain functions as explained in the next subsection.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)

State whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:

1) The applied social psychologists are not involved in studying various educational
programs, industrial and organizational productivity. ( )
2) The main focus of the applied social psychologists is to solve social problems of human
beings with the help of interventions. ( )
3) The applied social psychologists apply the theories and methods of social psychology.
( )
4) The applied social psychologists have no role in framing policies for the better human
relations in corporate world as well as governmental organizations. ( )

2.3.2 Functions of Applied Social Psychologists

The following are the functions performed by the applied social psychologists:
[Link] Evaluation and Plannings
As discussed earlier with you that the applied social psychologists play an important role
by planning intervention to solve psychosocial problems of a society. In order to do so,
they initially need to assess several aspects like evaluating the goal, planning the strategies
and creating awareness programs. They also have to analyze the available resources and
accordingly work towards achieving their goals. Thus, they evaluate, plan and then enact to
reach to the set goals.
23
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology
[Link] Organising Training Sessions
The applied social psychologist helps the affected groups and individuals by creating an
awareness among them through psycho-education. They also apply counselling techniques,
use tutor/teaching methods to bring a desired goal in the community or the person. They help
them to learn managing of their emotions, thoughts, and behaviours for their well-being.
[Link] Performing Researches
While the applied social psychologists apply the existing theories of social psychology upon
human beings of any society, they also try to study their existing behaviour pattern in order
to get information regarding their social interation. In order to explore more information, the
applied social psychologist perform researches in many of the fields like health; learning;
personality; war and trauma, etc.
[Link] Performing Interventions
As an applied social psychologist, he/she has to plan strategies and intervention programs to
bring about a change in existing behaviour pattern of individuals, groups and societies. They
perform training workshops on specific children among schools, apply psychotherapy among
individuals and families. They also apply ecological models to bring about a balance between
the human activities and environmental change.
[Link] Designing Of Psychosocial Assessment Tools and Strategies
In order to bring about a change in behaviour pattern and imply interventions, the applied
social psychologist design psychosocial assessment tools to administer it on the target
population. They also plan strategies that promote social inclusion of all groups towards the
contribution of the upliftment of a society.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ III)

Fill in the following blanks:
1) The .................................... play an important role by planning intervention to solve
psycho social problems of a society.
2) The applied social psychologist help individuals to learn managing of their
emotions, thoughts, and behaviours for their .....................................
3) The applied social psychologist helps the .................................... by creating an
awareness among them through psychoeducation.
4) As an applied social psychologist, he/shehas to plan .................................... programs
to bring about a change in existing behaviour pattern of individuals, groups and
societies.

2.4 Let Us Sum Up

It can be summed up from the above discussion that applied social psychologists play a
significant role towards enhancing social relations among individuals and changing their
behaviour pattern in a society. They also significantly contribute towards environment by
creating awareness and bringing about a change in behaviour pattern of human beings towards
environment.
It was also discussed that the field of applied social psychology is significantly related to several
Disciplines of the social sciences. It is interrelated to basic social psychology, sociology,
physiological psychology, economics, political sciences, geography and linguistics.
24
Later on, the conceptual difference between the term ‘roles’ and ‘functions’ was introduced Introduction to Applied
to you. It was followed by pointing out few of the roles of applied social psychologists and Social Psychology- II
their functions.
By the end of this unit, you might be aware of the significance of the applied social psychologists
and their contributions. In the next unit, we will discuss about few of the research methods
used in the field of applied social psychology.

2.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain the relationship between applied social psychology and other social sciences.
2) Discuss the roles of applied social psychologist.
3) Describe the functions of applied social psychologist.

2.6 Glossary
Applied Social Psychologist: The applied social psychologists are those psychologists who
plan intervention to solve psycho social problems of a society.
Anthropology: Anthropology studies the culture, customs, ritual and practices of different
distinct groups of people and try to understand the differences among them.
Economics: Economics deals with the contributing factors like income, expenditure, the role
of economic institution etc.
Geography: Geography is an applied social science which deals with the study of places and
relationship between people and their environment.
Linguistics: The discipline of linguistics involves scientific study of language and its structure.
It studies the language form, language meaning and language development in societal context.
Physiological psychology: The physiological psychology attempts to study the nature of all
kinds of physiological processes - the functions of all organs of the body.
Political Sciences: Political science is a discipline which deals with the political organisations,
institutions and government practices.

2.7 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I)

1) Applied social psychology is concerned with the experience and behaviour of an
individual and sociology is concerned with the role that an individual plays in society.
Therefore, there exists a relationship between applied social psychology and sociology.
2) The applied social psychology tries to interpret the influence of several factors that
might affect the development of language since childhood as well as the tendency of
learning a new language.
3) Applied social psychologists try to examine the influence of certain psychological
factors influencing leadership and politics. This has contributed towards analysing the
behaviour and the factors which make certain politicians as successful leaders.
4) Applied social psychology attempts to modify or influence the human behaviour while,

25
Introduction to Applied Anthropology studies the culture, customs, ritual and practices of different distinct
Social Psychology groups of people and try to understand the differences among them. Since human
behaviour is influenced by these various factors, applied social psychology plays an
important role in understanding the influence of those factors towards changing the
human behaviour.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)

1) False
2) True
3) True
4) False

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ III)

1) strategies and intervention
2) affected groups and individuals
3) well-being
4) vapplied social psychologists

2.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10thed.). Cengage
Learning.
Baron, R. A., &Branscombe, N. R. (2016). Social Psychology (14th ed.). Boston: Pearson/
Allyn& Bacon.
Adinarayan, S. P. (1953). Before and after Independence-A study of racial and communal
attitudes in India. British Journal of Psychology, 44, 108-115.
Adinarayan, S.P. (1957). A study of racial attitudes in India. Journal of Social Psychology,
45, 211-216.
Allport, F. H. (1924). Social Psychology. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Allport, G. W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G. Lindzey&
E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (3rd ed., Vol. I, pp. 1-46). New York:
Random House.
Asch, S. E. (1952). Social Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
B. F. Skinner (1938). The Behaviour of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: B. F. Skinner Foundation.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliff s, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Baron, R. A., Byrne, D., & Suls, J. (1989). Attitudes: Evaluating the social world. Baron et
al, Social Psychology. 3rd edn. MA: Allyn and Bacon, 79-101.
Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Berkowitz, L. (1962). Aggression: A Social Psychological Analysis. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill.
26
Dalal, A. K., & Mishra, G. (2001). Social psychology in India: Evolution and emerging trends. Introduction to Applied
In In A. K. Dalal & G. Misra (Eds.), New Directions in Indian Psychology (vol. 1: Social Social Psychology- II
Psychology), New Delhi: Sage.
Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of
responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377-383.
Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich.
Frank W. Schneider, Jamie A. Gruman, Larry M. Coutts. (2005). Applied Social
Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Sage Publishers.
ISBN- 1412915392, 9781412915397
Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of Social Comparison Processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-
140.
Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2008). Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture. Boston, MA:
McGraw-Hill.
Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison.
International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1, 69-97.
Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L., & Kelley, H. H. (1963). Communication and Persuasion. Oxford,
England: Yale University Press.
Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink: A psychological Study of Foreign Policy Decisions
and Fiascos. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.
Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (1982). Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and
Biases. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Kelley, H. H., & Thibaut, J. W. (1978). Interpersonal Relations: A Theory of Interdependence.
New York: Wiley.
LeBon, G. (1908). The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind. London: Unwin (original work
published 1896). Online: [Link]
Lewin, K.(1936). A Dynamic Theory of Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lieberman, M. D. (2010). Social cognitive neuroscience. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G.
Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (5th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 143–193). Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.
McDavid, J. M. & Harari, H. (1994) Social Psychology: Individuals, Groups & Societies.
CBS Publishers: New Delhi
McDougall, W. (1908). An Introduction to Social Psychology. London: Methuen.
McDougall, W. (1920). The Group Mind. London: Cambridge University Press.
Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to Authority. London: Tavistock.
Misra, G. (1982). Deprivation and development: A review of Indian studies. Indian Educational
Review, 18, 12-33.
Münsterberg, Hugo. 1908. Aus Deutsch-Amerika. Berlin: E.S. Mittler und Sohn.
Münsterberg, Hugo. 1908. On the Witness Stand. New York: Doubleday.

27
Introduction to Applied Murphy, G., & Murphy, L. B. (1931). Experimental Social Psychology. New York: Harper
Social Psychology (rev. ed published with T. M. Newcomb in 1937).
Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. (1980). Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social
Judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Pandey, J. (1986). Social-cultural perspectives on ingratiation. In B.A. Mahar & W.B. Mahar
(Ed.), Progress in Experimental Personality Research (Vol. 14). New York: Academic Press.
Pavlov, I.P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the
Cerebral Cortex (translated by G.V. Anrep). London: Oxford University Press.
Ross, E. A. (1908). Social Psychology. New York: Macmillan.
Sewell, W. H. (1989). Some Reflections on the Golden Age of Interdisciplinary Social
Psychology. Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 15.
Sherif, M. (1936). The Psychology of Social Norms. New York: Harper.
Singh, A. K. (1981). Development of religious identity and prejudice in Indian children. In D.
Sinha (Ed.), Socialization of the Indian Child (pp.87-100). New Delhi: Concept.
Sinha, D. (1952). Behaviour in a catastrophic situation: A psychological study of reports and
rumours. British Journal of Psychology, 43, 200-209.
Sinha, J. B. P. (1980). Nurturant Task Leader. New Delhi: Concept.
Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition. American
Journal of Psychology, 9, 507-533.
Steg, L., Keizer, K., Buunk, A., &Rothengatter, T. (Eds.). (2017). Applied Social Psychology:
Understanding and Managing Social Problems (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. doi:10.1017/9781107358430.
Thompson, L. L. (2003b). Organizational Behaviour: A Micro Perspective. In L. L. Thompson
(Ed.), The Social Psychology of Organizational Behaviour: Key Readings (pp. 1–6). Hove,
UK: Psychology Press.

28
UNIT 3 RESEARCH METHODS IN APPLIED
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY I *

Structure
3.0 Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Research methods in applied social psychology

3.2.1 Field Study Research Methods

[Link] Techniques of Field Research

3.2.2 Field Experiments

3.2.3 Naturalistic Observation Method

[Link] Methods of Data Collection in Naturalistic Observation

3.2.4 Survey Research

[Link] Methods/Instruments Used in Collecting Data Through Survey

Research

3.2.5 Archival Research

3.2.6 Correlational Research

3.3 Let Us Sum Up

3.4 Unit End Questions

3.5 Glossary

3.6 Answers to Self- Assessment Questions

3.7 Suggested Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES

● After reading this unit, you will be able to:

● Elaborate upon the various types of research methods used in applied social psychology;
● Explain the differences between field research and field experiment;
● Delineate the naturalistic observation method used in applied social psychology; and
● Discuss the use of correlational research method in applied social psychology.

*Dr. Smita Gupta, Discipline of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, IGNOU, Delhi.

29
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology 3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, you were introduced to the difference between the concepts of social
psychology and applied social psychology. It was discussed that in order to apply theories,
intervention and strategies upon the targeted individuals and societies, the applied social
psychologist has to apply several research methods. In the succeeding units, you will come
to know about the various research methods and techniques which are used in the field of
applied social psychology.

3.2 RESEARCH METHODS IN APPLIED SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Applied social psychology applies various research methods to study certain objectives,
settings, and research population. For example, applied research typically requires the
establishment of a clear and an accepted operational definition of variables through which
the existing human behaviour can be assessed over time in real-world settings. In addition,
the applied social psychologists have to analyse the latency and duration of treatment effects
in actual application, so as to utilise the findings to a larger population at a minimum cost.
This has led to the refinement of research procedures, such as time series analysis, naturalistic
observation and field experiments, which can be used to study groups in real-life settings over
long periods.

Furthermore, the applied social psychologists are also the researchers who try to vary the
ways of treatments and also try to find out existence of any unintended side effects that the
interventions may produce. This has led to the creation of techniques for using qualitative
data reliably in empirical investigations. The applied social research often takes place in
established organizational settings, it frequently requires a wider range of research skills to
plan, evaluate and achieve desired target on the basis of available resources. Now, let us study
about few of the research methods used by the psychologists in the field of applied social
psychology.

3.2.1 Field Study Research Methods

One of the significant methods of research used in applied social psychology is field study
method. In such a kind of research, the researcher studies about various behavioural aspects
in a natural setting and does not confines to a laboratory setting. In field studies, the researcher
is not able to manipulate the environment directly. It is a kind of non- experimental research
design in which the researcher works upon the factors which already exists in the environment.
They plan, evaluate and conduct researches with the help of which inferences can then be
drawn about behaviours, social attitudes, values, and beliefs.

The research method aims to observe, interact and understand people while they are in a their
natural environment. For example, the researchers conducting field research may conduct
interviews or observe people to understand how they behave in a social environment and how
they react to situations around them.

[Link] Techniques of Field Research

The field research methods can be conducted in the following ways:

● Direct Observation

In this method of field research, the researcher collects information by observing the
30
 behaviour of the individuals of society from a distance. It provides a detailed information Research Methods
of the people, situation, interactions and their surroundings. in Applied Social
Psychology I
● Participant Observation

In this method of field research, the researcher is not only an observer but also as a
participant in the natural environment. The researcher gets involved with the individuals
and gets involved in their decision making and other related [Link] interact
with the participants in their environment by making them comfortable and then have
to in-depth discussions.

● Ethnography

Ethnography is a method through which the researcher or the psychologist not only
observes the social perspectives of individuals in social-settings, he/she also studies
their cultural values. The entire community is studied by them objectively without
interfering in to their day-to-day activities. The researcher observes the behaviour of
individuals in their cultural settings, reflects upon their behaviour, build up a theory
and then test it again in the field of study. This method is qualitative, longitudinal and
explorative in nature. The researcher collects data and documents them through a
standardized manner.

● Qualitative Interviews

It is a method which helps the researcher to understand the social phenomena in a more
in-depth way. They are a form of interview through which the researcher asks certain
questions from the participants and collect information. These interviews can be either
informal and conversational, semi-structured, standardized and open-ended or a mix
of all. They are used to explore the views, experiences, beliefs and motivations of
individual [Link] researcher is able to focus on each participant of the group
and then analyse the texts of their conversations.

● Case Study

A case study is a method which helps in an in-depth analysis of a person, situation or

event. It is one of the significant way of deeper analysis and thorough understanding of
the collected data and inferring of the data.

3.2.2 Field Experiments

As you might be knowing that a laboratory experiment is a method in which participants
are confined to a closed setting and their behaviour is observed under controlled conditions
by manipulating variables. However, there is a bit of difference between the laboratory
experiment and a field experiment. Unlike the laboratory experiment, a field experiment uses
real-world situations, such as people shopping at a grocery store. Another major difference
between field experiments and laboratory experiments is that the participants/ individuals in
a field experiment do not even know that they are participating in research, and so they act
more naturally and help the researcher in getting more authentic information. This method
of research helps the researcher to study the effects of policy-related interventions in various
areas like health, education, crime, social welfare, and the politics.

This method provides an opportunity for the researcher to manipulate conditions, provide
interventions which has implications to diverse samples and settings. Now, let us discuss
how these field experiments are different from the laboratory experiments as well as the field
research studies:

31
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology Experimental research Field experiment
1) It refers to an observation under 1) It refers to an observation under natural settings.
controlled conditions.
2) The participants are homogeneous 2) The participants might vary in a number of
on basis of any characteristics. characteristics.
3) The extraneous variables are 3) The extraneous variables cannot be controlled in
controlled to examine the cause- natural settings and might influence the cause-and-
and-effect relationship within the effect relationship between the variables being
laboratory. studied.
4) Generalisation of the findings can 4) Generalisation of the findings is dependent upon
be done to a larger population. the real life settings of the population.
5) It is always quantitative in terms of 5) It is both qualitative and quantitative in terms
results. of results.
Fig. 3.1 : Differences between Experimental Research and Field Experiment

The above figure (Figure 3.1) represents the differences between experimental research and
field experiment. The below is the differences between field study and field experiment
(Figure 3.2):

Field Study Field Experiment

1) It refers to a non-experimental 1) It refers to an experimental design where the

reasearch design where the researcher researcher follows the scientific process to predict
uses what already exists in the cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
environment.

2) The conditions of the natural The conditions of the settings can be controlled in
settings cannot be controlled in field the field experiments.
studies.

3) Data collection in field research is 3)The research method makes the data collection
not easy and it also lacks experimental easier and provides experimental control.
control.

4) Simulation of the contexts is not 5) Context simulation significantly contributes to

possible in natural settings. the realism of the experiment.

5) Manipulation of the variables are 5) Manipulation of the variables are possible.

not possible.

Fig. 3.2 : Differences between Experimental Research and Field Experiment

SELF ASSESSMENT QIUESTIONS (SAQ I)

Fill in the following blanks:
1) ................................... refers to an observation under controlled conditions.
2) ................................... refers to an observation under natural settings.
3) The conditions of the natural settings cannot be controlled in ....................................
4) ................................... is a method which helps the researcher to understand the social
phenomena in a more in-depth way.
32
3.2.3 Naturalistic Observation Method Research Methods
in Applied Social
In the naturalistic observation technique, the researcher observes the activities of the participants Psychology I
without getting noticed by them in their natural environment. This technique helps in getting
more realistic, natural and normal information without the manipulation of any variables or
situations. The researcher does not attempt to intervene the behaviour of the participants and
tries to observe their likely or expected behaviour in their natural environment. Let us take
an example, if the researcher desires to observe the learning behaviour of students, then he/
she might observe them in a natural class room setting. This will help them to observe the
behaviour in a real world. This research method therefore does not require the creation of
any artificial environment and does not violates ethics. For example, if the researcher wants
to study the behaviour of kids who have lost their parents, then they do not need to try any
unethical ways, instead they can observe them in orphanage.
[Link] Methods of Data Collection in Naturalistic Observation
There are different techniques that are used by researchers to collect and record data through
naturalistic observation. Like, they might note the number of times a certain behaviour
occurred in a specific period of time or record the video of the participants.
● Audio/ Video Recordings: Based on the information that a researcher wants to
collect, he/she may make a record of video or audio of the observation sessions.
● Diary Entry: The observation may also be collected in form of narratives that the
researcher notes down in a diary. He/she might refer to these narratives later and try to
understand the behaviour pattern of the participants.
● Tally Counts: It refers to marking the number of times anything appears or occurs.
So the researcher uses this technique to mark or write down when and how many
times certain pattern of behaviour occurred.

3.2.4 Survey Research

The method of survey research is a non-experimental (that is, it does not involve any
observation under controlled conditions), it is a descriptive research method which is one
of the quantitative methods used for studying of larger sample. In a survey research, the
researcher collects data with the help of standardised questionnaires or interviews which is
administered on a sample of respondents from a population (population is sometimes referred
to as the universe of a study which can be defined as a collection of people or object which
possesses at least one common characteristic). The method of survey research is one of the
techniques of applied social research which can be helpful in collection of data both through
direct (such as a direct face to face interview) and indirect observation (such as opinions on
library services of an institute).
[Link] Methods/Instruments Used in Collecting Data Through Survey Research
It has been argued that surveys should be designed in such a way that helps in making accurate
decisions. Predominantly there are three major ways which can be used as an instrument in
collecting data with the help of survey research. They are being explained below:
● Sampling:
It is important for you to know that a sample is a representation of the population
or universe selected for the study. The technique of sampling can in itself act as an
instrument in collecting data in survey research. For example, if the researcher wants
to study the level of job satisfaction amongst the employees of an organisation, then the
researcher can select and study the attitude of at least ten persons of each department of
the organisation. In order to avoid any bias, the sampling can be done with the help of
randomisation (a method of sampling which provides an equal chance for each subject
33
Introduction to Applied to be involved in the study, which can be done with the help of lottery or fish bowl
Social Psychology technique) or stratification (a method of sampling which categorizes the population in
to various categories and subcategories and then conducting the research).
● Questionnaire:
Questionnaires are basically a kind of paper pencil and multiple-choice test in which
the individual needs to select the most suitable alternative. The researcher may collect
data with the help of a questionnaire from a large number of samples at a single time.
Questionnaires can be administered to the sample in three ways: (i) Mail survey (ii)
Group administered questionnaire and (iii) household drop off survey.
These are being discussed in detail below:
i) Mail survey: The researcher may forward a soft copy of the questionnaire to a
large number of respondents through mail and can get the data collected from
them at a single time. It is one of the relatively inexpensive, less time consuming
and convenient method of getting responses. Yet, the questions which require
on the spot response or detailed answer is difficult to be achieved through mail
survey.
ii) Group administered questionnaire: It is one of the traditional methods of
administering questionnaire. The researcher calls for a large number of
respondents to be present at a stipulated time period as a group. Under such
group settings, the respondents are asked to respond to a structured sequence
of questions written in paper or questionnaire. The greatest advantage of this
method is that the respondents can clarify their doubt regarding any question
that has been asked by the researcher instantly.
iii) Household drop-off survey: In this method, the researcher goes door to door to
the respondents and personally hands over as well as collects the questionnaire
from them. It is a kind of pick and drop facility which is provided by the
researcher so that the participant can answer the questions according to their
convenience.
● Interview
Interview is a kind of face- to- face interaction which helps in providing more honest
answers and responses from the sample, as the interviewer (the one who is interviewing
i.e., the researcher) works directly with the respondent or the interviewee (the one who
is being interviewed). Unlike questionnaires, the interviewer has an opportunity to
ask follow-up questions. They are the best suitable methods for those questions which
require opinions or impressions from the respondents.
Interviews can be of different types as given below:
i) Structured interview: Structured interviews are those interviews in which the
questions that are to be asked from the respondents are prepared and pre-planned
in advance by the researcher. The researcher imposes those prepared questions
on the respondents serially and notes down the answers given by them.
ii) Unstructured interview: Interviews are said to be unstructured when the
researcher conducts an interaction with the respondent in an informal atmosphere.
Nothing is pre-planned in advance. The response of the sample gives a clue to
the researcher to ask the next question.
iii) Telephonic interview: In order to save time and money, the researcher may call
participant or the respondents through telephone and ask them questions to
collect data. This method helps in saving time and energy but the sample gets
limited to only that part of the population who have the facility of telephones at
their residences or offices.

34
Therefore, survey research is a technique which helps the applied social psychologists to Research Methods
study individual and group differences in terms of feelings, attitudes, or behaviours. in Applied Social
Psychology I

3.2.5 Archival Research

Many a times, the researcher or the social psychologists rely upon existing documents to gain
an insight into human behaviour and such a kind of research is known as archival research. The
authentic documents from decades and even centuries past provide a wealth of information
that is useful to social psychologists. More frequently, they are used as a supplement tool for
other research strategies (like in field study/ observation method). The researchers utilise the
available statistics and records available in form of speeches, letters, notifications. In fact,
they may also analyse the digital texts like electronic data bases, emails, web resources,
tweets and various social media with an aim to bring about a change in existing behaviour of
individuals.

The archival research is used to test a wide variety of hypotheses using real-world data. More
recently, analysis of social media posts have provided social psychologists with extremely
large sets of data. Such data may be collected without any time constraints and expenditure.
The written records and related documents can be attained from various sources. Below are
some of the sources of such archival data:
Sources of archival data:
● Governmental agencies: They provide records such as census, birth rate , death rate,
criminal records and so on.
● Research organizations: They provide records of the various researches going on in
different areas and their findings.
● Health and human service organizations: These organizations provide records related
to human health and related services.
● Schools and education departments: The various records of students, their parents and
other related administrative records can be available from these premises.
● Business and industry: The information related to employees, employers, clients and
related matters can be attained from business and industry records.

3.2.6 Correlational Research

It is a type of non-experimental research method with the help of which the researcher tries
to examine the relationship between variables. He/she identifies the variables that have some
sort of relationship to such an extent, that a change in one creates some change in the other.
For example, the researcher may analyse whether an increase in the level of motivation
among employees leads to an increase in their job satisfaction or not. Though they can study
relationships, but they cannot manipulate either of the variables. With the help of these
research methods, only the strength and direction of relationships can be identified. These
relationships may be ‘positive’ negative’ or ‘zero/no correlation’.

This research method can help the psychologists understand the existing relationship between
existing pattern of behaviour of individuals in relation to various other variables and aspects.
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)
State whether the following are true or false:
1) The social psychologists never rely upon existing documents to gain an insight into
human behaviour. ( )

35
Introduction to Applied 2) Structured interviews are those interviews in which the questions that are to be asked
Social Psychology from the respondents are prepared and pre-planned in advance by the researcher.
( )
3) In the survey research, the researcher observes the activities of the participants without
getting noticed by them in their natural environment. ( )
4) Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research method with the help of
which the researcher tries to examine the relationship between variables. ( )

3.3 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above discussion that social psychology is a field which analyses
our thoughts, feelings and behaviour toward the people around us. It also explains how others
have an influence on our behaviour in the social context.
Social psychologists investigate human social behaviour at various levels. In order to do so,
they apply various research techniques like field research, survey research, field experiments,
naturalistic observation, archival and correlational research. Each of the research method has
its own unique way to collect information which helps the researcher to design interventions
accordingly.

3.4 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Elaborate upon the field research methods.
2) Differentiate between field research and field experiments.
3) Differentiate between experimental research and field experiments.
4) Elucidate upon the concept of naturalistic observation method.
5) Discuss the ways of collecting data in survey research method.
6) Discuss the use of archival research method and correlational research method for
applied social psychologists.

3.5 GLOSSARY
Archival research: A type of research in which the researcher analyses records or archives
instead of collecting data from live human participants.
Experimental Research: Observation under controlled observation.
Correlational research: A type of descriptive research that involves measuring the association
between two variables, or how they go together.
Ecological validity: The degree to which a finding has been obtained under conditions that
are typical for what happens in everyday life.
Field experiment: An experiment that occurs outside of the lab and in a real world situation.
Naturalistic observation: Unobtrusively watching people as they go about the business of
living their lives.
Survey research: A method of research that involves administering a questionnaire to
respondents in person, by telephone, through the mail, or over the internet.

36
 Research Methods
3.6 ANSWERS TO SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQ) in Applied Social
Psychology I
SAQ I
1) Experimental research
2) Field Experiment
3) Field studies
4) Qualitative Interview
SAQ II
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True

3.7 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

● Archer, J. (2006). Cross-cultural differences in physical aggression between partners:
A social-role analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(2), 133-153. doi:
10.1207/s15327957pspr1002_3
● Diener, E., & Oishi, S. (2000). Money and happiness: Income and subjective well-
being across nations. In E. Diener & E. M. Suh (Eds.), Culture and Subjective Well-
being (pp. 185-218). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
● Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (1998). The relation between perception and
behaviour, or how to win a game of trivial pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 74(4), 865-877. [Link]
● Eichstaedt, J. C., Schwartz, H. A., Kern, M. L., Park, G., Labarthe, D. R., Merchant, R. M.,
& Sap, M. (2015). Psychological language on twitter predicts county-level heart disease
mortality. Psychological Science, 26(2), 159–169. doi: 10.1177/0956797614557867
● Ferguson, M. J., & Mann, T. C. (2014). Effects of evaluation: An example of robust
“social” priming. Social Cognition, 32, 33-46. doi: 10.1521/[Link].33
● Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P. (2004). Should we trust
web-based studies? A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about internet
questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59(2), 93-104. [Link]
066X.59.2.93
● Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual
differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464-1480. [Link]
● Henrich, J., Heine, S., &Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the
world? Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 33(2-3), 61-83. [Link]
S0140525X0999152X
● Hovland, C. I., & Sears, R. R. (1940). Minor studies of aggression: VI. Correlation
of lynchings with economic indices. The Journal of Psychology, 9(2), 301-310. doi:
10.1080/00223980.1940.9917696
● Isen, A. M., & Levin, P. F. (1972). Effect of feeling good on helping: Cookies and
kindness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21(3), 384-388. [Link]
org/10.1037/h0032317
37
Introduction to Applied ● Jhangiani, R. (2021). Research methods in social psychology. In R. Biswas-Diener &
Social Psychology E. Diener (Eds), Noba Textbook Series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers.
Retrieved from [Link]
● Kramer, A. D. I., Guillory, J. E., & Hancock, J. T. (2014). Experimental evidence
of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 111(24), 8788-8790. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1320040111
● Paolacci, G., Chandler, J., &Ipeirotis, P. G. (2010). Running experiments on Amazon
Mechanical Turk. Judgment and Decision Making, 51(5), 411-419.
● Peterson, R. A., &Merunka, D. R. (2014). Convenience samples of college students
and research reproducibility. Journal of Business Research, 67(5), 1035-1041. doi:
10.1016/[Link].2013.08.010
● Sears, D. O. (1986). College sophomores in the laboratory: Influences of a narrow data
base on social psychology’s view of human nature. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 51(3), 515-530. [Link]
● Shanks, D. R., Newell, B. R., Lee, E. H., Balakrishnan, D., Ekelund L., Cenac Z., …
Moore, C. (2013). Priming intelligent behaviour: An elusive phenomenon. PLoS ONE,
8(4): e56515. doi:10.1371/[Link].0056515
● Stavrova, O., &Ehlebracht, D. (2016). Cynical beliefs about human nature and income:
Longitudinal and cross-cultural analyses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
110(1), 116-132. [Link]
● Visser, P. S., Krosnick, J. A., &Lavrakas, P. (2000). Survey research. In H. T. Reis & C.
M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of Research Methods in Social Psychology (pp. 223-252).
New York: Cambridge University Press.

38
UNIT 4 RESEARCH METHODS IN APPLIED
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY II*

Structure
4.0 Objectives

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Sampling and Sampling Techniques

4.2.1 Characteristics of Sampling Techniques

4.3 Methods/ Techniques of Sampling

4.3.1 Probability Sampling

[Link] Simple Random Sampling

[Link] Stratified sampling
[Link] Cluster Sampling
[Link] Systematic sampling
[Link] Multi stage Sampling
4.3.2 Non- Probability Sampling
[Link] Convenience Sampling
[Link] Purposive Sampling
[Link] Quota Sampling

[Link] Referral /Snowball Sampling

4.4 Ethical Issues in Applied Social Psychology Research

4.5 Let Us Sum Up

4.6 Unit End Questions

4.7 Glossary

4.8 Answers to Self- Assessment Questions

4.9 Suggested Readings and References

4.0 OBJECTIVES

With the help of this unit, you will be able to:

• Explain the meaning and characteristics of sampling techniques;

• Discuss the different methods or techniques of sampling; and

• Elaborate upon the ethical issues involved in applied social psychology research.

* Dr. Sarika Boora, Psychologist, Delhi

39
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology 4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will be introduced about the meaning and characteristics of sampling methods
which are used by applied social psychologist in order to select participants from the target
population. The present unit will also deal with different techniques of sampling methods. At
the end of this unit, you will be explained about the various ethical issues involved in applied
social psychology research.

4.2 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sampling is very useful in [Link] refers to selection of certain individuals or a subset of
population to make statistical inferences from them and then generalise it on the population.
It helps in determining the accuracy of the research or survey. If there is a mistake in the
sample then it has a direct implication on the result. We can use various techniques to help
us gather a sample based on the situation and need of the researcher. For the purpose of
quantified research, sampling techniques are used extensively and their importance cannot be
downplayed in any field of research. It is of great importance for our day- to- day activities.
For example,when we but fruit or vegetables we do not look at each individual piece, we
just pick and examine a few items and form an idea about the whole lot. The physicians
make inference about a patient’s blood through examination of a single drop. Samples are
devices for learning about large masses by observing a few individuals. Sampling is also
widely used in the field of education and the census like the case of population count. For
investigating a sample, we select a small number of units from the entire domain and think of
them as being representative. Then we study them in depth and reach to the conclusions that
are generalized for the entire domain. A sample investigation does not study all unit like a
census investigation, it only chooses a few units on certain predefined basis. To illustrate this
let us suppose a researcher wants to find out the percentage of expense on food by university
students. Now, it is not feasible for him/her to survey the entire thousands of students, rather
he may choose a representative sample of 500 students and then collect the figure from them.
This figure can then be generalized for the entire university. If the data is collected diligently
and the selection of students is representative then the reliability of the entre set will be very
high.

4.2.1 Characteristics of Sampling Technique

The significance and value of the sampling techniques are brought forward by the following
characteristics:
1) Cost &Time: It is highly cost effective and efficient thereby takes less time to make
statistical inferences.
2) Reliability: If we choose the sample units carefully and the matter surveyed is not
diverse in character then the results derived from the sample should have the same
reliability as the population survey.
3) In-depth Study: Due to the fact that the number of units in a sample are relatively
small, they can be studied in depth and observed from various angles and viewpoints.
4) Scientific Approach:The sampling technique follows a scientific approach as the
results garnered from a particular set of units can be verified and applied to other set of
units. The deviation from the norm can be determined by taking random samples.
5) Suitability: Maximum number of researches and surveys use a sampling technique
because whenever the matter is not diverse in nature; the study of a small number of
units is enough. This is applicable to most situations.

40
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I) Research Methods
in Applied Social
Answer the following questions in one or two lines: Psychology II

1) Explain the meaning of sampling.

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
2) Give any one characteristics of sampling.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
3) How is the method of sampling a scientific approach?
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
4) Discuss the suitability of sampling techniques.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

4.3 METHODS/TECHNIQUES OF SAMPLING

There can be many methods to derive a sample from a given data. The research problem, its
scope and nature will determine the method used by the researcher but there must be a careful
consideration given to the choice.
The sampling techniques can be broadly categorized into two:
● Probability Sampling
● Non- Probability Sampling
The fact that differentiates both (Probability and non probability sampling) is whether the
sample is randomly selected or not. In case of a random sample each element or unit has an
equal chance to be chosen or selected for the study.

4.3.1 Probability Sampling

It is a sampling technique in which each element of the population has an equal probability or
chance of selection and this is because of randomization and hence it is also known as random
sampling. This method provides a guarantee that the process is without bias and completely
randomized. The simplest example of this would be to list the names of all individuals in the
target population on separate chits of paper and then to draw the papers one by one from the
total, till the sample size is met. Due to this randomized selection the results from the statistical
methods are highly accurate. Also, by eliminating the sample bias and by being representative
this method is also used to estimate the population parameters. It has the following types:

41
Introduction to Applied [Link] Simple Random Sampling
Social Psychology
Here each unit or element or individual from the population gets an equal opportunity to
get selected. It is applied when the researcher does not have knowledge about the target
population beforehand. To illustrate: If we were to choose 25 students from a class of 60 then
each has an equal probability of 1/60 of getting selected. From all the ways of choosing the
samples, random sampling technique is used the most; and is widely considered as the best
for sample selection. This technique gives every unit an equal probability of getting selected
and this selection is free from any kind of personal bias or preference of the researcher. No
unit is chosen on the basis of personal likes or whims of the researcher and the entire process
is based on chance giving equal opportunity to each unit.
Random sampling is done through the following methods:
i) Lottery Method: It is the easiest way of choosing the sample. Each unit is assigned a
particular number and these numbers are then written on a piece of paper and put in a
box. Then a neutral person, who is blindfolded, is made to pullout the required number
of units for the sample from the box. Here the sample is being chosen by simple chance
and there is no favour or partiality involved. It is also important to ensure that the sheets
of paper that are used should be of equal size and quality.
ii) Using the rotating drum: This process is similar to the lottery method but with a slight
modification. Here the units are itemized into lists and divided into categories from say
0 to 5. Then the same categories 0-5 are printed on pieces of wood or tin etc.(of same
size) and placed in a drum. This drum is then rotated and the required number of the
pieces is drawn. Now if we draw 5 zeroes 10 fives and 20 twos then we pick 5 units
from the zero list 10 units from five list and 20 units from the twos list respectively.
iii) Selection based on a Sequential List: This process involves maintaining the units in
alphabetical, numerical or geographical sequence. In this procedure units are broken
up in numerical, alphabetical or geographical Sequence. So for a numerical selection
one can choose units that fall in multiples of 3, for alphabetical selection we can choose
all the names that begin with vowels, etc. Precautions to be that need considered
while choosing sample is That while conducting a random sample, the researcher
must consider that the sample represents the entire population and the number of units
selected are sufficient.
Following should be considered while choosing a random sample:
• The researcher should be aware of the entire variation of population from which s/he
wants to select his/her sample. s/he should be aware of the main features of the field and
its scope with the number of units in the population, so as to make a fair selection.
• The various items of a population must be similar and have common characteristics
(homogeneous). If they differ too much then the sample will not be representative.
• The units of the field should not be dependent or linked otherwise it will not be possible
for a random selection to take place.
[Link] Stratified Sampling
When the population is divided into subgroups called strata formed in a way that the units
within the group share common characteristics with each other but are heterogeneous with
other subgroups, after which units are randomly chosen from each stratum, it is called
stratified sampling. The researcher needs to have knowledge of the population beforehand so
that s/he can form subgroups.
This technique uses both deliberate and random sampling. Firstly, we divide the entire
population into subsets based on their homogeneous character, then using random sampling
we choose elements from these subsets. Thus, this is a mixed sampling technique. This
technique can be applied when the population can be divided into subgroups based on
42
common characteristics. This stratification is made in accordance to the special qualities of a Research Methods
group and from these strata units are randomly selected. For example, if a researcher wants in Applied Social
Psychology II
to collect the data of the distribution of expenses of all residents in a city, s/he can divide
the population on the basis of their profession and then choose some individuals or units
randomly from these subgroups.
Process of Stratifying: The stratification of the total population or division of data must be
done with utmost care as the success of this technique is based on successful stratification.
Below mentioned points should be considered for the same:
i) The researcher should have an in-depth information about all units in the data and
should be able to identify the common characteristics to bunch them into subgroups
that are different from each other.
ii) Each stratum should be large enough to conduct random sampling.
iii) While dividing them into subgroups it must be considered that each stratum is related
to the domain in a similar way though being homogeneous themselves.
iv) The number of units chosen from each subgroup for the survey, through random
sampling, must be in the same proportion as the subgroup is to the entire population.
For e.g if the total population is 10,000 out of which, the businessmen are 30% then
the number of units chosen from the subgroup of businessmen should be 30% of all
the units picked by random sampling. If the researcher observes the above mentioned
precaution then s/he can achieve great results from this method as it has the qualities of
both deliberate and random sampling.
[Link] Cluster Sampling
When the total population is bifurcated into clusters or sections and then sections are chosen
randomly, it is called cluster sampling. All the units or participants in a given cluster are
surveyed. These clusters can be determined on the basis of age, gender, geographic presence,
etc. Cluster sampling is performed using following methods:
• Single Stage Cluster Sampling: We choose the whole section for sampling.
• Two Stage Cluster Sampling: Firstly the section is randomly chosen and then the
elements are selected randomly for sampling.
[Link] Systematic Sampling
In this type of sampling, we choose the elements systematically and not randomly with the
exception of the first element. There is a regular interval in the population at which these
elements are chosen. All these elements are sequenced first wherein each of them gets an
equal probability of being chosen.
[Link] Multi-Stage Sampling
It combines two or more methods that have been explained above. In this type of sampling
the total population is split up into various clusters and these are further split and put together
in multiple subgroups or strata based on common characteristics. Then the researcher can
randomly choose a singular cluster or multiple clusters from each stratum and this process
will go on till the cluster cannot be fragmented any further. For example, the researcher may
split the population of a country on the basis of their states, districts, urban vs rural and the
homogeneous areas can be joined to form a stratum. Yet, the researchers don’t favour this
sampling technique to a great extent. The elements are selected at random at various stages.
For example, if one needs to find the yield per hectare of land in Maharashtra, s/he will first
do a random selection of certain number of districts, say 5, and then s/he will randomly
choose a certain number of villages in a district, say 10. After that s/he will randomly pick
a certain number acres of fields in each village, say 5. Hence, s/he will have to examine 250
acres of land, spread over 10 villages in 5 districts spread over entire Maharashtra. This
43
Introduction to Applied number can vary as per the suggestions given by experts. This can also be explained by the
Social Psychology below mentioned table:

Entire Data:
Maharashtra
Districts Stage 1
Villages Stage 2
Acres of land Stage 3

4.3.2 Non- Probability Sampling

It is the sampling technique that does not depend on randomization. It banks upon the ability
of the researcher to choose the elements of a sample. The result from this technique can have
a bias thereby making it difficult for all elements or units of population to have an equal
representation. It is also known as non-random sampling. It is the sampling technique where
each member of the population does not have an equal chance to get selected. Because of this
we can assume that the sample does not completely represent the target population. There
is also a possibility that the individuals were chosen deliberately by the researcher to take
part in the study. This method is generally applied for qualitative research, case studies, pilot
studies and for developing hypotheses. Non probability sampling method is usually used in
studies that do not have an interest in the parameters of the total population. This technique is
preferred by some researchers because it is easy, quick and cheap.
Below mentioned are its types:
[Link] Convenience Sampling
In this sampling technique the clements or items of the study are selected as per the convenience
of the investigator. There is no endeavor to collect information as per a plan or process. This
is a technique which is used by tourists while travelling. They interact with a few people that
they meet, transact with them and based on this they generate a perception and generalize
this to the entire population of the country or state this approach has zero scientific credibility
and is termed as a “hit or miss method”. This is why some of the travelogue written by such
travellers are extreme.
In a convenience selection a researcher chooses its sample on the basis of availability and uses
it when the sample availability turns out to be costly and rare.
[Link] Purposive Sampling
It is also called deliberate sampling. This method allows the investigator to choose the sample
as per his/her whims with complete freedom. Some items are chosen from the entire data and
then studied. The investigator is absolutely free to choose any item that s/ he feels or as per
his/her judgment will be able to, represent the complete data or total population. This simple
technique of sampling is used by the investigator when the data is not diverse and s/he has
knowledge of various facets of the problem. This method does not point to a random choice
even though it is deliberate; on the contrary, it signifies the elements that represent the entire
population will be selected.
[Link] Referral /Snowball Sampling
This method of sampling is used by the researcher when s/he is completely unaware about
the population, s/he then picks one element or individual and asks him/her for reference or
recommendation of other individuals whose characteristics s/he may describe to suit the need
of the sample. This is called as a snowball technique because the size of the sample constantly
grows as new referrals keep adding.
44
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II) Research Methods
in Applied Social
Fill in the following blanks: Psychology II

1) .................................... method of sampling is used by the researcher when s/he is

completely unaware about the population.
2) .................................... sampling technique does not depend on randomization.
3) In .................................... method, each unit is assigned a particular number and these
numbers are then written on a piece of paper and put in a box.
4) In .................................... sampling, we choose the elements systematically and not
randomly with the exception of the first element.

4.4 ETHICAL ISSUES IN APPLIED SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH
The research conducted in the filed of applied social psychology not only helps in resolving
issues and developing intervention strategies, it also helps in testing theories as well as
developing new theories and applications. However, there are certain ethical issues that need
to be taken care while conducting such researches. They can be pointed out as follows:
● Informed Consent: It is the duty of the researcher to inform the participants about
whatever experiment or test will be administered upon them and they can carry upon the
research only if the participants give their consent after getting the detailed information.
● Debrief: It is a process which is done after the experiment or research has been
conducted upon participants. The researcher conducts a structured or semi structured
interview and discusses the details of the research as well as gives the participants an
opportunity to ask questions from them.
● Protection of Participants: The security and safety are the prior concern of a researcher.
No personal harm or violation of the rights of the participants should take place.
● Deception: The researcher should clearly specify the method, investigation, analysis
and interpretation of research. No information or method can be deceived from the
participants.
● Confidentiality: The personal information and other details of the participants should
be kept completely confidential and can not be disclosed, unless it involves any legal
issues.

4.5 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above discussion that, sampling is very useful in research. It
helps in determining the accuracy of the research or survey. If there is a mistake in selection
of the sample then it has a direct implication on the result. We can use various techniques
to help us gather a sample based on the situation and need of the researcher. Later part of
the unit discussed about the characteristics and meaning of sampling techniques. The unit
also discussed about the different techniques of sampling. The various ethical issues were
discussed at the end to give you an idea of the concerns that a researcher should be aware of,
even before conducting such researches.

4.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Describe the various characteristics of sampling techniques.
45
Introduction to Applied 2) Explain the different types of probability sampling.
Social Psychology
3) Discuss the various types of non-probability sampling.
4) Write a short note on the ethical issues related to the field of applied social psychology
research.

4.7 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

SAQ I
1) Sampling helps in determining the accuracy of the research or survey.
2) Due to the fact that the number of units in a sample are relatively small, they can be
studied in depth and observed from various angles and viewpoints.
3) The sampling technique follows as scientific approach as the results garnered from a
particular set of units can be verified and applied to other set of units.
4) Sampling method is used by maximum number of researches and surveys because
whenever the matter is not diverse in nature; the study of a small number of units is
enough. This is applicable to most situations.

SAQ II
1) Snowball sampling
2) Non probability
3) Lottery method
4) Systematic sampling

4.8 GLOSSARY
Probability Sampling : It is a sampling technique in which each element of the population
has an equal probability of selection and this is because of randomization and hence it is also
known as random sampling.
Simple Random Sampling: Here each unit or element or individual from the population gets
an equal opportunity to get selected.
Stratified Sampling: A strata formed in a way that the units within the group share common
characteristics with each other but are heterogeneous with other subgroups, after which units
are randomly chosen from each stratum.
Cluster Sampling: When the total population is bifurcated into clusters or sections and then
sections are chosen randomly, it is called cluster sampling.
Systematic Sampling: In this type of sampling, we choose the elements systematically and
not randomly with the exception of the first element.
Multi-Stage Sampling: It combines two or more methods of sampling.
Referral /Snowball Sampling: When he/she is completely unaware about the population, he
then picks one element or individual and asks him for reference or recommendation of other
individuals whose characteristics he may describe to suit the need of the sample.
Non-Probability Sampling: It is the sampling technique that does not depend on
randomization. It banks upon the ability of the researcher choose the elements of a sample.
46
Purposive Sampling: It signifies that only the elements that represent the entire population Research Methods
will be selected. in Applied Social
Psychology II
Quota Sampling: In this method the data is divided equally amongst the investigators and
each of them is required to pick a certain number of items from his subgroup to form the
sample. Convenience Sampling In this sampling technique the elements or items of the study
are selected as per the convenience of the investigator.

4.9 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Andale. (2015). Probability Sampling: Definition,Types, Advantages and Disadvantages.
Statistics How To. Retrieved from [Link]
Babbie, E. R. (n.d.). The Logic of Sampling. The Basics of Social Research. Wadsworth
Cengage Learning, 208.
Barreiro, P. L., &Albandoz, J. P. (2001). Population and sample. Sampling techniques.
Chaudhuri, A., & Stenger, H. (2005). Survey Sampling: Theory and Methods - 2nd ed.
Chapman & Hall/CRC.
Daniel, J. (2012). Sampling Essentials: Practical Guidelines for Making Sampling Choices.
Sage Publications, 103.
Doherty, M. (1994) Probability versus Non-Probability Sampling in Sample Surveys, The
New Zealand Statistics Review March, 21-28.
Fink, A. (2003) How to Sample in Surveys. 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Henry, G.T.
(n.d.). Practical Sampling. Sage Publications, 23.
King, R. M. Types of sampling. Advanced Research Methods. Retreived from http:// www.
[Link]/HTMLobj-3829/Types_of_Sampling.pdf.
Lynchi, G. (n.d.). Sampling. Retreived from [Link]
documents/[Link].
Wiid, J., &Diggines, C. (n.d.). Marketing Research. Juta, pp 200. 12.
Zikmund, W., &Babin, B. (n.d.). Sampling Designs and Sampling Procedures. Exploring
Marketing Research. Thomson South –Western, 411.

47
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology UNIT 5 THEORIES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY*

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
5.2.1 Applications of Cognitive Dissonance Theory
[Link] Forced Compliance Behaviour
[Link] Decision Making and Cognitive Dissonance
[Link] Effort Justification
5.3 Social Learning Theory
5.3.1 Mediational Process of Social Learning
5.3.2 Assumptions/Tenets of Social Learning
[Link] Vicarious Reinforcement
[Link] Modelling
[Link] Reciprocal Determinism
5.3.3 Applications of Social Learning Theory
[Link] Management Field
[Link] Child Development
[Link] Cognitive processes and Neuroscience
[Link] Criminology
[Link] School Psychology
[Link] Media
5.4 Group Think Theory
5.4.1 Symptoms of Group Think
5.4.2 Conditions Responsible for Group Think
5.5 Anomie Theory
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Unit End Questions
5.8 Glossary
5.9 Answers to Self- Assessment Questions
5.10 Suggested Readings and References

* Dr. Arisudan Tiwari, DIPR, DRDO, Delhi

* Dr. Smita Gupta, Discipline of Psychology, SOSS, IGNOU, Delhi

48
 Theories of Social
5.0 OBJECTIVES Psychology

After reading this unit, you will be able to:

● Explain the relevance of cognitive dissonance theory towards understanding the human
behaviour;
● Explain the social learning theory; and
● Delineate the relevance and applications of group think theory;
● Discuss the meaning and implications of anomie theory.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This is the fifth unit of the block which aims to explain to you the relevance and applications
of certain theories towards understanding human behaviour. These theories have significant
implications in bringing about a change in existing behaviour pattern and therefore are very
useful in the field of applied social psychology. So let us discuss about the theories in detail
in the following subsections.

5.2 Cognitive Dissonance Theory

In our everyday life there are number of occasions where we show incompatible attitudes,
beliefs or behaviours. For example, many people smoke (behaviour) even when they
know that smoking can increase the risks of cancer (cognition). This incongruity
creates a psychological state of discomfort leading to probable modification in one
of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviours so that the discomfort is reduced and balance
is reinstated. Cognitive dissonance, as proposed by Festinger (1957), suggests that a
psychological force (an inner drive) functions to maintain all our attitudes and beliefs
in synchronisation and avoids dissonance. Therefore, this theory has relevance towards
understanding behaviour of individuals and then planning strategies by the applied
social psychologists.

Cognitive dissonance theory assumes that in our daily social life whenever we notice
incoherence among our thoughts, attitudes and actions, an automated response of
psychological distress is generated. Although the degree of dissonance may vary according
to the relevance and importance of opinions, attitudes and actions and corresponding to
the degree of incongruence between belief and behaviour, we strongly tend to resolve the
dissonance and furthermore, the greater the dissonance the more you will be motivated to
resolve it. It is argued that dissonance is resolved by the applied social psychologists in any
of three basic ways:

● Change in beliefs: Dissonance between actions and beliefs may very fundamentally be
resolved by changing the beliefs. However, changing belief is unlikely if the opinion is
deep-seated and central to the individual’s belief system. Moreover, our basic beliefs
and attitudes are relatively stable and people generally hesitate in changing their basic
beliefs, attitudes or opinions. Therefore, people generally do not employ this simplest
way of resolving dissonance.

49
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology

Fig 5.1: Cognitive Dissonance Theory

● Change in behaviour: At many occasions this dissonance may be resolved by simply

changing the behaviour in question. A person who smokes even after knowing that
smoking can cause cancer may eventually stop smoking and thus reduce the dissonance
caused by the inconsistency between belief and behaviour.

● Change in perception of behaviour: We can resolve the dissonance with the help of
an even more complex mode by changing the way we perceive our action. In the other
words, we may rationalise our actions. A person who smokes even after knowing that
smoking can cause cancer may continue to smoke with the reasoning that s/he smokes
to avoid the stresses of daily routine or he smokes only with his friends. In other words,
people start thinking about their action in a different manner or context so that it no
longer appears to be inconsistent with the actions.

5.2.1 Applications of Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The cognitive dissonance theory has been very extensively researched and applied in number
of significant social behaviours; such as forced compliance behaviour, decision making and
effort justification.

[Link] Forced Compliance Behaviour

There are number of situations in our social life when we are forced (many times under pressure
of social norms, etiquettes or obligations) to behave publicly in a way that is inconsistent with
our personally or privately held belief. For example, we are forced to praise a horrible singing
of a close friend. Such forced compliance behaviours lead to dissonance between cognition
(belief) and behaviour (action). Since the action inconsistent to the belief has already been
taken, dissonance can be reduced only by modifying the attitude.
Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) conducted an experiment to test this hypothesis. In the
experiment, after performing a presumably uninteresting task of turning pegs in a peg board
for an hour, the research participants were requested to report the task as interesting to other
fellow participants who were waiting for their turn. They were paid either $20 or $1 for
doing this. The researchers reported that regardless of what amount they were paid, most of
the participants told the waiting participants that the experimental task was very interesting.
Lastly, on being asked to rate that how interesting the experiment was, the participants who
were paid $1 reported the monotonous task as more interesting than those who were paid $20.
The results led the researchers to conclude that an incentive of $1 was sufficient for showing
behaviour inconsistent with the belief which led the participants who were paid $1 to
experience greater dissonance. Consequently, this dissonance was resolved by modifying the
belief that the tasks were interesting and enjoyable. However, a payment of $20 provided a
significant reason for believing task as really enjoyable and therefore, no or little dissonance
was created in such participants.

50
 Theories of Social
[Link] Decision Making and Cognitive Dissonance Psychology

We encounter with many dilemmatic situations in which taking a decision may induce
dissonance. For example, getting married or going for a career is such a great dilemmatic
situation in which decision making becomes so difficult for a girl reared in a typical Indian
social setup. In such dilemmatic situations both the alternatives have their own advantages
and disadvantages and going along with one alternative closes the possibility of availing the
advantages of the alternative that was rejected. Either way, regardless of which of the two
alternatives is selected, advantages of the rejected alternative arouse dissonance.
Brehm (1956), based on his study, proposed that dissonance in such conditions can be reduced
if the person in dissonance enhances the attractiveness of the alternative he or she has chosen
and simultaneously by attaching lesser attraction or advantages to the rejected option. Brehm
(1956) referred it as ‘spreading apart the alternatives’.
[Link]. Effort Justification
It seems logical to construe that people attach more value to those goals that are achieved
after great efforts. Aronson and Mills (1959) argued that when we achieve a trivial goal even
after investing substantial effort it produces considerable dissonance. Such dissonance may
be reduced by assuming that the effort or time invested in achieving the goal was not that
big. However, such assumption is unrealistic and hence difficult to reduce dissonance by this
way. Therefore, people tend to justify their efforts by appraising the achieved goal in a more
positive way and by attaching more subjective value to those goals, consequently leading to
the reduced dissonance.

5.3 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

In 1977, Bandura propounded the theory of social learning. The theory signifies the importance
of the learning process towards social behaviour. According to the theory, individuals acquire
new behaviours by observing and imitating others. Bandura stated that learning is a cognitive
process which takes place in social context. Such learning of behaviour can take place
through direct observation, reinforcement or instructions. The theory explains how learning
occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious
reinforcement. If an individual’s behaviour is rewarded regularly, it will most likely continue;
conversely, if a particular behaviour is constantly punished, it will most likely discontinue.
The theory is an integration of the behavioural theories as well as the cognitive theories of
learning in order to understand the various learning experiences that occur in the real world.
Therefore, the psychologist keeps in to consideration that learning is not purely behavioural;
rather, it is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context.

5.3.1 Mediational Process of Social Learning

According to Bandura, there are four internal processes that play a key role in learning
behaviours. They can be mentioned as follows:
● Attention: If an individual needs to learn a behaviour, s/he has to pay attention to that
behaviour and its consequences and form mental representation of the behaviour. By
paying attention to the behaviour, others might learn those by imitating. If any one’s
behaviour influences others, then they try to imitate it and this can take place only
if others focus towards their behaviour. It is also important to understand the level
of attention depends upon many internal factors (e.g., perceptual abilities, cognitive
abilities, arousal, past performance) and characteristics of the behaviour or event (e.g.,
relevance, novelty and functional value). Therefore, the social factors also contribute to
51
Introduction to Applied our level of attention e.g. if the role model (with whom the individual is impressed and
Social Psychology identifies himself or herself) is highly recognized/ famous person then their behaviour
and functional value becomes more relevant to us and therefore alters/effects his/her
attention.
● Retention: It refers to our capacity to remember a behaviour. Many a times, we
notice other’s behaviour but it is not always remembered which obviously prevents
imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the behaviour is formed which
is to be performed later by us. So usually, the behaviour that is learned from others in
the society is not shown immediately, they are retained and then shown whenever the
similar situation arises. You need to further understand that, this process is influenced
by certain characteristics of the individual like - their cognitive capabilities; cognitive
rehearsal and event characteristics like the extent of complexity of the event/behaviour.
The cognitive processes underlying retention are described by Bandura as visual and
verbal.
● Reproduction: Individuals are sometimes very much impressed by some people who
become their ideals. Such ideals are known as role models for those individuals. They
try to imitate or reproduce the behaviour pattern of their models though, many a times
such reproduction of behaviour is not possible. The level of reproducing a behaviour
is also dependent on their cognitive skill. For example, a 80-year-old-man who is
physically weak may appreciate people trekking on mountains, but will not attempt to
imitate it because he physically cannot do it.
● Motivation: Motivation is referred to as a drive that urges an individual to perform
the behaviour. An individual repeats such behaviour on the basis of the rewards and
punishment that is a consequence of performing such behaviour. If the behaviour is
followed by a reward, then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the
individual but if the reinforcement is not seen to be important enough by the individual,
then they will not imitate the behaviour. The level of motivation is influenced by
environmental and social factors, since motivational factors are driven by the functional
value of the role model’s behaviour in a given environment.

5.3.2 Assumptions/Tenets of Social Learning

[Link] Vicarious Reinforcement
It refers to a learning of a behaviour that takes place by observing a behaviour and by
observing the consequences of that behaviour. If the individual observes that their role model
(with whom they identify themselves) receives a reinforcement, then they are motivated to
imitate the behaviour as if they had been reinforced themselves. For example, a younger
brother learns to greet others, only because he saw his elder sister being praised for the same
behaviour.
Vicarious reinforcement takes place through vicarious learning. Vicarious learning is also
known as observational learning or learning through modeling and it takes place when an
individual learns something simply by observing others, without getting direct reinforcement
or punishment of the behaviour.

[Link] Modelling
As discussed earlier, that we tend to imitate the behaviour of our role models. Such kind of
observing, learning and imitating behaviours refers to modelling. One thing that might confuse
you is then how is modelling different from vicarious reinforcement? Well! Modelling is a
process in which we learn by imitating and observing others, on the other hand, the vicarious
reinforcement refers to learning of a behaviour on basis of anticipating the consequences
(rewards/punishment) of the behaviour shown by others.

52
According to Bandura, the role models can be of three types. They are: Theories of Social
Psychology
1) Live models: It refers to those persons/ role models who is directly demonstrating/
showing the desired behaviour.
2) Verbal instructional models: A verbal instructional model is an individual who
does not directly perform the desired behaviour but instructs or describes the desired
behaviour in detail e.g., a sports coach guiding the athletes.
2) Symbolic models: A symbolic model can be a fictional character or a real person who
demonstrate their behaviour in books, television, internet, literature, radio and other
social media.

[Link] Reciprocal Determinism

Reciprocal determinism refers that the way individuals’ behaviour is influenced by
environment, the environment also is influenced by their behaviour. Therefore, both the
environment and individual’s behaviour mutually influence each other. In other words,
an individuals’ behaviour, his/her cognitive processes and environmental factors such
as social stimuli are reciprocal to each other. For example, if a child admits to the
teacher that s/he hates attending school. This may result in disliking of the child by the
teachers and his/her class mates. This might lead to reflection of inappropriate/immoral
behaviour among them and which in turn will force the teachers to create more stricter
environment for him/her. So, his/her cognitive thoughts, behaviour and environment
keep on influencing each other.

5.3.3 Applications of Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory has various applications. Few of the areas where the theory contributes
eminently are as follows:
[Link] Management
Management field significantly implies the social learning theory towards employees. As
the theory says that it is not only motivation that reinforces individuals to work, wherein,
there are three other ways with the help of which they learn to perform. They are:vicarious
experience, cognitive process and environment.
[Link] Child Development
The theory provides a guide towards social and moral development of children. The
theory emphasizes that by observing others and through experience, a child develops moral
judgement and decision - making capacity. It also helps in understanding the social factors
that influences the gender development.
[Link] Cognitive Processes and Neuroscience
Since the process of observing and learning behaviours involve various cognitive processes (for
example- social cognition, motor cognition), the theory is significantly used in understanding
neuron system, physiology and individuals responses.
[Link] Criminology
The theory is used to understand the emergence and maintenance of deviant behaviour. The
theory reflects how criminal behaviour is learned in both social and nonsocial situations
through combinations of direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, explicit instruction,
and observation.
[Link] School Psychology
The teaching strategies and classroom settings are based on the principles of social learning.
53
Introduction to Applied The theory contributes towards enhancing the capacity of knowledge acquisition and
Social Psychology retention among students. For example, if the teacher instructs the student to repeat a phrase,
they imitate and reproduce the teacher's action which contributes towards their retention of
information.

[Link] Media
Media uses strategies to convince the viewers to behave in a socially desired way. The
advertisements, programs and entertainment act as role models for the viewers who easily
get convinced to imitate those actions. For example, a child is convinced to use a toothpaste
which was being used in an advertisement by a celebrity.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I)

Fill in the following blanks:
1) Cognitive dissonance, as proposed by Festinger's (1957), suggests that a
............................... functions to maintain all our attitudes and beliefs in synchronisation
and avoids dissonance.
2) In 1977, ............................... propounded the theory of social learning.
3) Modelling is a process in which we learn by ............................... .
4) ............................... refers that the way individuals’ behaviour is influenced by
environment, the environment also is influenced by their behaviour.

5.4 GROUP THINK THEORY

The term ‘group think’ was coined by a social psychologist named as Irving Janis (1972).
According to him group think is a “mode of thinking in which individual members of small
cohesive groups tend to accept a viewpoint or conclusion that represents a perceived group
consensus, whether or not the group members believe it to be valid, correct, or optimal.
Groupthink reduces the efficiency of collective problem solving within such groups.”
The theory states that if a group is highly cohesive (unified) then they believe that their
decision making capacities as a group, cannot be wrong and all the members must support
the decision taken by the group (even if few of the members disagree to the decision taken).
Under such circumstances the group even rejects information which is in contrary to the
group’s decision. Once this tendency develops, group is highly resistant to change its
decision. This happens due to the high level of cohesiveness and strong group pressures
among group members which forces them to reach to an agreement.
The norms of highly cohesive group exhibits that the group is superior and dependable.
Many a times, the group ignores few relevant opinions and viewpoints which are held
by their members, which may affect the quality of the decisions taken by the group. This
may have a critical effect upon the decision taken. The theory says that group think is a
phenomena that happens if the group has the following components: strong, persuasive
group leader; a high level of group cohesion; and intense pressure from the outside to make
a good decision.
5.4.1 Symptoms of Group Think:
Janis mentioned certain symptoms of the group think phenomena, which may be mentioned
as follows:
● Illusions of invulnerability: Due to a strong unified group, the members show high
54
 level of optimism and are ready to take big risks as well as challenges. The members Theories of Social
opine themselves to be perfect and that anything they do will be successful. Psychology

● Collective Rationalization: The group try to rationalize thoughts or suggestions

that the majority of the members are thinking even if few of them do not agree to the
majority. In fact, they also suggest the reasons as to why few of them are not agreeing.
They always go ahead with their original decisions.
● Belief in Inherent morality of the group: The group believes that whatever they do
is always right, as they all know the difference between right and wrong. This subsides
the repercussions that may occur of what they decide.
● Out –Group Stereotypes: The majority of the group members opine that those who
disagree to their decisions are incapable of taking right decisions. They develop a
stereotype thinking towards those members to be incapable and weak.
● Direct Pressure on the Nonconformists: Those persons who do not conform to the
majority of the group members are directly threatened to leave the group, if they don’t
want to agree with the majority. The majority of members try to apply pressure on the
non- conformist members.
● Self – Censorship: Those members who do not agree to the group, engage themselves
in self – censorship where they believe that if they are the only odd one out then they
must be the one who are wrong.
● Illusions of agreement: If there is silence and no body opposes to the group decision,
then silence is considered to be acceptance of the majority’s decision.
● Self – Appointed Mind Guards: Few of the group members act as guard because they
take it as their responsibility to discourage alternative ideas from being expressed in the
group.
Out of the above-mentioned symptoms, the first two are a result of overconfidence of the
group that they are the ones who can influence others and have power. The next pair reflects
that the majority of the group members have a limited vision and do not broadly look to every
one’s view point and the last four are signs of strong compliance pressure from within the
group.

5.4.2 Conditions Responsible for Group Think

By this time, you might be curious to know the reasons or the conditions that leads to the
phenomena of group thinking. Schneider et al. in the year 2012, explained the following
conditions that leads to the groupthink process:
● High stress: The group gets cohesive when they are under pressure to make decisions
within a time frame.
● Directive leadership: If the leader owns a directive kind of leadership style (provides
directions and expect prompt cooperation from group members), then the group
thinking is high.
● Over-confidence: When a group has an inflated sense of efficiency, then it leads to
group think attitude.
● Lack of outside opinions: If the group lacks opportunities to take out group or others’
opinion, group think occurs.
● Over-valuing group cohesion and commonality: If the group members over
evaluate the sense of unity and solidarity among themselves, then also group think
happens.

55
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology 5.5 ANOMIE THEORY
The term ‘anomie’ was introduced by a French sociologist Durkheim in 1893. Anomie means
the lack of normal ethical or social standards. His theory reflected the idea that the lack of
rules and clarity resulted in psychological status of worthlessness, frustration, lack of purpose,
and despair.
The theory of Anomie explains how social conditions influence deviant behaviour and crime.
According to Durkheim, absence of shared values, standards and rules that are required to
regulate behaviours are the factors that has an impact on individual’s distress and deviant
behaviour. The theory explains how the social conditions influences deviant behaviour and
crime activities. Anomie can therefore be said as a condition of instability resulting from a
breakdown of standards and values or from a lack of purpose or ideals among individuals. It
can lead to distortion of belief system and isolation (breakdown of social bonds) of individuals
from their communities or societies.
It is a theory that has implications in understanding deviant behaviour and criminal tendencies
among individuals.

5.6 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above discussion that there are several theories related to social
psychology that helps in understanding human behaviour in societal context. Festinger (1957)
in the cognitive dissonance theory, suggested that a psychological force (an inner drive)
functions to maintain all our attitudes and beliefs in synchronisation and avoids dissonance.
Therefore, this theory has relevance towards understanding behaviour of individuals and then
planning strategies by the applied social psychologists.
In 1977, Bandura propounded the theory of social learning. The theory signifies the importance
of the learning process towards social behaviour. According to the theory, individuals acquire
new behaviours by observing and imitating others.
The term ‘group think’ was coined by a social psychologist named as Irving Janis (1972). The
theory states that if a group is highly cohesive (unified) then they believe that their decision
making as a group, cannot be wrong and all the members must support the decision taken by
the group (even if few of the members disagree to the decision taken.
The term ‘anomie’ was introduced by a French sociologist Durkheim in 1893. Anomie means
the lack of normal ethical or social standards. His theory reflected the idea that the lack of
rules and clarity resulted in psychological status of worthlessness, frustration, lack of purpose,
and despair.
Therefore, the theories explain how social processes can influence human behaviour.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ II)

State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:

1) The term ‘group think’ was coined by a social psychologist named as Durkheim (1972).
( )
2) The group think theory states that if a group is highly cohesive (unified) then they
believe that their decision- making capacities as a group, cannot be wrong and all the
members must support the decision taken by the group. ( )
3) The term ‘anomie’ was introduced by a French sociologist Irving Janis in 1893. ( )

56
 Theories of Social
4) The theory of Anomie explains how social conditions influence deviant behaviour and Psychology
crime. ( )

5.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1. Describe Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory and its applications.
2. Explain the mediational processes of social learning theory.
3. Elaborate upon the tenets of social learning theory
4. Discuss the group think theory and theory of anomie.

5.8 GLOSSARY
Reinforcement: Reinforcement is the mechanism by which people learn to perform a
particular behaviour because it is followed by something that is pleasurable or that satisfies a
need (or they learn to avoid behaviour that is followed by unpleasant consequences).
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The cognitive dissonance theory suggests that a psychological
force (an inner drive) functions to maintain all our attitudes and beliefs in synchronisation and
avoids dissonance.
Observational Learning: Observational learning presumes thatpeople often learn social
attitudes and behaviours simply by watching other people, known technically as “models”.
Social Learning Theory: According to the theory, individuals acquire new behaviours by
observing and imitating others.
Group Think Theory: The theory states that if a group is highly cohesive (unified) then they
believe that their decision making as a group, cannot be wrong and all the members must
support the decision taken by the group (even if few of the members disagree to the decision
taken.
Anomie Theory: The theory reflected the idea that the lack of rules and clarity resulted in
psychological status of worthlessness, frustration, lack of purpose, and despair. Therefore, the
theories explain how social processes influence human behaviour.

5.9 Answers to Self- Assessment Questions

(SAQ)

SAQ I
1) psychological force (an inner drive)
2) Bandura
3) imitating and observing others
4) Reciprocal Determinism

SAQ II
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True
57
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology 5.10 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES
Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10thed.). Cengage Learning.
Baron, R. A., & Branscombe, N. R. (2016). Social Psychology (14th ed.). Boston: Pearson/
Allyn & Bacon.

References
Bandura, A. (1963). Social Learning and Personality Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston.
Bandura, A. (1971). "Social Learning Theory" (PDF). General Learning Corporation.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2013. Retrieved 25 December2013.
Bandura, A. (1972). "Modeling theory: Some traditions, trends, and disputes". In Parke, R.
D. (ed.). Recent trends in Social Learning Theory. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-
545050-8 Bandura, Albert (1977). Social Learning Theory. Oxford, England: Prentice-Hall.
Brehm, J. (1956). Post-decision changes in the desirability of alternatives. Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 52, 384-389.
Brehm, J. (1966). A Theory of Psychological Reactance. New York: Academic Press.
Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of SocialComparison Processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press.
Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203-210.
Grusec, Joan (1992). "Social Learning Theory and Developmental Psychology: The
legacies of Robert Sears and Albert Bandura". Developmental Psychology. 28 (5): 776–
786. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.776.
Gerber, John J. Macionis, Linda M. (2010). Sociology (7th Canadian ed.). Toronto: Pearson
Canada. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-13-700161-3.
Janis, I. L. (November 1971). "Groupthink" (PDF). Psychology Today. 5 (6): 43–46, 74–76.
Archived from the original on April 1, 2010.
Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of Groupthink: a Psychological Study of Foreign-Policy Decisions
and Fiascoes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-14002-1.
McLeod, S. A. (2016, Febuary 05). Bandura - social learning theory. Simply Psychology.
Nickell Knutson, Jeanne (1972). The Human Basis of the Polity:APsychological Study of Political
Men. Aldine treatises in social psychology. Aldine-Atherton. p. 146. ISBN 9780202240404.
Retrieved 27 October 2019. To de Grazia and Merton, such anomie as this stems not from a
lack of rules, but rather, from conflict between the directives of two belief systems.
Mestrovic, Stjepan (1993). Emile Durkheim and The Reformation of Sociology. ISBN
9780847678679.
Cotterrell, Roger (1999). Emile Durkheim: Law in a Moral Domain. Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press. p. 19. ISBN 0804738238. OCLC 43421884.
Merton, Robert K. (1938). "Social Structure and Anomie". American Sociological Review. 3(5):
672–82. doi:10.2307/2084686. JSTOR 2084686.
Nivette, Amy E. (2011). "Old theories and new approaches: Evaluating Freda Adler's Theory
of Low Crime and its Implications for Criminology". Theoretical Criminology. 15 (1): 83–
99. doi:10.1177/1362480610380103. ISSN 1362-4806. S2CID 145111901.

58
Ponder, J., &Haridakis, P. (2015). Selectively Social Politics: The Differing Roles of Media Theories of Social
Use on Political Discussion. Mass Communication and Society, 18(3), 281-302. doi:10.1080 Psychology
/15205436.2014.940977.
Schmidt, A. (2016, May 26). Groupthink. Retrieved October 09, 2020, from [Link]
[Link]/science/groupthink
Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied Social Psychology (Second
Edition ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE publications.
Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology:
Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.
Teitel, A. (2018, January 25). Challenger Explosion: How Groupthink and Other Causes Led
to the Tragedy. Retrieved October 08, 2020, from [Link]
challenger-disaster-changed-nasa
How JFK Inspired the Term ‘Groupthink’. (2020, September 24). Retrieved October 08, 2020,
from [Link]
Immelman, A. (n.d.). Waco Tragedy Product of Groupthink. Retrieved October 09, 2020,
from [Link]

WEBSITES:
[Link]
acrefore-9780190264079-e-244 Retrieved on 16/06/2021

59
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology UNIT 6 KNOWLEDGE AND APPLICATION OF
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY*
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Meaning and Definition of Attitudes
6.3 Structure of Attitudes
6.4 Types of Attitudes
6.5 Functions of Attitudes
6.6 Attitude Formation
6.6.1 Mere Exposure
6.6.2 Personal Experience
6.6.3 Classical Conditioning
6.6.4 Operant Conditioning
6.6.5 Observational Learning
6.6.6 Genetic Factors
6.7 Relationship Between Attitude and Behaviour
6.8 Differences between attitude, opinion and belief
6.9 Norm and Norm Formation
6.9.1 Factors Influencing Norm Formation
6.10 Socialization
6.11 Group and Group Processes
6.11.1 Groups: Definition and Concept
6.11.2 Groups Processes
[Link] Social Facilitation
[Link] Social Loafing
[Link] Deindividuation

6.12 Let Us Sum Up

6.13 Unit End Questions

6.14 Glossary

6.15 Answers to Self- Assessment Questions

6.16 Suggested Readings and References

* Dr. Arishudan Tiwari, DIPR, DRDO, Delhi

*Dr. Smita Gupta, Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Delhi

60
 Knowledge and
6.0 OBJECTIVES Application of Social
Psychology
After reading this unit you will be able to:
● Explain the meaning of attitude;
● Describe components, types and functions of attitudes;
● Elucidate the process of attitude formation;
● Distinguish between attitude, opinion and belief; annd
● Explain the concept of formation of norms, socialization and group processes.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Attitude has been a core issue of study in social psychology since its inception. Attitude
is generally used to explain our feelings, thoughts and behaviours for other people, issues,
events, situations, etc. In our everyday life also, attitude has been one of the most used word.
Often we say that:
“I do/don’t like Rohan.”
“I have positive or negative feelings and ideas about dogs as a pet.”
“Anand, as a colleague, has an attitude problem.”
“I favour capital punishment for the sexual offences.”
“I favour atomic non-proliferation at the global level.”
All these statements refer to some or other aspects of attitude. In this unit we will understand
the meaning and definition of attitude. We will further explain the components, types and
functions of attitude. We will also discuss the concept of norms and process of formation of
norms. At the end of the unit, you will be explained about the process of socialization and
group processes.

6. 2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF ATTITUDE

Although attitude is a common term which is very frequently used in our daily conversations,
social psychologists define attitudes in a specific way. One of the pioneers of the field,
Gordon Allport (1935) defined attitude as “mental and neural state of readiness, organized
through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response
to all objects and situations with which it is related.” There have been a number of attempts
to define attitude in different expressions by different social psychologists, however the
definition given by Allport has been still regarded as a comprehensive definition of attitude.
The definition describes three different aspects of attitudes.
Firstly, Allport refers attitudes as mental and neural states of readiness. This assumption
implicitly asserts that attitudes are entirely personal affair and cannot be observed or measured
directly by other people. Only the person who holds an attitude has access to it. Social
psychological tools that claim to measure attitudes are in fact indirect measures of attitudes.
Secondly, the definition states that attitudes are acquired and organized through experience.
This indicates that the genesis of the attitudes we form about various people, issues, events and
situations lies in the experiences that we have in our families, neighbourhood, peer groups,
work place and larger society. However, this assumption over emphasises the importance
of social learning in attitude formation and underestimates the role of genetic factors in this
process.
61
Introduction to Applied Finally, the definition states that attitude exerts a directive or dynamic influence upon the
Social Psychology individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related. Thus, attitudes are
not merely feelings or beliefs that we have regarding people, issues, events and situations but
they also guide and predict our future responses to those people, issues, events and situations.

6.3 STRUCTURE OF ATTITUDE

An attitude is comprised of three interrelated components:
Cognitive component of the attitude refers to the beliefs and thought processes associated
with the attitude. The cognitive component of the attitude further guides the way in which we
process information regarding the attitude. At the initial stage of attitude formation we usually
weigh the pros and cons of the attributes of the attitude object and based on these ‘factual’
evaluations we form either a favourable or unfavourable attitude for the object. Furthermore,
once an attitude is formed it steers the way we encode, register and utilise the information
received from the environment.
Affective component indicates that every attitude is associated with positive or negative
feelings towards the attitude. This affective feeling further leads to pleasant or unpleasant
emotional responses to the attitude. Thus liking or disliking for the object event/person or
situation originates.
Behavioural component indicates that a specific attitude toward an object leads us to a
specific behavioural tendency or readiness and thus we are inclined to respond to the object/
event/person on situation in particular manner consistent with the attitude.
Although these three components are distinct processes, they function in an integrated and
interrelated fashion to express the attitude. Since they all belong to the same attitude, they
function in a consistent manner. If a person has a negative attitude toward polythene bags he
or she will search for information supporting his/her view that polythene bags are dangerous
to the environment. He/she will dislike the consumer goods that are packaged in the polythene
bags. Furthermore, he/she, himself/herself will not use polythene bags. In this way the
attitude structure remains consistent. Each of these components influences the other two and
therefore, changes in one component attitude leads to the changes in other components. This
process makes the attitude itself dynamic.

6.4 TYPES OF ATTIUDE

Generally, we express our attitudes as per our wish. We are aware of our attitudes and their
influences on our behaviour. Such attitudes are known as explicit attitude. Since the explicit
attitudes function on the conscious level, we are aware of their cognitive processing and their
impact on our behaviour. Explicit attitudes are activated by control process of evaluation and
execution. For example, we may be aware of our view and feelings towards a particular brand
of toothpaste and accordingly this leads us to a specific behaviour toward that (buying or not
buying toothpaste of that brand).
However, there are many other attitudes that function at the unconscious level. These attitudes
are called as implicit attitude. Contrary to the explicit attitudes, implicit attitudes are under
control of automatically activated evaluation and are executed in behaviour without the
awareness of the person holding that attitude. Thus, implicit attitudes automatically affect
behaviours, without conscious thought and below the level of awareness.
It is assumed that in the process of developing new attitudes people usually erase and
overwrite the old attitudes with the new ones. However, a model of dual attitudes proposed
by Wilson, Lindsey, and Schooler (2000) stated that when a new attitude is developed; it does

62
not erase the old one. Instead, the two attitudes coexist. The new attitude becomes the explicit Knowledge and
attitude; whereas, the old attitudes are still in memory and function as the implicit attitude. Application of Social
Psychology
Petty, Tormala, Brinol, and Jarvis (2006) demonstrated that in many situations, when the old
attitude finds a right situation or are ‘primed’ by the situation, the ‘subconscious’ level the
implicit attitudes are expressed in the behaviour.

6.5 FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE

Attitudes are formed though learning and are retained even for a lifetime. They, in many
cases, become part of the core of our self. They serve a number of functions for the individual
(Katz, 1960).
Adaptive and Instrumental Function: Favourable attitudes are developed toward rewarding
objects and unfavourable attitudes toward objects that thwart or punish us. In this process
people learn socially acceptable views, opinions and attitudes. Thus, after being developed,
attitudes provide us a simple and efficient means of evaluating objects. A student learns to
express positive attitude toward the school discipline when he/she is rewarded for doing so
and is punished for not behaving accordingly.
Knowledge Function: Attitudes function as simplified categories for various social stimuli
(people, events, situations, etc.) which further help us to understand and explain the complex
social world. Our attitudes about the object category provide us with a meaning to the social
world and a foundation for making inferences about its members. Our stereotypical beliefs
and strong prejudices toward a particular racial group are example of such functions of
attitudes. Such schematic functions of attitudes further allow us to predict the behaviours of
people of these categories with less cognitive efforts.
Self-expressive Function: Attitudes are means to define, maintain and enhance the self-
worth. Many attitudes express the basic values of the attitude holder and reinforce his or her
self-image. Some attitudes represent a person’s identification with a particular group. This
function of attitudes operates at two levels. Firstly, our core values are reflected in the attitudes
we hold and we express our attitudes in our behaviours in the social world. Furthermore, we
tend to develop an attitude consistent with our self concept.
Ego-defensive Function: The ego-defensive function of attitudes refers that we hold attitudes
that protect our self-esteem from harm or justify our acts that make us feel guilty. This function
involves psychoanalytic principles where people use defense mechanisms, such as, denial,
repression, projection, rationalization etc., to protect themselves from psychological harm.
For example, a player may protect his/her ego being heart by his/her defeat in an interschool
badminton match by developing negative attitude toward match referee.

6.6 ATTITUDE FORMATION

Formation of attitudes is an essential part of the process of our socialisation. We form attitudes
of various nature and valence about different entities of our social world. These attitudes
further steer our behaviour in specific way in different social situations. Social psychologists
have very intensively explored the process by which these attitudes are formed. Central to this
course of attitude formation is the process of social learning. We learn these attitudes either
through direct experience or by observing others’ ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ attitudes. A number of
processes by which we acquire or form our attitudes are summarised below:

6.6.1 Mere Exposure

Zajonc (1968) proposed that being merely getting exposed to an object, including foods,
photographs, words, advertising slogans, etc., may increase positive feelings towards that
63
Introduction to Applied object. In a study by Zajonc (1968), participants were repeatedly exposed to nonsense syllables
Social Psychology and to Chinese characters and repeated exposure led to increase in positive evaluations of
both the nonsense syllables and the Chinese characters.
Generally, this means that familiarity, in fact, may not breed contempt. Familiar faces, ideas
and slogans become comfortable old friends. This mechanism is explicitly evident in the
advertisement slogans. Repeated exposure to these slogans leads us to like the advertised
item. This liking is further translated into buying behaviour. However, studies have shown
that the mere ‘exposure effect’ is most powerful when it occurs randomly over time and
too many exposures actually may decrease the effect (Bornstein, 1989). Bornstein (1989)
further argued that repeated exposure increases liking when the stimuli are initially neutral or
positive. Whereas, repeated exposure to initially negative stimuli may increase the negative
emotion.

6.6.2 Personal Experience

Another prominent form of acquiring attitudes is direct personal experience. One strong direct
personal experience can build a very strong attitude or can change a strong attitude into the
opposite direction. For example, atomic bombings on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World
War II must have formed very strong negative attitude towards atomic weapons. Attitudes
acquired through direct experience are likely to be strongly held and to affect behaviour.
People are also more likely to search for information to support such attitudes and, therefore,
such attitudes are less susceptible to change.

6.6.3 Classical Conditioning

Most of attitudes we learn through the process of socialisation. Classical conditioning as a
basic mechanism of learning, was proposed by Pavlov (1927), it presumes that when a neutral
stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) is repeatedly paired with a natural stimulus (unconditioned
stimulus, UCS), neutral stimulus alone acquires the ability to elicit the response (conditioned
response, CR) which naturally occurs (unconditioned response, UCR) after natural stimulus.
Pavlov undertook an experiment that showed that dogs could learn to salivate in response
to other stimuli, such as the sound of a bell, if these stimuli were repeatedly associated with
feeding. This mechanism is overly utilised by the advertisers and opinion building agents.
Watson, pioneer of behaviourism, demonstrated that how a negative response (fear) could
be acquired through classical conditioning. Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an
11month old boy, ‘Little Albert’, to develop a fear response to a white rat. Initially, the
boy did not show any fear of the rat. In the process of conditioning, as the boy approached
the rat, the researcher made a loud (unpleasant and aversive) sound just behind the boy’s
head. After repeated pairings of the loud sound and the presence of the rat, Little Albert
acquired a conditioned response and learned to display negative emotion (fear) to the rat
alone.
Not only such negative emotions, but positive emotions and likings can also be developed
through this process. Advertisers repeatedly present their brands associated with those
celebrities who are thought to induce positive emotion among the target audience. Assumptions
of classical conditioning suggest that this leads to liking of that brand which was initially
neutral and was consistently paired with a positive stimulus. Many researchers have further
demonstrated that attitudes can be formed through the mechanism of classical conditioning
even by the exposure to the stimuli that are below the threshold of individual’s conscious
awareness, known as subliminal conditioning (Krosnick, Betz, Jussim, & Lynn, 1992).

6.6.4 Operant Conditioning

Principles of classical conditioning are helpful in explaining the development of simple reflexive
responses, such as reflexive salivation in dogs in response to the stimuli associated with food
64
or the negative emotional responses (fear) to stimuli that have been paired with unpleasant Knowledge and
or aversive sound. However, classical conditioning does not account for more complex Application of Social
behaviours such as long lasting attitudes. The behavioural psychologist B. F. Skinner (1938) Psychology
called these types of complex behaviours as operant responses because organism operate on
the environment to produce effects or consequences. In operant conditioning, responses are
acquired and strengthened by their consequences. In the other words, mechanism of operant
conditioning assumes that the behaviours that follow positive consequences are strengthened
and their likelihood is increased. Whereas, the behaviours that follow negative consequences
are weakened and their likelihood is decreased.
In the process of socialisation, parents give rewards to their children in the form of verbal
praise or candies when they express right views. Similarly, children receive punishments,
as well, when they show wrong attitudes. Our parents, family, peers, school, workplace
colleagues, etc. are those people and institutions whose even soft rewards (praise) and
punishments (scolding or neglect) matters a lot to us. When we become members of these
groups we learn to express attitudes similar to those held by them in order to maximise
our rewards and minimise punishments from them. Most of our basic religious and political
attitudes are formed in this way. When we become member of a new social network many a
times our old attitudes do not correspond to the attitudes of the new group. Therefore, in order
to fulfil the desire to fit in with others in the new group and get reward for holding the same
attitudes we tend to change the old attitude and form the new attitude similar to the newly
joined group (Levitan & Visser, 2008).

6.6.5 Observational Learning

In the complex social world we often form attitudes in the absence of direct rewards and
punishments. Many times we observe our parents or peers expressing a particular attitude
toward some ethnic group, people, social issue, etc. and acquire those attitudes by simply
observing those attitudes and behaviours. This process is called as observational learning or
modelling in which we acquire behaviours by observing or imitating others’ behaviours in a
particular context (Bandura, 1997).
The mechanism of social comparison explains the process of attitude formation through
observational learning (Festinger, 1954). In fact social realities are not dichotomous in the
way that we can say that this attitude is right, or that view is wrong. Therefore, in order to
decide that whether our attitudes are right or wrong we compare our views and attitudes with
those of others. Once we find that our attitudes are similar to those held by others, we assume
that we are holding a right attitude. Otherwise, we tend to modify our attitude corresponding
to others.
However, we do not compare our attitudes to any group arbitrarily; rather we compare our
views only with those people we identify ourselves with. Thus, these groups are reference
groups for us and we compare our views and attitudes only with them. This process suggests
that we form our attitudes in order to fulfil our desire to be similar to those whom we like and to
differ from those we do not. Having disagreement with those whom we like is uncomfortable
and, therefore, we tend to adhere to the attitudes of the liked or reference group to avoid this
un-comfort caused by disagreement (Turner, 1991).

6.6.6 Genetic Factors

Some of the recent studies have furthered the view that strong attitudes, likes and dislikes,
have their genesis in our genetic constitute (Tesser, 1993). Tesser (1993) has presented some
empirical evidences showing that there was more similarity of attitudes among identical
twins than those of fraternal twins. Tesser (1993) further found that the twins reared apart
and those who were reared in the same home did not differ in their attitudes. These findings
led Tesser to suggest that certain attitudes are predisposed and rooted in our genetic makeup.

65
Introduction to Applied He contemplated that such predispositions originate from our inborn physical, sensory and
Social Psychology cognitive skills, as well as from our temperament and personality traits.

6.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOUR

Do attitudes really guide our behaviour? This has been a long debated issue for social
psychologists. In one of the classic study, LaPiere (1934) visited to almost 250 hotels and
restaurants of different places of the United States with a Chinese couple to see whether
the couple was offered the service or not. After travelling for almost 2 years, he saw that
the couple was denied for service by only one hotel and restaurant. However, in reply to a
mailed questionnaire 92 percent of the hotels and restaurants said that they would not offer
service to a Chinese couple. This indicated that their behaviour of offering service to the
Chinese couple, was inconsistent with their attitude expressed in reply to the questionnaire.
Although surprising, the findings of LaPiere’s study suggested that attitudes do not always
predict behaviour. Rather, there are some factors that affect the relationship between attitude
and behaviour.

6.7.1 Attitude Specificity

In many cases, our general attitudes fail to predict our specific behaviours. For example,
we might, in general, like psychology as a discipline. However, when it comes to social
psychology, one of its specific branches, we may not like it. Similarly, in LaPiere’s study
the attitude reported in the questionnaire was regarding Chinese couple in general; however,
the behaviour observed was toward a specific Chinese couple. Furthermore, despite of being
prejudiced and having negative attitude toward a particular community in general, one may
have friendship with one or more specific members of that community.

6.7.2 Attitude Accessibility

Extending availability heuristic to the issue of behaviour-attitude link, it is suggested that
the attitude which is more easily accessible more strongly influences the person’s behaviour
(Fazio, 1995). The concept of automatic behaviour argues that the attitudes which are more
readily available activate the behaviour consistent with the attitude by priming.

6.7.3 Self Awareness

People may hold two different types of self awareness: private self awareness and public self
awareness (Echabe & Garate, 1994). It is suggested that people holding private self awareness
act consistent with their own attitude; whereas, people holding public self awareness behave
according to the attitude held by the majority of people present in social setting. In the
other words, people with public self awareness act under majority pressure, an instance of
conformity. For example, a person with private self awareness with positive attitude toward
Swachchh Bharat Abhiyan will behave according to his or her attitude and consequently
would not litter at public places. However, when the person is with his or her friends and the
public self awareness of the person is activated, it is more likely that the person would behave
consistent with the attitude of majority of the group.

6.7.4 Attitude Certaintys

Attitude certainty includes two components: attitude clarity, the extent to which person is
clear about his or her attitude and attitude correctness, the extent to which person thinks that
his or her attitude is correct, valid and appropriate to hold. Petrocelli, Tormala and Rucker
(2007) have reported that the attitude high on the dimension of certainty is more likely to
influence the individual’s behaviour and furthermore, less likely to be affected or changed by
persuasive messages.

66
6.7.5 Attitude Strength Knowledge and
Application of Social
Link between attitude and behaviour is stronger with stronger attitudes as compared to the Psychology
weaker attitudes. Strength of a particular attitude is determined by three different factors
that further affect the link between attitude and behaviour: processing of information
regarding the attitude object, personal involvement or relevance with the issue pertaining
to the attitude and direct experience. Liberman and Chaiken (1996) have reported that
when information pertaining to the attitude is processed more often, it results into
enhanced attitude strength and stronger link between attitude and behaviour. Similarly,
attitudes that are more relevant and important to the person and serve some purpose to the
person’s life are stronger and more capable of predicting behaviour. Finally, the attitudes
that are formed through direct experience becomes stronger and predict behaviour with
greater consistency.

6.8 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ATTITUDE, OPINION

AND BELIEF
Attitude, opinion and belief are the acquired predispositions of behaviour. Though they are
interdependent and influence each other yet they have certain differences:

Table: 6.1 Difference Between Attitude, Opinion and Belief

ATTITUDE OPINION BELIEF

1. An attitude can be An opinion may Belief are said to be the

explained a set of be explained as an convictions that an individual
emotions, beliefs, and individual's perspective, holds towards a particular
behaviours toward a understanding, particular object, person, thing, or event.
particular object, person, feelings, beliefs, and
thing, or event. desires.

2. It refers to act in a It refers to the way we It refers to the acceptance of

particular way as a express our judgment a statement towards a set of
response towards and towards an individual circumstances.
object or situation about any set of facts.

3. It involves emotional It does not involve any Certain beliefs are aroused
evaluation of a person or emotional evaluation of by emotions which inspire
object. a person or an object. people to act in a particular
manner.

4. It is the way of responding It is a view that any It is a trust or a confidence

or carrying oneself in the person has formed that a person possess towards
society. towards a person, object a person, object or society.
or society.

5. Eg. An individual might E.g. An individual might Eg. An individual might

have developed negative opine that his/her relative believe in miracle.
attitude toward his/her is not good in nature.
relative, this influences
his/her behaviour of
not visiting to his/her
relative.

67
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology 6.9 NORM AND NORM FORMATION
Norms are referred to as shared beliefs and behaviour that are acceptable and possessed
within the society. They are different from the ‘ideas’ and ‘attitudes’ because they are
possessed differently by different individuals. The norms regulate individual’s behaviour;
shape their interests and provide the details of their expected behaviour within a society. The
members of the society are expected to follow these norms as they are socially appropriate
and beneficial to the society.
Norm formation refers to the phenomena in which various members of a society reach to a
consensus or conform in a socially ambiguous setting.

6.9.1 Factors Influencing Norm Formation

Norms guide our behaviour and we perform our actions referring to the fact that such behaviour
will be approved by the other members of the society or not. Let us now discuss about few of
the factors that influence the norm formation:
● Social Learning
Social learning plays a very significant role in the formation and administration of
social norms. People have a tendency to follow the customs, traditions and beliefs of
what has been followed since years. For example- gender discrimination is learnt on
basis of observation from society.
● Individual Learning
Learning on the basis of self- experience helps the individual to adapt to the societal
environment. They also learn by others’ experience and this helps them to accept the
norms of the society.
● Community policies
In order to survive in a community, an individual is expected to adopt the rules,
regulations and norms of that group and/or society. If somebody does not adopt the
norms, the community might punish the offenders in a predetermined way.
● Cooperation
The cooperation among members of the group and group belongingness many time
leads to formation of a rule or a norm. This makes the members to accept these norms
and behave accordingly, provided they want to be the part of the group.s

6.10 SOCIALIZATION
Socialization, is a process with the help of which an individual learns to adjust to a group
(or society) and behave in a manner approved by the group (or society). It represents the
leaarning process that takes place throughout the life span and significantly influences the
behaviour, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.
At individual level, it provides a guidance of the essential skills and habits required for acting
and participating within their society. At societal level, it guides all the members of the society
towards moral norms, attitudes, values, motives, social roles, language and symbols.

6.10.1 Agents of Socialization

There are many sources that leads socialization of individuals and theses sources are called
68
as ‘agents’. The agents of socialization are majorly the people and groups that influence an Knowledge and
individual’s self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behaviour. These agents are mentioned Application of Social
Psychologyv
below:
● Family Members: The members of the family together contribute towards determining
one's attitudes and establishing professional goals for them.
● School and Education: is the agency responsible for socializing groups of young people
in particular skills and values in society.
● Peers: Peers refer to people who are roughly the same age and/or who share other social
characteristics (e.g., students in a college class). They influence our behaviour and
contribute towards our socialization.
● The Mass Media: It provides a strong impact on the formation of human behaviour.
● Apart from the above mentioned points, religion, culture, workplace norms and country
norms also significantly contribute towards socialization.

6.11 GROUP AND GROUP PROCESSES

6.11.1 Groups: Definition and Concept

Groups can be defined as a collection of people who perceive themselves to be bonded
together in a coherent unit to some degree (Brown, 2000; Dasgupta, Banaji& Abelson, 1999).
The characteristics of a group are:
● A collection of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as the members of
group.
● Members have common motives.
● Members are interacting (either directly or indirectly) and interdependent.
● Members influence each other.
● Members’ behaviour are governed by certain rules, roles assigned to them in the group
and their status in the group.
● All the above mentioned characteristics differentiate a group from a crowd, which is
merely a collection of people, who happen to be at the same place at the same time with
or without any common purpose.
● A group must be further differentiated from a team where the members have
complementary skills, affect each other’s activities, attain a positive synergy by
coordinated effort and are collectively responsible for the performance. For example,
ten students doing a combined study is an example of group. Here each individual
studies the syllabus separately. On the other hand, a group formed in the company to
complete a project is an example of team. Here, the person analysing the data cannot do
the job until the data has been entered by the other person, who in turn is dependent on
the person responsible for collection of data. Moreover, in the second example whole
group is accountable for the completion of the project.
● The groups can provide, with or without the conscious knowledge of their members, a
means of fulfilling many of the needs of the individuals in them, such as:
Egoistic needs: Fulfilled through the development of self-esteem and status as the result
of membership in the group through opportunity for individual contributions to group
functioning.
69
Introduction to Applied Functional needs: Aid in daily activities help in adjustment to work routine or even the
Social Psychology avoidance of boredom can be met by the group.
Cognitive needs: Satisfied by establishing and testing reality through developing consensus
among group members, uncertain parts of social environment can be made certain and parts
of social environment can be made "real" and "stable." Each person can validate perceptions
and feelings best by checking them with others.
Thus, groups are instrumental in fulfilling the needs of individual members in various ways.
It is possible that these needs may not directly link to the group’s primary goal; although,
by fulfilling these secondary needs of members their efforts toward achievement of group is
facilitated.

6.11.2 Group Processes

How a person acts in presence of someone else may be completely different from what s/ he
would have been doing, had s/he been alone. This ‘someone’ may be a co-worker of her/his
group, an audience or a mere stranger. For instance, while dining out in some restaurant, you
may refrain from doing many things which you would have done when dining at home. There
are several influences of group on an individual called as group processes. Some of them have
been mentioned in the sub headings below:
[Link] Social Facilitation
Social facilitation is defined as a tendency of a person to perform differently in presence of
an audience or with a co-actor. Presence of audience increases our arousal which affects
our performance. Thus other’s presence will improve performance if the performer is well
learned and his/her dominant responses are the correct ones in the situation. Furthermore,
it will impair performance if performer’s dominant responses are the incorrect ones and the
less practiced responses are correct ones. This view is known as Drive Theory of Social
Facilitation (Zajonc,Heingartner&Herman, 1969).Social facilitation fails to occur if the
performer does not pay attention to the other persons present there.
According to Distraction-Conflict Theory, a person is distracted when performing in front of
others because he or she tries to divide attention between the task and the co-actor/audience.
This produces cognitive overload on the performer and therefore, forcing the performer to
pay attention only to the essential cues/stimuli.

[Link] Social Loafing

While working in a group, often motivation is reduced resulting into reduced efforts to
achieve the group goal. This phenomenon is known as social loafing (Karau & Williams,
1993). When working in a group for a common task, a general feeling arises among
the individuals that even though they will contribute a little less, the group goal will be
achieved. Hence they have lower motivation and exert less effort to achieve the group goal.
Instead, the individuals rely more on the efforts of their co-members. This might have grim
implications. In situations, where each or most of the group members become victim of
social loafing, the group performance suffers seriously. Social loafing is observed in variety
of group tasks, such as cognitive, physical, verbal, etc. (Weldon & Mustari, 1988; Williams
& Karau, 1991).
Price, Harrison and Gavin (2006) observed that there are two factors which contribute to
social loafing: feeling of being dispensable to the group and feeling of unfairness in the group.
When a member feels that the contributions made by her/him are not essential to the group,
then she/he is more likely to loaf. Conversely, if a member has skills and knowledge relevant
to the performance of group task, she/he is more likely to actively participate in the group
activities. Similarly, if a member feels that she/he may be treated unfairly, even after making
70
significant contribution, then she/he is more likely to loaf. Also, if a member is dissimilar Knowledge and
from the other members on factors such as age, sex, ethnicity, etc. she/he is more likely to feel Application of Social
Psychology
unfairly treated and thus more likely to loaf.

Following techniques may be implied to reduce social loafing:

● Reduced feeling of being dispensable in the group by making individual efforts readily
identifiable (Williams, Harkins & Latane, 1981).

● Increasing individual member’s commitment to the successful task performance

(Brickner, Harkins & Ostrom, 1986).

● Increasing the importance of the task (Karau & Williams, 1993).

● Providing each member with some kind of standard performance, such as their past
performance or how others are doing (Williams & Karau, 1991).

[Link] Deindividuation
Deindividuation is a psychological state characterized by reduced self-awareness and
personal identity, brought on by external conditions such as being an anonymous member of
a large crowd. This leads the members of a crowd to perform behaviours which they would
have never performed when they were alone. Deindividuation leads to greater obedience of
the norms of the crowd (Postmes & Spears, 1998).
Previously in one of the above section, you were informed about the differences between group
and crowd, where, crowd is merely a collection of people, who happen to be at the same place
at the same time with or without any common purpose. But this does not mean that crowd
cannot have a norm. Consider a crowd gathered to watch a cricket match. Here the crowd
norm is to cheer their team. Being in a crowd makes a person anonymous and hence they
feel less responsible for their acts. Thus, they are more likely to resort to wild, unrestrained
and anti-social actions (Zimbardo, 1970). Hooliganism is a special case of deindividuation,
where the fans of English soccer team displayed extremely wild and unsocial behaviour in the
matches involving English team.
Deindividuation does not always lead to negative and anti-social behaviour. It just increases
the likelihood of obedience of crowd norms. In instances involving some mishaps like
stampede, road accident or fires in buildings, deindividuation may elicit helping behaviour,
too.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ II)

State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1. Social loafing is a psychological state characterised by reduced self-awareness and
personal identity, brought on by external conditions. ( )
2. Groups can be defined as a collection of people who perceive themselves to be bonded
together in a coherent unit to some degree. ( )
3. Mass media refers to people who are roughly the same age and/or who share other social
characteristics. ( )
4. An opinion may be explained as an individual's perspective, understanding, particular
feelings, beliefs, and desires.  ( )
5. A group is not different from a team ( )

71
Introduction to Applied
Social Psychology 6.12 LET US SUM UP
It can therefore be concluded from the above discussion that, attitude is generally used
to explain our feelings, thoughts and behaviours for other people, issues, events and
situations in our social environment. There are certain differences between attitude, opinion
and behaviour. Norms and norm formation have a significant application in a society.
Socialization and group processes significantly influence our behaviour and have relevant
implications.

6.13 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Define attitudes and explain its structure. Describe the types of attitudes and also discuss
the functions it serves for human being.
2) Elucidate various processes of attitude formation.
3) Discuss the relationship between attitude and behaviour.
4) Differentiate between attitude, opinion and belief.
5) Write a short note on the following: a. Group and group processes;
b. Norm and norm formation.

6.14 GLOSSARY
Attitude: Feelings, thoughts and behaviours for other people, issues, events, situations, etc.
Implicit attitudes: Operateat conscious level and the person holding the attitudeisaware of its
cognitive processing and impact on behaviour.
Implicit attitudes: Operate at unconscious level under control of automatically activated
evaluation and are executed in behaviour without awareness.
Knowledge function: Refers to a function of attitudes to categorise various social stimuli
(people, events, situations, etc.) to understand and explain the complex social world.
Self-expressive function: Referstoattitude’sfunction to define, maintain and enhance the self-
worth.
Ego-defensive function: We hold attitudes that protect our self-esteem from harm or justify
our acts that make us feel guilty.
Classical Conditioning: A learning theory proposing that a neutral stimulus (conditioned
stimulus, CS) paired with a natural stimulus (unconditioned stimulus, UCS), neutral stimulus
alone acquires the ability to elicit the response (conditioned response, CR) which naturally
occurs (unconditioned response, UCR) after natural stimulus.
Operant conditioning: A mechanism of learning assuming that the behaviours that follow
positive consequences are strengthened and their likelihood is increased. Whereas, the
behaviours that follow negative consequences weakened and their likelihood is decreased.
Observational learning: A mechanism of learning in which we acquire behaviours by
observing or imitating others’ behaviours in a particular context.
Attitude change: A process by which the valence of attitude is transformed or changed into
the opposite direction.
Norms : Shared beliefs and behaviour that are acceptable and possessed within the society.

72
 Knowledge and
Groups: A collection of people who perceive themselves to be bonded together in a coherent Application of Social
unit to some degree (Brown, 2000; Dasgupta, Banaji& Abelson, 1999) Psychology

6.15 Answers to Self- Assessment Questions

SAQ I
1) simple reflexive
2) direct experience or through by observing others’ ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ attitudes.
3) implicit attitude
4) “mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a
directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and
situations with which it is related.”
5) observational learning

SAQ II
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True
5) False

6.16 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10thed.). Cengage
Learning.
Branscombe, N. R., &Baron, R. A. (2016). Social Psychology (14th ed.). Boston: Pearson/
Allyn& Bacon.

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Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Allyn, J., & Festinger, L. (1961). The effectiveness of unanticipated persuasive communications.
The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62(1), 35-40.
Aronson, E., & Mills, J. (1959). The effects of severity of initiation on liking for a group.
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Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Bobo, L. (1983). Whites’ opposition to busing: Symbolic racism or realistic group conflict?
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Bornstein, R. F. (1989). Exposure and affect: Overview and meta-analysis of research, 1968–
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Branscombe, N. R. (2004). A social psychological process perspective on collective guilt.
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Dabbs, J. M., Jr., & Janis, I. L. (1965). Why does eating while reading facilitate opinion
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Ellemers, N., de Gilder, D., & Haslam, S. A. (2004). Motivating individuals and groups
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Unit 7 Intervention and Evaluation*

Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Meaning and Nature of Intervention
7.3 Types of Intervention
7.3.1 Definition of Program
[Link] Trial intervention
[Link] Types of Trial Intervention
7.4 Intervention Design and Delivery
7.4.1 The Steps in Intervention Design and Delivery
7.4.2 Evaluation of Intervention Program
[Link] An ineffective Intervention
7.5 Types of Program Evaluation
7.6 Evidence-Based Interventions
7.6.1 Issues in intervention
7.7 Let us Sum up
7.8 Unit End Questions
7.9 Glossary
7.10 Answers to Self- Assessment Questions
7.11 Suggested Readings and References

7.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to:

● Explain the meaning of intervention and evaluation;
● Describe the parameters of intervention and evaluation;
● Elucidate the process of intervention and evaluation; and
● Discuss the issues involved in intervention.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

This unit is about interventions implied in the field of applied social psychology and their
evalutions. After going through this unit, you will be aware of the various intervention and
evaluation strategies in the field of applied social psychology. Understanding the application
of social psychology in solving problems of the society is extremely important. Again,

* Dr. Babita Prusty, Amity University, Noida

77
Introduction to Applied assessing and evaluating the intervention strategies are even more important as through
Social Psychology this the application aspect of intervention programs used in social psychology gets clearly
understood. These intervention strategies contribute towards understanding and modifying
human behaviour in a society which is also one of the basic features of applied social
psychology. At the end of the unit, you will be explained about the relevance of interventions
in applied social psychology.

7.2 MEANING AND NATURE OF INTERVENTION

An intervention can be explained as a planned strategy or procedure to influence the
existing behaviour of individual with an aim to improve their functioning in a society.
Interventions are the actions performed to bring about a change in the existing behaviour of
people. Interventions may or may not target people’s behaviour directly, for example, certain
interventions are designed to create awareness (e.g., taking polio drops eradicates polio) or are
designed to change attitudes (e.g., becoming more supportive of taking children under 5 years
to take to polio booth and get polio drops.). However, the ultimate goal of most interventions
is behaviour change (e.g., decreasing the prevalence rate of polio). Interventions can be
conducted at different levels of analysis (e.g., individual, group, organization, community).
The ultimate goal of intervention is to bring the desired change in human being , mass or
society at large.

7.3 TYPES OF INTERVENTION

Intervention in applied social psychology can be of two types, Personal and Programmatic.
Personal interventions refer to the intervention which aims at bringing the required changes
which are needed for the wellbeing of the individual in a society.
A programmatic intervention is any program, strategy or policy implemented in a society that
prevents and reduces the social atrocities. For example. youth crime, violence, harassment,
bullying, and the illegal use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco etc.

7.3.1 Definition of Program

Program is a set of related measures or activities with a particular long-term aim. Royse,
Thyer, Padgett, and Logan (2006) defined a program as “an organized collection of activities
designed to reach certain objectives”. In applied social psychology a program refers to a social
or community issue with the objective of preventing or eliminating its negative consequences.
In some specific context, a programme intervention may be directed towards strengthening
a positive situation (e.g., improving the productivity of an already effective organisation).
For example, one program involved the procedures and activities that Hodges, Klaaren, and
Wheatley (2000) employed in getting female college students to engage in comfortable safe-
sex discussions, and another example entailed the set of procedures and activities that Sherif
(1966b) used to get groups of boys to work cooperatively toward superordinate goals. We also
can identify some interventions as trial interventions.
[Link] Trial Intervention
Trial interventions intends to verify the positive impact of the intervention, Crano, W. D., &
Brewer, M. B. (2002). Such kind of intervention are typically associated with programmatic
interventions.
[Link] Types of Trial Intervention
There are two basic kinds of trial interventions. One is when a researcher examines the
efficacy of an intervention strategy. The interventions of Sherif (1966b) and Hodges and
78
colleagues (2000) represent this type of trial intervention. The example of second type Intervention and
of trial intervention is when an organization conducts to a pilot program to check its Evaluation
effectiveness before implementing. For example, the medical personnel from renowned
medical organisations have tested the efficacy of Corona virus vaccine on small groups
of people then with significant good results only the vaccine has been applied on bigger
population.

7.4 Intervention Design and Delivery

The effectiveness of an intervention depends primarily upon the structure and function of the
intervention. The structure of an intervention here refers to the Design and the function of
the intervention refers to the Delivery.
The process and implementation of the intervention design follows four steps that reflect the
general problem-solving approach adopted by many areas of applied psychology and are
applicable whether the recipient of the intervention is an individual or a group. The below
given are the steps in an intervention design and delivery.

7.4.1 The Steps in Intervention Design and Delivery

1) Identifying a problem
2) Finding the solution
3) Setting goals and designing the intervention
4) Implementing the intervention (Oskamp& Schultz, 1997).

Step 1: Identifying a problem

The primary objective of any programs is to identify a social or practical problem. The first
step in program design is to identify the existence, severity, and the magnitude of need of
addressing problem. A problem usually is identified and defined by stakeholders.
Stakeholders are the individuals or group of individuals who have some vested interest
in the possible development of a program in such a way that they may get affected by it
in some way or the other. Stakeholders include not only the participants of the program
but also the people who grant funds for the programme, frontline workers, programme
managers etc. However, there are probabilities of controversies amongst the different
stakeholders regarding the existence or severity of the problem, thus a need assessment
should be done in such situations.
Need assessment refers to the process of assessment which aims at investigating the need of
invention and specific assessment to sufficiently warrant the development of a program. A
needs assessment may be formal or informal depending on the situation. The example of a
formal need assessment will be the development of a policy in HR in an organisation also it
may be informal in nature, for example, when a manager decides that his/her department needs
a workshop on sexual harassment after overhearing some of his/her staff members making
sexually inappropriate remarks. Though people have more confidence in the conclusions
of a formal need assessment that relies on scientific and systematic research procedures
for collecting data that are relevant to problem severity and prevalence. Problems may be
investigated by using a variety of qualitative and/or quantitative procedures, for example, by
interviewing representatives of various stakeholder groups or administering questionnaires
to them. Also, a formal need assessment indicates the availability of existing programs or
services as well as possible barriers to or flaws in services.

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Introduction to Applied Step 2: Finding the solution
Social Psychology
Solution depends on the cause of the problem as, the best way to solve any problem is to
find out what has caused the problem. Causal factors may be predisposing, precipitating, or
maintaining in nature.
Predisposing factors are those that put a person at risk of developing a problem, the
factors that increase a client's vulnerability to drug usage such as having parents who used
drugs, having a mental health disorder, and holding certain core beliefs about themselves.
Precipitating factors refer to a specific event or trigger to the onset of the current problem. For
example, the depression in a patient deteriorated after the death of parents. So here the death
of the parents worked as a trigger to the mental health condition of depression among the
patient. Maintaining factors always remain (maintain) in the life of the people and is difficult
to avoid. For example, if the cognitive deficits of an adolescent is attributed to the parenting
style of his/her parents, then whatever intervention that adolescent will get will ultimately be
futile. Only with parent management the adolescent will improve.
Once the causal factors have been identified, the next step is to find out the appropriate
interventions. Such interventions can be used to guide the development of a solution to the
current problem. The intervention should be very carefully chosen after reviewing a lot of
literatures so that ineffective or less effective intervention from the past can be avoided. When
possible, solutions should be based on relevant social psychological theory and research
evidence as well as theory and evidence from any other field that may contribute to a solution.
Ross and his colleague Nisbett (1991) cautioned against the development of interventions based
on conventional methods lay understanding and intuition because ‘‘predictions are often both
wrong and too confidently made’’. Consider the following example of an ineffective smoking
prevention intervention that was based on McGuire’s (1964) research on the “inoculation
effect.” McGuire found that just as it is possible to be immunized against a disease, such
as polio, by being inoculated with a vaccine containing a weak strain of the virus, so too is
it possible for people to be immunized against attacks on their beliefs, intervention and the
expected outcomes.

Step 3: Setting goals and designing the intervention

Once the need and the proposed solution has been decided, it is eminent to develop
the program activities, which contain specific strategies and procedures of the program.
Setting goals and objectives is the primary step of the intervention. Knowledge of goals
and objectives serves to guide the selection of program activities. Goals refer to the
ultimate or long-term outcomes that one wish to accomplish through an intervention.
For example, a goal for a community-based rehabilitation program might be, to have the
resource persons who hails from rehabilitation area to help in community-based rehabilitation
programmes.
Once programme goals have been decided the next step is to define program objectives.
Objectives are short-term outcomes and intermediate-term changes that occur as a result of
the intervention and are needed for the achievement of the program goals. In other words, it
can said that where goals refer to the ends, objectives refer to the means or steps by which
the ends are achieved. For instance, if the goal for clients having substance abuse problems
to remain abstinent, one objective might be for them to understand primarily why they
take drugs. Once the goals and objectives have been decided, the next step in designing an
intervention is to determine the program activities. While planning activities, one of the most
important question is the following: What objective will the proposed activity help to meet?
For example, for clients to learn the reasons for their drug use (objective), they might need
to have individual counselling sessions with a certified counsellor. The process of specifying
the various components of a program — goals, objectives, and activities — requires a sound
rationale, often referred to as a program logic model.

80
A program logic model gives us an idea about how the program activities lead to the attainment Intervention and
of the program objectives and, in turn, how the objectives logically and operationally contribute Evaluation
to the eventual achievement of the program goal(s), (Wholey,1983). Logic models may vary
in complexity and detail, but all of them emphasize a “cause and effect” flow. Program
logic holds the activities, objectives, and goals together. That means a logic model should
be based on a theoretical framework that explains the causal connections among its various
components, for example, why rehearsing rebuttals will induce resistance to peer pressure to
smoke. From the point of view of intervention design, this means that one should be able to
point to any component of the intervention and indicate not only what its contribution is but
also why the effect should occur. The use of a program logic model enhances the chance of
likelihood of its success. This, of course, helps to ensure that program resources are used as
effectively as possible.

Step 4: Implementing the intervention

Implementing the intervention refers to the real execution of the intervention activities, that
means, of delivering them to the participants of the intervention. Here it is important that
many preparations are needed to be done prior to the final execution of any intervention.
Based on the nature of an intervention, determined by factors such as its size and structure,
practical details might include securing an appropriate facility, hiring staff members, ensuring
adequate training, and developing things such as operating budgets, management structures,
job descriptions, performance appraisal methods, promotional strategies, and cross agency
referral protocols. Moreover, an intervention always should be designed and implemented in
such a way that its degree of effectiveness can be evaluated.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ I)

Fill in the following blanks:
1) An intervention can be explained as a planned strategy ………………………………
2) Intervention in applied social psychology can be of two types, ……………………
and .....................................
3) Trial interventions intends to verify ......................................................
4) The first step in intervention design and delivery is ……………………………………….
5) Implementing the intervention refers to...............................

7.4.2 Evaluation of Intervention

Programme intervention which is so important for bringing about a behavioural channge
both at individual as well as societal level, needs to be evaluated properly. Unless and until
programme intervention is evaluated properly, we will not be able to program understand
its effectiveness. Experimental design is the method of choice for establishing whether
social interventions have the intended effects on the population they are presumed to benefit.
Donald Campbell has raised the need for program evaluation. More than 40 years ago,
Campbell (1969) called for a culture of evaluation. Let’s understand the role of evaluation of
intervention through some of the example of ineffective interventions.

[Link] An Ineffective Intervention

Programs must be subjected to evaluation. From the review of literature on program
evaluation it was found that the intervention world is filled with ineffective programs. For
example, one systematic review of “Scared Straight” programs that involve organized visits
to prison facilities by juvenile delinquents or children at risk of becoming delinquent found

81
Introduction to Applied that not only do the programs not deter criminal behaviour, but they actually lead to an
Social Psychology increase in offending behaviour (Petrosino, Turpin-Petrosino, & Buehler, 2002).
For example, in Operation Pawan, in 1987 political and diplomatic miscalculation that went
into India signing the 1987 peace accord with Srilanka pitch – forked the twenty thousand
strong Indian Peace Keeping Force against the very LTTE, it had trained to fight with the
Lankan forces. “India Today” in 1987 had written “Operation Pawan is a chapter of Indian
military history that will contain none of the honour and glory of a victorious campaign”.
(India Today, 1987).

7.5 Types of Program Evaluation

In assessing the effectiveness of an intervention program, there are two main types of program
evaluation: process and outcome (Posavac& Carey, 2007). Process evaluation (also known as
formative evaluation) is undertaken to determine whether the program has reached its target
audience (as identified in the intervention hypothesis) and whether the program activities
(as outlined in the program’s logic model) have been implemented in the prescribed manner.
Basically, one wants to answer the following question: Is the program being implemented in
the way in which it was planned? For instance, if an alcohol addiction programs or desgins
activities that involves providing of five individual counselling sessions to the addicted
people,then the process evaluation would ensure that the clients were in fact addicted to
alcohol and did indeed receive the prescribed number and types of counselling sessions.
Outcome evaluations typically are conducted after process evaluations. An outcome evaluation
(also known as summative evaluation) assesses how well a program meets its objectives (i.e.,
short-term outcomes as described in the program logic model), and in a more comprehensive
evaluation, it also assesses how well the program is achieving its goals (i.e., long-term
outcomes, also part of the logic model). Basically the purpose of an outcome evaluation is to
find out whether the expected improvement in functioning occurs among the participants of
the program as a result of exposure to its activities. For example, an outcome evaluation of an
alcohol treatment program might assess whether participants publicly (e.g., among all other
participants) express strong commitment to long-term abstinence by the end of the program.
Evaluation of the goal of actual long-term abstinence would occur after a specified period of
time (e.g., 1 year) following completion of the program.
As suggested previously, program evaluation is an important part of program development.
The results of a program evaluation often will lead us to revisit and revise the program logic
model and, accordingly, to make changes in the goals, objectives, and activities. For example,
the logic model for an alcohol addiction program might have to be amended to include the
important role of family support, thereby necessitating the inclusion of new program activities
(e.g., family counselling) and objectives that emphasize family involvement.
Evaluation has a significant role to play in innovation and learning in any organisation. Such
type of evaluation can be called as developmental evaluation (Patton, 1994) and can be
used when interventions are in an early stage or the cause and effect as well as solutions of
problems are unclear, like poverty or homelessness, where the causes and solutions to the
problem are unclear.

7.6 Evidence-Based Interventions

Evidence-based interventions are practices or programs that have peer-reviewed, documented
empirical evidence of effectiveness. Evidence-based interventions use a continuum of
integrated policies, strategies, activities, and services whose effectiveness has been proven
or informed by research and evaluation.
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Gone are the days where people only work for intervention. This is the time of competition Intervention and
and challenges, so there is an absolute need for evidence-based intervention. For example, the Evaluation
increasing rate of non communicable diseases (NCDs) in India leads to a comprehensive public
health intervention which can effectively combat and control them before they peak and cause
damage to health, economic, and social condition of people in our country. Interventions
influencing behavioural risk factors (like unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, tobacco, and
alcohol consumption) through policy, public education, or a combination of both have been
demonstrated to be effective in reducing the NCD risk in populations. Policy interventions
are also effective in reducing the levels of several major biological risk factors linked to
NCDs like high blood pressure; overweight and obesity; diabetes etc. Secondary prevention
programs along the lines of combination pills and ensuring evidenced based clinical care are
also critical. Though the evidence for health promotion and primary prevention are weaker,
policy interventions and secondary prevention when combined with these are likely to have a
greater impact on reducing national NCD burden.

7.6.1 Issues in intervention

The focus of this unit has been on programmatic intervention. We have described the basic
processes in the designing of interventions, and although these steps are necessary to the
development of effective programs, there are certain issues faced by the team of intervention
also. The most prevalent issue is budgetary. Following are three most common issues. First,
interventions must be paid for, and funding typically is rooted in policy directions. Second,
intervention design is a product of a teamwork, where the different stake holders share
different responsibility. Here each professional group will contribute a unique experience
and perspective on the design of the intervention. To be effective, therefore, an intervention’s
designer(s) must be able to take into account a wide range of stakeholder ideas while at
the same time ensuring that the key elements of the design remain linked with one another
both logically and operationally to form a cohesive and integrated whole. Third, issue in
intervention that are specified by the law, and by various organizational policies and
established procedures, also exist. Organizational constraints that must be accommodated
include restrictions to access, availability of facilities, hours of operation, staffing availability,
and scheduling restrictions. None of these constraints can be ignored, so all must be addressed
in the process of designing intervention and their eventual implementations.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ II)

State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) From the review of literature on program evaluation it was found that the intervention
world is filled with ineffective programs. ( )
2) In assessing the effectiveness of an intervention, there are two main types of program
evaluation: Introductory and outcome. ( )
3) Evidence-based interventions are practices or programs that have peer-reviewed,
documented empirical evidence of effectiveness. ( )
4) Lack of human resources is one of the issue in carrying out inventions. ( )

7.7 LET US SUM UP

An intervention can be explained as a planned strategy or procedure to influence the existing
behaviour of individual or society with an aim to improve their functioning. Intervention in
applied social psychology can be of two types, Personal and Programmatic. The Steps in
83
Introduction to Applied Intervention design and delivery are identifying a problem, finding a solution, setting goals
Social Psychology and designing the intervention and implementing the intervention. Evaluation of intervention
is necessary for checking the quality of intervention. In assessing the effectiveness of an
intervention, there are two main types of program evaluation, these are process and outcome.
Evidence-based interventions use a continuum of integrated policies, strategies, activities,
and services whose effectiveness has been proven or informed by research and evaluation.
There are three main issues in intervention. First, interventions must be paid for, and funding
typically is rooted in policy directions. Second, intervention design is a product of a teamwork,
where the different stake holders share different responsibility. Third, issue in intervention that
are specified by the law, and by various organizational policies and established procedures,
also exist.

7.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Describe the meaning, nature and types of interventions.
2) What are the different steps involved in intervention design and delivery?
3) Explain the need of evaluation of intervention?
4) Explain the various types of program evaluation of applied social psychology?
5) What are the issues in interventions in applied social psychology?
6) Explain the Evidenced based intervention

7.9 GLOSSARY
Intervention:An intervention refers to a planned strategy or procedure to influence the
existing behaviour of individual with an aim to improve their functioning in a society
Programme: Programme is a set of related measures or activities with a particular long-term
aim.
Trial intervention: Trial interventions intends to verify the positive impact of the intervention.
Evidence based intervention: Evidence-based interventions are practices or programs that
have peer-reviewed, documented empirical evidence of effectiveness.

7.10 Answers to Self- Assessment Questions

SAQ I

1.) or procedure to influence the existing behaviour of individual with an aim to improve
their functioning in a society.

2.) Personal and Programmatic.

3.) the positive impact of the intervention.

4.) Identifying a problem.

5.) the real execution of the intervention activities, that means, of delivering them to the
participants of the intervention.

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SAQ II Intervention and
Evaluation
1.) True
2.) False
3.) True
4.) False

7.11 SUGGESTED READING AND REFERENCES

Campbell, D. T. (1969). Reforms as experiments. American Psychologist, 24, 409–429.
Crano, W. D., & Brewer, M. B. (2002). Principles and methods of social research (2nd ed.).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
Hodges, S. D., Klaaren, K. J., & Wheatley, K. (2000). Talking about safe sex: The role of
expectations and experience. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 330–349.
Oskamp, S., & Schultz, P. W. (1997). Applied social psychology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Patton, M. Q. (1994). Developmental evaluation. Evaluation Practice, 15, 311–319.
Petrosino, A., Turpin-Petrosino, C., & Buehler, J. (2002). “Scared Straight” and other juvenile
awareness programs for preventing juvenile delinquency. Cochrane Database of Systematic
Reviews, Issue 2.
Posavac, E. J., & Carey, R. G. (2007). Program evaluation: Methods and case studies (7th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Ross, L., & Nisbett, R. E. (1991). The person and the situation: Perspectives of social
psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill
Royse, D., Thyer, B., & Padgett, D. (2010). Program Evaluation: An Introduction. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Sherif, M. (1966b). In common predicament: Social psychology of intergroup conflict and
cooperation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Wholey, J. S. (1983). Evaluation and effective public management. Toronto, ON: Little,
Brown.

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86
 BLOCK - II
AREAS OF APPLICATION OF
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

87
Areas of Application of
Social Psychology
INTRODUCTION
The second block of this course is related to applications of social psychology in various
fields. It consists of nine units.
The first unit deals with the applications of social psychology in dealing with various social
problems like, poverty, violence, criminal behaviour, unemployment and social problems
with reference to India (dowry, caste, religion, and language).
The second unit of this block, will help you to understand the contribution of social
psychology in enhancing health and well being among individuals. It explains about the Bio-
psychosocial model; social variables, health promotion and prevention of illness, as well as
Health-belief model. It also discusses about the impact of stress, coping and social support
among individuals.
In the third unit, you will be explained about the concept of mental health problems and
the socio cultural as well as economic factors that influence the diagnosis of mental health
problems among individuals. It also deals about the relevance of counseling techniques to
over come the mental health problems among individuals.
The fourth unit of this block is an extension of the third unit. It deals with the biases involved
in clinical decision-making, treatment and prevention of mental health problems.
The fifth unit of this block discusses about the application of social psychology in the field of
education and classroom. In this unit you will come to know how the intra and interpersonal
processes increase academic success and reduce failure and dropouts. It also deals with the
relevance of teacher and student interaction. At the end of this unit, you will come to know
how the self-perception impacts upon the academic consequences.
The sixth unit of this block will explain the contribution of social psychology towards dealing
with the community.
The seventh unit explains the contribution of social psychology towards environment.
The eight unit of this block will discuss about the applications of social psychology in work
place culture.
In the last unit of this block, the contribution of social psychology towards the field of sports
will be discussed.

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Unit 8 Application of Social
Psychology to Social Problems*
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Poverty
8.3 Violence
8.4 Criminal behaviour
8.5 Unemployment
8.6 Social Problems with reference to India
8.6.1 Dowry
8.6.2 Caste
8.6.3 Religion
8.6.4 Language
8.7 Let Us Sum Up
8.8 Unit End Questions
8.9 Glossary
8.10 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
8.11 Suggested Reading and Reference

8.0 Objectives
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
● Describe the cosept of proverty;
● Define as to what is violence;
● Explain criminal behaviour and unemloyment; and
● Discuss social problems with reference to india.

8.1 Introduction
Social psychology tried to determine the social problems of individual as well as society.
In such situations, person could be affected to perform internalised social norms. In other
words, a person would able to act or react as he/she perceives according to his/her society
acts or reacts on social situations or social problems. For instance, same-sex or inter-caste
marriage and abortion, racism, caste system, girl’s education or their dress code, vote and few
profession which are restricted by the society. The social problem comprises of the impact of
conflicting opinion and factors drawn out beyond an individual’s control. It is also said that the
study of human behaviour is influenced by the result of the combination of social situations
and mental states. The psychological variables of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours can be
measured among humans.

* Ms. Preeti Sehrawat, Psychologist, Delhi

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Areas of Application of
Social Psychology
8.2 Poverty
Poverty has been researched by a variety of disciplines as one of the world's most pressing
social issues. Although poverty is a fundamental concept in economics, it has recently
emerged as one of the most important research areas in the social sciences. Poverty, like
many other social problems, is linked to a variety of psychological processes and causes.
The social-psychological approach to poverty is thought to aid in the development of
various poverty-fighting road maps.
Poverty is defined as the lack of source in terms of power money or in other resources. In
other words, poor people face many consequences of poverty such as their exploitation,
dependency, unemployment, health issues, racism, discrimination, numerous crime, less
power and lack of voice. From psychological point of view, poverty affects human cognition
in many aspects such as lack of confidence, low socioeconomic status (SES) low educational
attainment (because of low family income), and low IQ scores, low self-esteem, depressed,
stressed or less involvement in social interaction. Additionally, poverty can lead to poor
mental health in children and adults due to societal stresses, stigma, and trauma. Mental
health issues can also occur due to poverty through job loss or underemployment, as well as
the disintegration of social relationships.
As we know that, one of the primary goals of any healthy society is to alleviate poverty.
The social sciences have attempted to generate information that can be applied to alleviate
poverty. Poverty has been the subject of economic studies. On the other hand, it is a
psychological issue as well. Individual and social processes that occur under conditions of
poverty are the subject of the social psychology of poverty.

8.3 Unemployment
It is a situation in which an individual want to do work (placement and others) but they do not
get any work according to their profile. The term ‘profile’ refers to education, qualification,
requirement and basic criteria. It may reduce the development or progress of any country.
Unemployment is the worst problem in social reforms. It mainly impacts on our youner
generation because even if they are searching for job they are unable to get any work. The
psychological consequences of unemployment on human being are feeling depressed,
emotions, insecure, low confidence, agitation or frustrated. As a result, the risk of poor mental
health, financial crisis, passivity in the labour market, increased risk of social exclusion,
exploitation of youth and insufficient resources. To overcome from the unemployment
it is important to provide social support, help, approach of new unemployment placement
in government or private sector, applying new activities or values of qualification and
significantly, provide suitable job for suitable candidate according to the requirement. The
action should be imposed to protect the unemployed youth. Unemployment is the origin cause
of poverty; it is directly or indirectly proportional to poverty.

8.4 VIOLENCE
Violence is a from of aggression, a physical threat in the form of abuse, harm, damage, injuries
by physical force or power. It is defined as the ‘attack ‘on an intentional behaviour on others
physically, sexually, psychologically and emotionally. Violence can be done by any person
to harm others including other human being and animals in any place of the world. Social
psychological theories helps to understand the aggressive behaviour of an individual or a
group and understand its effect on situational factors or consequences in mental health and
social functioning. According to WHO (World Health Organization), violence has its three
main categories:
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1. Self-directed violence: Violence inflicted by an individual on self. For example, self Application of Social
abuse, attempted suicides or suicidal related thoughts. Psychology to
Social Problems
2. Interpersonal violence: Violence done by others. For example, organized group.
3. Collective violence: Violence inflicted by small or a large group. For example, terrorist
acts.
There are many different kinds of violence. All of them are dangerous, and they can
"collaborate" to exert power and control over the children, old age people and woman who is
being abused. Now let us discuss certain forms of violence:
● Hitting, slapping, choking, punching, kicking, shoving, grasping, tossing, scorching,
hair-pulling, twisting arms, tripping, confinement, and the use of weapons are all
examples of physical violence.
● Sexual assault (Forced Sexual Activity), refusal to utilize undesired pregnancy
protection, forced abortions, unwanted sexual touching, exposing to pornography
without consent, and sharing intimate images without consent are all examples of
sexual violence.
● Isolating her/him from others, instilling fear, threatening to denounce her to authorities,
and brainwashing him/her into believing that s/he is "mad" are all examples of emotional
or psychological violence.
● Controlling access to cash and bank accounts, withholding money, restricting the right
to work, forcing her/his to do precarious job against her/him will, are all examples of
financial or economic violence.
● Forcing women, girls and boys into marriage without their consent is known as forced
marriage.
● Cyber bullying is the use of electronic equipment, such as mobile, phones, computers,
and social media, to monitor or intimidate someone.
● Threatening or efforts to take children away, threats or real harm to children, and using
children to communicate abusive messages or threats are all examples of abusing
children.
● Human trafficking is defined as the illegal act of recruiting, transporting, transferring,
harbouring, or receiving people for an illegal purpose, such as sexual exploitation or
forced labor, using unethical methods (such as force, abduction, fraud, coercion, and
deception).

8.5 Criminal Behaviour

Criminal behaviour refers to the term ‘crime’. It involves any activity which is an awful, illegal
or unlawful and not acceptable by society or other authorities. Criminal behaviour indicates
the person’s psychology who are involved in criminal activity such as homicide, hunting,
assault, rape, sexual harassment, murder, burglary, larceny, vehicle theft, arson, robbery,
and property crime. Both factors can be identified in criminal behaviour, the biological and
psychosocial factors among individuals.
The biological factors of individual that forces an individual to indulge in crime are -:
temperament, impulsive, lack of empathy and no self respect. For example, a person who is
taking substance abuse i.e alcohol, drugs and medication.
The psychosocial factors which may be responsible for crime related activites are -: the
feelings of stress, hopelessness, depression and insure.
Generally, this is associated to physhical health issues e.g. heart diseases.

91
Areas of Application of Criminal psychology, another name of criminal psychology is the study by which provides the
Social Psychology deeply information about the thoughts, feelings, behaviour, intentions, actions and responses
of criminals.
While each criminal have their own motivations and circumstances, psychologist believe
there are a few broad variables that can contribute to criminal behaviour.
Biological Risk Factors
We can not differentitate between the eye colour, and we can't choose our brain's chemical
makeup among criminals and others. This can put us at risk for a variety of issues, including
clinical depression and epilepsy. According to some psychologists, our biology can potentially
predispose us to criminal behaviour. That isn't to imply that criminals are born criminals;
rather, biological characteristics such as autonomic arousal, neurobiology, and neuroendocrine
functioning have been found to increase the likelihood of humans to indullage in crimes.
Adverse Childhood Experiences
As we know that, we have no control over our genetics, and we have no control over how we
are raised as children. Some of us have had wonderful, even perfect childhoods, while others
have had less fortunate experiences. In both their adolescent and adult years, children raised
in extremely terrible circumstances are more likely to engage in criminal activities. According
to studies, convicted criminals are four times more likely than non-criminals to have had four
times as many adverse childhood events.
Socialization
Socialization, or how a child is taught to act, is one of the most essential environmental
variables during childhood development. This is the time in a child's development when he or
she learns the rules and values of their culture. An adolescent does not immediately understand
that stealing is immoral; they must be taught that this action is unacceptable through negative
consequences. These norms are subsequently internalised, and they come to believe that they
are inherently accurate. In other terms, socialisation refers to the period of a child's growth
during which moral values and socially acceptable behaviour are reinforced. If a youngster is
taught how to act consistently through both positive and negative reinforcement, the child will
begin to display particular characteristics because they believe they are intrinsically correct.
Clear moral obligations may not be implanted in a child if they are not taught how to act
appropriately or if they are inconsistently reinforced, resulting in impaired social judgement
and criminal activity.
Education
It's worth noting that degrees of education have been found to play a significant role in the
manifestation of criminal behaviour. Learning-disabled people have been demonstrated to be
more likely to engage in violent behaviour. The main cause for this can be found in a series
of interconnected causal events with education at the core. School accomplishment predicts
pro-social behaviour, which is defined as behaviour that upholds a society's moral norms. This
is because in our society, academic achievement is linked to a number of other factors such
as financial success, good self-esteem, and an internal locus of control. This concept could
explain why people with higher IQs are less likely to commit crimes than people with lower
IQs. The theory is that having a higher IQ makes it easier to succeed in school. As stated,
academic success is linked to a number of socioeconomic aspects. Individuals with a lower
IQ may not achieve as much scholastic success, resulting in lower self-esteem and financial
success, as well as a higher proclivity for criminal activity. To prevent the formation of these
negative characteristics, it is critical to emphasise upon education at an early age.

Negative Social Environment

People are more influenced with whom they live. Being in a high-crime area can raise our
chances of becoming involved in criminal activity. However, being in the proximity of
criminals is not the only factor that influences our conduct. According to research, simply
92
being poor raises our chances of being difficulties. When we're struggling to make ends meet, Application of Social
we're under a lot of stress and are more inclined to turn to crime. Psychology to
Social Problems
Substance Abuse
The link between criminal behaviour and substance usage is undeniable. According to a
research study, eighty-five percent of jail inmates in the United States had taken drugs or
abused alcohol. Furthermore, between 63 and 83 percent of those arrested for most offences
have been tested positive for illegal narcotics at the time of their arrest. For instance, Alcohol
lowers our inhibitions, whilst cocaine, on the other hand, overexcites our neurological system.
Intoxicants' physiological and psychological alterations have a negative impact on our self-
control and decision-making in all instances. A changed state can lead to the commitment of
crime. Additionally, persons who are addicted to intoxicants may indulge more to criminal
activity in order to support their addiction.
Other Socio-biological factors
Poor diet, impulsivity and hyperactivity, hormones such as testosterone and cortisol, and
environmental contaminants have the potentials to influence a person's biological inclination
for criminal behaviour.
Many psychologists have also given several other reasons behind the criminal activity like the
parenting style, peer-pressure, antisocial effect, poor media coverage, injustice, undesirable
punishment, etc.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I)

State whether the following are True or False
1.) The psychological variables of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours can be measured in
humans. ( )
2.) Poverty is defined as the lack of resources in terms of power or other resources. ( )
3.) Violence is an aggression, that merely is a psychological threat caused by stress. ( )
4s.) Unemployment is not severe problem in our society. ( )

8.6 Social Problems with reference to India

"Social problems" are concerned with social issues that are highly relevant in the places
where we live throughout the country or world. There is no single or simple cause for social
problems. Each problem has a long history and is frequently caused by a combination of
factors. Because social issues are intertwined, they become more serious. Unemployment
and poverty, for instance, are all linked. It is necessary to highlight the main areas of social
problems which are described in detail as follows:

8.6.1 Dowry
Dowry another word is ‘dahej’ is a very common issue in India socities. It refers to the
process of giving , taking and demanding of things, it might be in form of money, assets, item,
material, property or any valuable gifts from the groom by the bride at the time of marriage.
Dowry system has been abolished many times and it became illegal in 1961. Though it is an
offence even then it is openly continuing in many areas. Culture of dowry is highly common
in country, India. This system is affecting on feminist psychological perspective. Dowry has
been found to result in domestic violence against women, dowry deaths, abuse, exploitation,
torture, violent threat and many others. Social psychologist analysis of the dowry system,
flourishes among all social classes, degrading the poor people’s condition. Significantly,
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Areas of Application of families feel insure or think that having a girl child is a burden, so they prefer abortion of girl
Social Psychology child. This is called the social influence of dowry in social situations. Nowadays, dowry is a
prominent feature of social problems area.
The fight against the system of dowry will have to be waged on multiple fronts at the same
time. Though regulation is vital, it will not eradicate dowry, regardless of what deterrent
punishments are imposed on those who demand dowry. The only way to get people's
cooperation is to create public opinion. The public’s support is essential for any social law to
succeed. The evils of dowry can be brought to the people's attention through moral as well as
formal education, which can help to promote social awareness. As we know that, educated
people want greater dowry, it is occasionally for the purpose of continuing their education or
completing their obligations. Youth, on the other hand, should be taught about the value of
new societal values, which can only be achieved through education. The use of mass media
can also be used to bring about a chage in attitudes and such trends.

8.6.2 Caste
Caste is the phenomenon, which entails discrimination on the basis of reputation (class),
status, background of family, culture, rituals, place and economical position. It is the origin
of rigid social small or large group into India’s Hindu society. This has led to declining
of the modernisation in rural areas, it spread notions of impurity and pollution among
the people who live in these areas. People who are facing such discrimination of caste
system are characterised by the taboo, hereditary transmission of lifestyle, endogamy and
is difficult to survive. However, the caste system highly influences mental health and lead
to low self-esteem, low confidence, not getting desirable placement or occupation. It has
been restricted many times in India’s ancient history although it is still persisting in the
present time.

8.6.3 Religion
‘Religion’ has been a signficant aspect in the social psychology of Indian history. Religion
which is also known as ‘dharma’ is determined by the division of God. It comprised mainly
by four basic kinds, Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and Christianity. These all religions are different
on the ways of worship, language, different culture, food, clothing, social environment which
is explicit or implicit and highly effect on our thoughts, feelings and human behaviour. It has
a significant impact on individual’s belief s/he may experience or develop his/her own faith
according to their ancestors. Some social problems are occuring due to different religious
faiths, inequality of gender, diversity accused by society on the basis of religion. For example,
marriage conflicts, child marriage, love marriage, inter-caste marriage, women empowerment,
women education, etc.

8.6.4 Language
Language is a process of meaningful communication used to understand the notion of words
by the usage of sounds, actions, sharing, gestures, written alphabets and showing objects. It
might be verbal, audible or through gestures. It is argued that language and communication
are affected by both social variables and psychological on social behaviour. Language is the
central feature of the human cognition to express feelings, moods, experiences or information
because human need communication for daily living to enhance their relationships in social
situations. Every person has his/her own language since birth that is called thier ‘mother
tongue’ after that wherever she/he goes he need to understand the language of others to
understand the views which can make their life easier throughout the world. So, an individual
person who can speak one or two language are considered to be linguistic or a person who can
speak more than two language are considered to be multi-linguistic. The social psychology
of language (SPL) focuses on the importance of ability to communicate between individuals
and their social world.
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Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I) Application of Social
Psychology to
State whether the following are True or False Social Problems
1.) The another word of dowry is ‘dahej’
2.) Social psychologist anallyse the dowry system.
3.) Caste is not a phenomenon.
4.) Language is a process of meaningful communication.

8.7 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit, the cause of social problems has been described such as poverty, unemployment,
crime and violence. Poor people have to face consequences of poverty such as their
exploitation, dependency, unemployment, health issues, racism, discrimination, numerous
crime, less power and lack of voice. It mainly effects our young generation because they
are searching for job but are unable to get any work. The psychological consequences on
human beings are feeling of depression, insecure, low confidence, agitation or frustration.
Violence is an aggression, a physical threat in the form of abuse, harm, damage, injuries
by physical force or power. It is defined as the ‘attack ‘of an intentional behaviour on
others, reflected by physically, sexually, psychologically and emotional harm. Criminal
psychology is the study which provides the deep information about the intentions, actions
and responses of criminal.
Dowry is the process of giving, taking and demanding things by the groom to the bride
at the time of marriage and it is a prominent feature of social problems area. Religion
plays an important role in society. Some social problems are introduced as inequality of
gender, diversity are accused by society on the basis of religion. For example, marriage
conflicts, child marriage, love marriage, inter-caste marriage, women empowerment,
women education, etc. Language is the central feature of the human cognition to express
feelings, moods, experiences or information because human need communication for daily
living to enhance their relationships in social situations.

8.8. UNIT END QUESTION

1.) How does poverty effects human behaviour?
2.) Briefly describe violence as a social problem.
3.) Explain the causes of criminal behaviour.
4.) Write a short note on the following :
i) Unemployment
ii) Dowry
iii) Caste

8.9. Glossary
Racism: Unfair ways of treating people on the basis of colour complexion, racism.
Recapitulate: A brief description of summary of what has already been said.
Dowry: A small amount of money given by bride’s family.
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Areas of Application of Prominent: An important or famous.
Social Psychology
Criminology: It is the scientific study of crimes.
Burglary: It is an intention to commit a crime.
Agitation: A state of nervousness or anxiety.

8.10 Answers to Self Assessment Questions

SAQI
1) True
2) True
3) True
4) False

SAQ II
1) True
2) True
3) False
4) True

8.11 Suggested Reading and References

Argyle, Michael; Lu, Luo (1990). "The happiness of extraverts". Personality and Individual
Differences. 11 (10): 1011–7. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(90)90128-E.
Ahuja, R. (1997). Social Problems in India. India: Rawat Publications.
Carr, S. C. (2013). Anti-Poverty Psychology. India: Springer New York.
Hodgetts, D. (2019). The SAGE Handbook of Applied Social Psychology. United
Kingdom: SAGE Publications.
Hollin, C. (2006). Criminal Behaviour: A Psychological Approach To Explanation And
Prevention. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.
Jamie A. Gruman, Larry M. Coutts, Frank W. Schneider (2016).Applied Social Psychology:
Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. United States: SAGE
Publications.
Rothengatter, T., Steg, L. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Managing
Social Problems. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Stanley, S. (2004). Social Problems in India. India: Allied Publishers.
Arnett J.J. (2010). Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood. Upper Saddle River,NJ: Prentice
Hall, Pearson.
Bienen, Henry(1968) Violence and Social Change. Chicago and London: The University of
Chicago Press.
Levinson,David(1989). Family Violence in Cross-Cultural Perspective. New Delhi: SAGE
Publications India [Link].
96
Michael A. Hogg, Scott Tindale; Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Group Processes; Application of Social
John Wiley & Sons (2008); p.239; ISBN 047099844X. Psychology to
Social Problems
Prasad, B. K. (2004). Social Problems In India (Set Of 2 Vols.). India: Anmol Publications
Pvt. Limited.
Wilson, E. O. (1979). "The Evolution of Caste Systems in Social Insects". Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society. 123 (4): 204–210. JSTOR 986579.

Online References
[Link]
[Link]/pmc/articles/PMC3662280
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
abuse-and-addiction/

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 UNIT- 9 Application of Social Psychology
to Health and Well-Being *

Structure
9.0 Objectives

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Biopsychosocial Model

9.2.1 Factors of health and well being

[Link] Social Variables

[Link] Health Promotion

[Link] Prevention of Illness

9.3 Health-Belief Model

9.3.1 Stress

9.3.2 Coping

9.3.3 Social Support

9.4 Stress

9.4.1 Coping

9.4.2 Social Support

9.5 Let Us Sum Up

9.6 Unit End Questions

9.7 Glossary

9.8 Answers to Self Assessment Questions

9.9 Suggested ReadingsandReferences

9.0 Objectives

After reading this unit, you will be able to:

● Describe the biopsychosocial model;

● Explain the concept of health promotion and prevention of illness;

● Discuss the health belief model; and

● Elucidate the ways to cope with stress.

* Ms Preeti Sehrawat, Psychologist, Delhi

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9.1 Introduction Application of Social
Psychology to Health
and Well-Being
Health is a state of physical fitness but well-being is a state of living a life which includes
physical, mental and social states. Well-being is also as important as health. Psychological
well-being is a feeling of happiness, high life satisfaction, self-realisation and positive mental
health. Consequently, feelings of satisfaction and physical fitness emphasise on the good
quality of life. The positive influence of good quality of life includes happiness and to complete
life’s challenges in a positive direction while the negative effect involves mood swings, fear,
anxiety, nervousness, anger, stress, awful and not able to sustain healthier lifestyle and
unable to maintain good social relationships. Health psychology is the study of psychological
knowledge, and the management of physical as well as mental illness and disorders. Human
welfare is considered to address the physical conditions rather than emotional and psychological
situations. Researchers emphasized on health and illness to optimize effectiveness; health
psychology is the central concept of human behaviour knowledge and is influenced by settings
like institution, schools, hospital. The health professionals analyse the level of health and its
measurement; how a person can think, behave and influence on their health; comorbidity of
physical distress; and how can physical illness be prevented by motivation and counselling
and other implications. The following topics may find useful to introduce the interest of health
psychology: stress; physical health is also influenced by the chronic stress or anxiety; indulge
the psychological responses to acute stress. Frequently, it is argued that behavioural process is
the important outcomes of the assessment of the psychological and behavioural consequences
because it is one the major influence on the effectiveness of health. For each person, quality of
life is the concept of good life, physical therapists that plays an important role to decrease the
physiological stress, safe maintenance of patient and family, take the step towards the better
health performance evaluated through physical therapy intervention. The present unit will
discuss the applications of social psychology to health and well-being.

9.2 Biopsychosocial Model

The Biopsychosocial Model (BPS) comprises of three words, ‘Bio’ means physiology,
‘Psycho’ means psychological distress, ‘Social’ means sociology. The model was derived
by George L. Engel in 1977 on the multifaceted thinking. The Biopsychosocial Model
proposes that interactions in the area, social-environmental, biological and psychological
factors lead to mental health. The Biopsychosocial model can be seen at the figure of 9.1.

Box 9.1: Biopsychosocial Model

• According to biological, the model specifies the physical health, genetic
vulnerabilities, and disability that involves human’s behaviour, drug effects,
temperament, IQ.
• According to Social-environmental, the model specifies the drug effects, family
relationships, trauma, peers, family circumstances and school.
• According to psychological, the model specifies the temperament, IQ, self-
esteem, family relationships, trauma, coping skills and social skills.

Fig. 9.1 : Biopsychosocial Model

The biopsychosocial model argues that no one element is sufficient; rather, it is the interaction
of people's genetic makeup, mental health and behaviour, as well as social and cultural context
that determines their health-related results:

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Areas of Application of Biological influences on health: The genetic makeup of an individual, as well as history of
Social Psychology physical trauma or infection, are biological impacts on health. Many diseases are caused by
a hereditary vulnerability. As per the recent research, there is a risk factor for the offsprings
also suffer from schizophrrenia, if their parents have it. If one parent is affected, the risk
is approximately 13%; if both parents are suffering from it then, the risk is nearly 50%. It
is undeniable that genetics play a part in the development of schizophrenia, but it is also
undeniable that other influencing variables must be at play. In people with a pre-existing
genetic risk and some environmental factors influence the disorder's expression.
Psychological Influences on Health
The biopsychosocial model’s psychological component explains the psychological
foundation for a specific symptom or set of symptoms (e.g., impulsivity, irritability,
overwhelming sadness, etc.). Individuals with a genetic vulnerability may be more inclined
to engage in negative thinking, placing them at risk for depression; on the other hand,
psychological variables may compound a biological tendency by exposing a genetically
sensitive individual to other risk behaviours. For instance, Depression may not cause liver
damage on its own, but a person with depression is more likely to abuse alcohol and, as a
result, develop liver damage. Increased risk-taking is linked to a higher risk of disease.
Social Influences on Health
Socioeconomic status, culture, technology, and religion are all social variables. Losing
a job or quitting a romantic engagement, for example, might result in stress. Such life
circumstances may predispose a person to depression, which can lead to physical health
issues. In psychological disorders such as anorexia nervosa, the impact of social variables
is well understood (a disorder characterised by excessive and purposeful weight loss despite
evidence of low body weight). The fashion industry and the media promote an unhealthy
standard of beauty that places a trend to maintain physical fitness which risks the physical
health. Despite the apparent health hazards, this creates social pressure to achieve this
"ideal" body image.
Cultural influences are also included in the social sphere. Distinct cultural groups, have
different prevalence rates and symptom expression of diseases due to variances in their
circumstances, expectations, and belief systems. Anorexia, for example, is less common in
non-western societies because they place less importance on women's slim figure.
Culture can have significant influence throughout a narrow geographic range, such as from
low-income to high-income places, so the disease and illness ranges or vary accordingly. As
epigenetics research is beginning to reveal, culture may even modify biology. Epigenetics
research, in particular, reveals that the environment can change a person's genetic makeup.
For example, Individuals exposed to overcrowding and poverty, are more likely to acquire
depression, according to studies, with genuine genetic changes emerging over only a single
generation.

Fig. 9.2: Diagram of the Biopsychosocial model

Source: [Link]
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9.2.1 Factors of Health and Wellbeing Application of Social
Psychology to Health and
There are certain factors that can actively support the health and well being of humans. They Well-Being
play a large role at the domains of health as to promote the development of health and protect
against mental health problems and physical problems. There is a requirement to create
awareness to enhance the positive well being from an early age, like getting education and
qualifications to enhance their role in staying healthier life for long. Poor knowledge or low
source of resources can have a huge impact on wellbeing and create the health conditions
worse. Like, insufficient food and over eating or over dieting can have an big effect on
humans health and inability to feel energetic or find difficulties to perform the physical tasks
and hard working to handle the health related problems. Therefore, it is necessary to focus
in the circumstance and the situations to find out the problem, which effect on health and
wellbeing prospectus and how to tackle the situations or how to reduce it. Let us now discuss
the factors contributing to the performance level of the health and in the state of well-being.

[Link] Social Variables

The components or elements that influence health outcomes are known as social variables of
health . They are the circumstances in which people are born, grow, work, live, and age, as
well as the larger set of factors and institutions that shape our daily life conditions. Economic
policies and systems, development objectives, social norms, social policies, and political
systems are examples of these forces and systems.
The social variables have a significant impact on health inequalities, which can be unjust
and avoidable disparities in health status that exist within and between countries. Health and
sickness follow a social gradient in countries of all income levels: the lower the socioeconomic
status, the poorer the health.
The following are some examples of socioeconomic determinants of health that can have a
good or negative impact on health equity:
● Income and social protection
● Education
● Unemployment and job insecurity
● Working life conditions
● Food insecurity
● Housing, basic amenities and the environment
● Early childhood development
● Social inclusion and non-discrimination
● Structural conflict
● Access to affordable health services of decent quality.

[Link] Health Promotion

Health promotion is an activity to create awareness about the mental health problems,
their consequences, symptoms, causes and treatment. The aim of the health promotion is
to encourage healthy lifestyles, proper dietary, support and wellbeing. It has three main
strategies to follow:
1) To enable the health problem: This strategy consist of the social activities that can build
or enable the factors for enhancing health and to support the positive attitude towards
the health promotion activities.
2) Mediate the health promotion: This strategy integrates the complex health determinants
such as, behavioural condition, risk factors of diseases, strengthen community action,
healthy population, etc. together:
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Areas of Application of 3) Enhance the health promotion: This strategy advocates the implementation of the
Social Psychology financial investment in the multiple sectors, such as in schools, colleges, offices,
home, markets or local area to operate in that place where people live.

[Link] Prevention of Illness

From infancy to the last stage of human’s life process, mental health plays the vital role in
our life. Here the question is that why a person gets ill? Answer is merely one: a person is
not aware about the preventive ways of illness. It is very important to discuss some points to
reduce psychological distress and others health issues or to improve the human functioning to
restrict premature death, mental health issues, heredity diseases, etc. Prevention that has to be
taken in three basic levels such as,
● Primary prevention aims to reduce the risks of development of diseases. For example,
vaccinations for infection, medicine, the use of hand cleaner, toothpaste, etc.
● Secondary prevention aims to focus on and early symptoms, and detection of diseases.
By doing diagnostic testing, a person can minimize the complications to worsening of
the diseases. For example, psychological interventions, screening for cancer (breast
and cervical).
● Tertiary prevention aims to minimize the negative complications that impact through
implementation of the restoring function. For example, replacement of teeth, implants,
or the insulin therapy for the disease like diabetes (Type-II).

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I )

State whether the following ‘True’ or ‘False’
1) Health is a state of physical fitness. ( )
2) The Biopsychosocial Model (BPS) comprises of two words. ( )
3) Health promotion is an activity to create awareness about the mental health problems.

( )
4) Primary prevention aims to reduce risk of development of diseases. ( )

9.3 Health Belief Model

The Health Belief Model (HBM) was designed by social psychologists Hochbam, Rosenstock,
and others psychologists in 1950’s working in the U.S Public Health Service to detect illness.
The Health-Belief Model (HBM) is a scientfic tool, by using this many researchers and
scientists can predict the behaviours of an individual. It might be considered as the personal
threat of a disease or also the prediction of an illness. It is a human nature to not to not take
any preventive steps unless they perceive the impact of not taking any prevention of illness or
precaution of health. The person’s belief to the willingness to take the serious action towards
the acquiring risk of diseases like, to use a ‘condom’ to prevent from the HIV infection (AIDS),
to avoid ciggerette smoking to stop from the lung cancer, getting vaccinated for infection, etc.
The following are the HBM constructs are hypothesized to assume, perceive, prevent, screen
and control health situations.
● Personal charcterstics, such as sex, age, etnicity, self-efficency, benefits, and barriers.
● Perceived barriers refers to the belief of negative aspects of health action.
● Perceived susceptibility of health condition, severity of a health condition and
susceptibility includibg the ‘perceived threat’ may infuence our control towards health
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 situation. Application of Social
● Perceived benefits assists to reduce the threats of health and behaviour. Psychology to Health and
Well-Being
● Self- efficacy influences and supports the behavioural change of perceived benefits and
decrease the perceived barriers.
● Cues in the environment problem action and on human’s mentality or thaught processes
also control our health situations.

Box 9.2: Limitations of Health Belief Model

The HBM has a number of limitations that restrict its utility in psychology. The following
are some of the model's limitations:
• It ignores a person's views, beliefs, or other personal characteristics that
influence their willingness to participate in a health activity.
• It does not take into consideration about our habitual behaviours, which could
influence whether or not to accept a recommended action (e.g., smoking).
• It does not account for activities that are carried out for reasons other than
health, such as social acceptance.
• It does not take into consideration about the environmental or economic
factors that would make the recommended action impossible or beneficial.
• It is presumptively assumed that everyone has equal access to information
about the condition or disease.
• It believes that cues to action are extensively used to encourage people to
act, and that the primary purpose of the decision-making process is to take
"healthy" choices.
The HBM is a descriptive rather than an explanatory model, and it makes no recommendations
for how to change health-related behaviours. Early research found that perceived
susceptibility, advantages, and barriers were consistently related with the desired health
activity in preventive health activities; perceived severity was less frequently connected
with the desired health behaviour. Individual constructs are beneficial depending on the
health result of interest, but the model should be integrated with other models that account
for the environmental context and recommend change strategies for the most effective use
of the model.

Fig. 9.3: Limitations of Health Belief Model

9.4 Stress
Stress is a kind of negative emotion or a feeling of pressure not in the favour of health and
well-being. It is the human’s response; these can be the physical, mental and emotional
response to express the mental signs and symptoms. Stress is a negative trait, so it needs to be
decreased. Stress is a threat or major challenge that triggers fight-or-flight response. It leads
to negative effect on human’s health because most of the time all humans feel stressed at
times, sometimes stress may be temporary and sometimes it may be permanent. Biologically,
when humans feel threat, the hypothalamus at the base of human brain reacts and sends nerve
and hormone signals to human adrenal glands, which release hormones. One of hormones of
adrenaline is fight-or-flight hormone. The symptoms shown after release of this harmone are
103
Areas of Application of increased heartbeat, breathing rate, use of glucose for muscles. In contrast, adrenaline surges
Social Psychology can cause damaged blood vessels, blood pressure problems, risk of heart attack, worries,
anxiety, insomnia, overweight, type 2 diabetes, less energy, sleeping disorder, memory
problems, weak immune system, osteoporosis and others infections. According to American
Psychological Association, there are three types of stress:
● Acute Stress : It is a feeling of current pressure, triggered sense of emergency or
counter attack. It exist for a shorter period of time. For example, the symptoms such as
anxiety, headache, sadness or irritation.
● Episodic acute stress : It is a state of tension experienced as mini-crises (stress that
occurs at frequent intervals or bouto) that can contribute to serious diseases, and risk of
overburd on. For example: heart illness, over eating, over work.
● Chronic stress : It is a state of feeling pressured and stressed for over a longer period of
time; years. Chronic stress is a serious mental health problem which is beyond human’s
control. It is the situation where it is difficult to reduce or feel more compassion,
unsympathetic or nearly impossible to overcome from it. For example, childhood
trauma, racism, poverty, death, war and accident. Though it can be reduced with the
help of life style changes,medications and setting of realistic goals. Now let us discuss
the ways of reducing stress, that is, how to cope up with stress.

9.4.1 Coping
Coping refers to the mechanisms to adaptive coping skills or coping strategies which reduce
stress. In the case of coping, a human behaviour to deal with his/her own demands; significantly
during threats, stress and physical danger, perceive it negative effects of stress, internally or
externally. It aims to work as a ‘defence mechanisms’ and to neutralize the negative effects
of stress, on the person, or his/her environment by controlling the personality traits (habitual)
or the socio-cultural situations. Coping responses may change over time and it can be applied
as per the demands of the situation. Greater psychological distress are associated with less
effective coping styles. A better education or awareness can help to promote effective coping
and performance. Coping is therefore, to manage, to deal particularly in a condition when a
person is unaware of the condition. For example, a person suffering from depression; who is
coping up with the behaviour would be an internal demand, when a person is facing the fear
of losing his/her job; the coping behaviour would be an external demand. A coping strategy is
identified by using these three following styles:
● Task oriented style: It involves doing efforts towards the solving of problem. For
example, priorities, seeking information.
● Emotional oriented style: It involves emotions reactions, feelings and affections. For
example, helplessness, self blame and frustration are few of the emotional ways of coping.
● Negligence oriented style: It involves stressful conditions and distracted situations.
For example, avoidance, threatening and escaping from stimuli are the negative styles
of coping.

9.4.2 Social Support

Social support is the attachment of an individual with their special one’s, family, friends,
relatives, society, and others. Socialisation is an essential aspect of human’s life. Sometimes,
we need a person who can support or provide proper guidance to us in our difficult or
stressfull situations. Persons who have more social support tend to experience minor
tension or stress, and feel more powerful or strong rather than those who have very low
levels of social support. Person seeks more advice by social circle related to personal life,
professional field, academy level, medical conditions and psychological support. Social
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support is beneficial for wellbeing as it motivates, individual to deal with the critical Application of Social
situations of life. The effect of social support has been found to be valuable, providing sense Psychology to Health and
of attachment and to have greater wellbeing. The positive assistance has been linked with Well-Being
a network of family, friends, co-worker and others. Nowadays, mainly social support are
demanding of online social support groups, it involves the characteristics of social group
from anywhere in the world, use of time management, spend quality time without going to
anywhere and find suitable company from any age of group. According to psychologists,
social support helps to reduce psychological distress, or plays a positive role in health and
well-being of humans. Being supported means to get care, emotional attachment, maintain
relationships, healthy conversation, openness or reassurance of trust and more concerned.
In general, it refers to cope up effectively with the crisis or against adverse complex issues.
Basically, social support has five categories:
Informative such as advice, suggestion or to provide guidelines and other important
information.
Esteem such as appraisal, nurturance or close warmth.
Emotional support such as spend time, love and affection or caring.
Social networking support such as assistance via social post in face book, twitter or other
sites.
Tangible support such as materialistic like good and services or financially aid.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)

State whether the following ‘True’ or ‘False’
i) The Health Belief Model (HBM) was designed by social psychologists in 1950’s. ( )
ii) Stress is a threat or major challenge that triggers fight-or-flight response. ( )
iii) Coping refers to mechanisms to adaptive coping skills or coping strategies, which
increase stress. ( )
iv) Greater psychological distress is associated with high effective coping styles. ( )

9.5 Let Us Sum Up

In this unit, it was discussed that health is a state of physical fitness and well-being and is a
state of living a life which includes physical, mental and social resources. The Biopsychosocial
Model proposes that interactions in the areas of social-environmental, biological and
psychological factors lead to mental health. There are factors that can reduce the effect
of stress on health and well-being are social veriable, health promotion and prevention of
illness. The Health-Belief Model (HBM) is a scientfic tool, by using this many researchers
and scientists can predict the behaviours of individuals. Stress is a kind of negative emotion
or a feeling of pressure not in the favour of health and well-being. It is the human’s response;
these can be the physical, mental and emotional response to express the mental signs and
symptoms. According to American Psychological Association, there are three types of stress:
acute, episodic acute and chronic stress. In the case of coping, a human behaviour tries to
deal with his/her own demands; significantly in threats and physical danger, and perceive it
as an internally or externally. It aims to work as ‘defence mechanisms’ and neutralizes the
effectiveness of stress on the person, or his/her environment by controlling the personality
traits. According to psychologists, social support helps to reduce psychological distress, or
plays positive role in health and well-being of humans. Being supportive means to get care,
emotional attachment, maintain relationships, healthy conversation, openness or reassurance
of trust and more concerned. Person with high levels in social support situations may
105
Areas of Application of experience minor tension or stress, and feel more powerful or strong rather than those who
Social Psychology have very low levels of social support. Now days, mainly social support are demanding of
online social support groups, it involves the characteristics of social group from anywhere
in the world, use of time management, spend quality time without going anywhere and find
suitable company from any age of group.

9.6 Unit End Questions

1) Describe the biopsychosocial model.

2) Discuss the factors of health and well-being.
3) Differentiate between biopsychosocial or and health belief model.
4) Explain the term "stress."
5) List the various stretegies of dealing with stress.

9.7 GLOSSARY
Biopsychosocial: Having biological, psychological and social characteristics
Coping: Its refers to mechanisms to adaptive coping skills or coping strategies which reduce
stress
Neutralize: It is something ineffective.
Trauma: A deeply distressing experience.
Stress: Stress is a kind of negative emotions or a feeling of pressure not in the favour of health
and well-being.
Vaccinated: It isVaccine to produce against disease.
Worsening: Disgusting situation

9.8 Answers to Self Assessment Questions

SAQI
1) True
2) False
3) True
4) False

SAQII
1) True
2) False
3) False
4) False

106
9.9 Suggested Readings and references Application of Social
Psychology to Health and
Well-Being
Campbell, W. H., Rohrbaugh, R. M. (2013). The Biopsychosocial Formulation Manual: A
Guide for Mental Health Professionals. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.
Glanz, Karen; Bishop, Donald B. (2010). "The role of behavioural science theory in
development and implementation of public health interventions". Annual Review of Public
Health. 31: 399–418. doi:10.1146/[Link].012809.103604. PMID 20070207.
Rothengatter, T., Steg, L. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Managing
Social Problems. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Reference
Arneson, R. J. 1999. “Human Flourishing versus Desire Satisfaction.” Social Philosophy and
Policy 16: 113–42..
Crisp, R. 2006. “Hedonism Reconsidered.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 73
(3): 619–45.
Diener, E. 1984. “Subjective Well-Being.” Psychological Bulletin 95 (3): 542–75.
Schwarzer, Ralf (April 2001). "Social-Cognitive Factors in Changing Health-Related
Behaviours". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 10 (2): 47–51. doi:10.1111/1467-
8721.00112.
Weiten, W. & Lloyd, M.A. (2008) Psychology Applied to Modern Life (9th ed.).
WadsworthCengage Learning. ISBN 0-495-55339-5.
Snyder, C.R. (ed.) (1999) Coping: The Psychology of What Works. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-511934-7.
Vaux, A. (1988). Social Support: Theory, Research and Interventions. My, NY: Praeger.

Online references
[Link]
[Link]

107
 UNIT- 10 APPLICATION OF SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY TO MENTAL HEALTH-I*

Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Mental Health Problems
10.2.1 Symptoms of Mental Health Problems
10.2.2 Diagnosis of Mental Health Problems
[Link] Socio-cultural and Economical Factors in Diagnosis
[Link].1 Socio-Culture Factors
[Link].2 Economical Factors
10.3 Psychological Tests for Assessment of Mental Health Problems
10.4 Counselling Techniques
10.5 Let Us Sum Up
10.6 Unit End Question
10.7 Glossary
10.8 Answer to Self-Assessment Questions
10.9 Suggested Reading and References

10.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you would be able to:
● Describe mental health problems;
● Elucidate upon the socio cultural and economic factors involved in diagnosis of mental
health problems;
● Elaborate upon the various psychological tests developed to assess the mental health
problems; and
● Discuss the techniques of counseling.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Mental health is the well-being of psychological, emotional and social conditions. It influences
the human behaviour, thoughts and responses. Positive mental health is the way to stay positive,
physically active with full potential and be stress free. Mental health states the self-efficacy,
absence of mental illness, the quality of life, being able to enjoy life, coping with stress and
living a healthier lifestyle. Mental health is very important for enhancing the psychological
condition of a person, including their behaviour, mood, thoughts and feelings. Few of the
examples of mental health problems are feeling of loneliness, sadness, distress, suicidal
tendency, self-injury, death of close ones, break up, failure of relationships, learning disability

* Ms Preeti Sehrawat, Psychologist, Delhi

108
and other mental illnesses. According to psychologists, there are several causes of mental Application of Social
health problems, mainly divided into three categories; psychological effects, environmental Psychology to Mental
Health-Iapplication of
and social effects. These problems can be managed by social psychologists, psychiatrists, Social Psychology to
social workers and other physicians by conducting seminars, personal counselling, medication Mental Health-I
and therapy.
In this Unit, we will learn about mental health problems and we will try to understand
the symptoms related to mental health problems. We will also discuss about the various
psychological tests developed to assess the mental problems. By the end of this unit, you will
be able to acquaint yourself with basic knowledge of counselling techniques.

10.2 MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS

Mental health problem is described the psychological condition of person including the
behaviour, mood, thoughts and feelings. Poor mental health is associated with stress and
improper function of brain or human’s behaviour and thoughts. Mental health problem is
usually defined as poor condition of health or the worse condition of mental and emotional
state of a person. Mental health problems can be reflected as feeling of loneliness, sad,
distress, suicidal tendency, self-injury, death of close ones, break up, failure of relationships,
panic attacks, depression, hypomania or mania, phobias, learning disability and other mental
illness. Usually, three basic factors contributes to the mental illness, including:
● Biological factors; heredity, endocrine imbalances, malnutrition and injuries.
● Personal experiences; trauma of life events,childhood abuse, social isolation or
loneliness.
● Family history; having mental disorder and death of a parent.

10.2.1 Symptoms of Mental Health Problem

Each type of mental health problem has a different type of symptoms. Some symptom can be
seen as early warning signs, such as eating too much or little, unusual activities, upset, worry,
loneliness, self-harm thoughts, etc. Drastic changes occur in thoughts, behaviour, and mood
swings. These changes can be sudden or simultaneously over a long period of time.
Here are few of the main symptoms of mental illness:
● Anxiety: worries and excessive fear;
● Depression: severe grief mood;
● Bizarre thoughts;
● Suicidal thoughts or attempting the suicide;
● Lack of motivation;
● Hopelessness or worthlessness;
● Not taking care of personal health care;
● Uses of drugs;
● Not able to live healthier lifestyle;
● Delusion: false beliefs;
● Hearing voices which is not real;
● Seeing the person who is not into reality;
● Fighting or yelling on others;
● Self harm or injure own self and others.
109
Areas of Application of The symptoms are generally defined into two groups called ‘neurotic; and ‘psychotic’.
Social Psychology Neurotic symptoms are a kind of emotional experiences, which are commonly known such as
depression, panic attacks and mood disorder.
Psychotic symptom is a kind of severe abnormal behaviour, that includes absence of proper
functioning, poor connection with reality such as hallucinations including hearing, smelling,
sensations, seeing any person or object, unusual thoughts, irrelevant talk or beliefs.

10.2.2 Diagnosis of Mental Health Problems

Diagnosis is a systematical process of determining the complications of diseases. Diagnosis
of mental heath problems can be done by the following ways:
● Diagnostic Assessment: Psychologists and Psychiatric doctors are capable to take the
patients’ history, symptoms, analysis of condition of health or identify the problems,
which may be the cause of the symptoms.
● Psychological Tests: Screening is the necessary step to diagnose the diseases to identify
the early sign as well as symptoms of mental health problems. The psychological/
psychometric test helps in diagnosing such problems. A psychometric test or
psychological test includes tests of cognition level, Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests,
personality traits performance of the aptitude and so on.
● Psychological Interventions: Once the psychological problem is diagnosed, the
psychologists try to intervene in the mental health conditions of the patients with the
help of therapies, while the psychiatrists intervene with the help of medication as well.

[Link] Socio-Culture And Economical Factors In Diagnosis

While diagnosing the mental health conditions of the patients, there are several socio-
cultural as well as economic factors involved. Let us discuss about both the factors one by
one:

[Link].1 Socio-Culture Factors

Socio-culture is the framework, which focuses on understanding the human behaviour with
reference to their interaction with the environment. Every individual lives within the frame
of a cultural context to emphasize, to recognize, or share important universal needs like eating
habits, sleeping pattern the frame of, personal hygiene or atmosphere, developing and dying.
The social psychologists tries to understand the family history and his/her society history, it
is therefore, there is high influence of socio- culture context on his/her health, behaviour and
thoughts. The culture belief examines the impact of social issues on human’s health and his/
her diseases.
Generally, humans are so much influenced by their social context, that they follow their
guidance without any doubt. For example, having a minor headache, a person gets medicine
suggested by their family or others. The collaboration with the society or culture is highly
recommended for the development of the early stage symptoms or illness. The reason for
such actions are lack of knowledge, dependency on other’s beliefs, early cases of recovery of
health without doctor’s consultation in society and lack of awareness.

[Link].2 Economical Factor

The economic factor challenges to the global mental health includes poverty, loan, debt
and various other health conditions. Economic research emphasise on price-effective
interventions and social psychologists emphasise on mental health services. Mental health
110
problems impose an important economic burden, not just on the patient but also influence Application of Social
on communities, households activities, family members, employers, workers, healthcare Psychology to Mental
systems, medical facilities, transportation cost; private budgets and government budgets. The Health-Iapplication of
Social Psychology to
need to strengthen into wide primary care-led services; the role of health specialist services Mental Health-I
are limited to improve the mental health policy and national mechanisms access to services.
Cost on mental disorders are likely to be conservative by interfering with the human’s
capability to perform in either paid or non-income roles. Thus, person who are surviving
with mental health problems often suffer from financial problems as they to spend much of
their savings and borrow money to purchase regular medicines and transportation facilities
to access the treatment. There is an abundant research on financial burden of mental health
patients in high-income countries but on the other hand the countries who have low and
middle –income can lead the consequences of poor mental health and limited resources of
treatment. During mental disorder crises, children in some low-income countries may be
dropouts from school.

Self-Assessment Questions 1
Fill in the blanks:
1) ................................ mental health is the way to stay positive, physically active with
full potential and remain stress free.
2) Poor mental health is associated with stress and ............................. function of brain or
human’s behaviour and thoughts.
3) Some symptoms can be seen as ................................ warning signs.
4) Symptoms are generally categorised into two groups called .............. and ...................
5) The social psychologist tries to know the .................. or related to his/her societal
history.

10.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS FOR ASSESSMENT OF

MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
Psychological testing is the evaluation a sample of human’s behaviour and their level of task
performance with the help of standardized test which reflect a psychological construct. These
test remain the cognition level, IQ, personality or emotions level, etc. The psychological tests
are based on psychometrics science, and are designed to measure unobserved constructs,
these tests must be valid and reliable. It varies from a series of tasks by using paper and
pencil, checking multiple sources such as normal behaviour and abnormality, intellectual or
low IQ and the process of achievement, the functioning of mind, body and cognition.
There are particularly nine types of psychological tests:
● Intelligence test: There are various intelligence tests which are used to assess the
level of intelligence among individuals. For example, Binnet Intelligence scales and
Weschler’s scales of Intelligence.
● Personality tests: The personality tests are used to assess the level of traits, qualities and
characteristics of individuals. Projective tests help the psychologists to reveal the inner
thought of the individuals. For example, Thematic Apperception Test.
● Vocational tests: Several vocational tests help in identifying the suitable career as per
the interest of the individuals. It has been found that a mismatch of the interest and
111
Areas of Application of career opted by the interests leads to inner conflict among individuals. For example,
Social Psychology Differential Aptitude Test.
● Achievement tests: The achievement tests helps to analyse the motivation level among
individuals to achieve something. For example, Deo Mohan Achievement Test.
● Attitude tests: The attitude tests helps in assessing the attitude, value and belief of
individuals. For example, Draw A Person Test.
● Neuropsychological tests: The neuropsychological tests helps in assessing the
functioning of the brain (cognitive functioning) among the individuals. For example-
AIIMS Neuropsychological Battery.
● Emotional Intelligence Tests: The emotional intelligence test helps in analysing the
level of handling of emotions among individual. For example, The Trait Emotional
Intelligence Questionairre.

10.4 COUNSELLING TECHNIQUE

Counselling is the technique to provide the guidance, encouragement, sharing, discussion
and communication in a professional way among individuals. It is the process to build the
relationships with individual by utilising the personal interview, assessment, intervention and
attitude test. It is not about advising, it is the potential to regain the client’s wellbeing, his/her
confidence, or his/her strength. It significantly contributes to the people who are stressed and
are unable to perform any regular work or face unstable condition to live a healthier lifestyle.
It is a short time treatment and may be depend on the severity of problems. The purpose of
counselling, where counsellor should behave like a friend is to affect the client’s behaviour.
Through this process, the counsellor needs to reduce the stress, anxiety, or other problems
among client; so that they bring their client back to their normal life.
These counsellor provide their services and help the clients who are facing problems like
relationship issues, addiction, minority, racism complex, gender issue, aggression, poor
concentration, low confidence, trauma, death of close ones, love, breakups, family, social
problems, marriage issues, career goals, workplace problems, etc. While having any of these
kind of problems person need to speak to someone, not feel ashamed or embarassed to go for
counselling sessions.
So, therefore it’s a collaborative relationship between the counsellor and their client.
There are various types of professional counselling like.
● Individual counselling is a well-known kind of counselling that focus on the
individual’s regular mental health problems.
● Couple or marriage counselling is a teecchnique to the assess and build strong
relationship to reduce the conflict among married couples.
● Family counselling is a technique having main priority to improve family connections
or to overcome family stress which influences the mental health problems of family
members.
● Group counselling is a form of counselling which is to recreate the image of a person
with their peer group, family and friends, because they all are already aware of the
client’s behaviour.

Self-Assessment Questions II
State whether the following statement ‘true’ or ‘false’
1) Psychological testing is used for evaluation human’s behaviour. ( )

112
2) Family counselling focuses on the individual’s regular mental health problem. ( ) Application of Social
Psychology to Mental
3) Treatment is the technique to provide the guidance, encouragement, sharing, discussion Health-Iapplication of
and communication in a professional way. ( ) Social Psychology to
Mental Health-Iv
4) The neuropsychological tests are used to assess the traits, qualities and characteristics
of individuals. ( )

10.5 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up that mental health is the well-being of psychological, emotional and social
conditions of human beings. It influences person’s behaviour, thoughts and response. Positive
mental health is the way to stay positive, physically active with full potential had remain
stress free. Mental health represents the self-efficacy, absence of mental illness, the quality of
life, to able to enjoy the life, coping with stress and living healthier lifestyle. Mental health is
very important to enhance the psychological condition of person including their behaviour,
mood and thoughts or feelings. Mental health problems include feeling of loneliness, sad,
distress, suicidal tendency, self-injury, death of close ones, break up, failure of relationships,
learning disability and other mental illness. Poor mental health is associated with stress and
improper function of brain or human’s behaviour and thoughts. Mental health problem is
usually defined as poor condition of health or the worse condition of mental and emotional
state of a person. Each type of mental health problem has a different type of symptom.
Some symptoms can be seen as an early warning signs such as eating too much or little,
unusual activities, upset, worry, lonely, self-harm thoughts, etc. Most important symptoms are
generally defined into two groups called ‘neurotic; and ‘psychotic’. Neurotic symptoms are a
kind of emotional experiences, which are commonly known such as depression, panic attacks
and mood disorder. Psychotic sympotoms involve severe abnormal behaviour and improper
functioning of brain.
Diagnosis is a systematic process to determine the complications of diseases, diagnostic, lab
or psychological interventions. Psychological testing is the evaluation of a human’s behaviour
and their capacity to perform their task by scoring well, in the standardised tests which reflect
a psychological construct.
We also studied about the purpose of counselling, where counsellor should behave like a
friend, and councelling it affects the client’s behaviour. Through this process, the counsellor
needs to reduce the stress, anxiety, or other problems. It is considered that human brain is
strong but it has some limitation.

10.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Describe the concept of mental health and its symptoms.
2) Explain main factors involved in diagnosis of mental health problems.
3) Discuss the various psychological tests and techniques of counselling.

10.7 GLOSSARY
Hazardous: A dangerous situation.
Stimulants: A substance that raises the level of physiological and nervous activity.
Peaceful: It is a calmness situation.
Assessing: To obtain some information.
113
Areas of Application of Voluntary: An activity done by own decision.
Social Psychology Neurotic: It is one of a variety of mental disorders in personality traits.
Psychotic: It is characterised by an impaired relationship with reality.

10.8 ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Self-Assessment Questions 1
1. Positive
2. Improper
3. Early
4. Neurotic; psychotic
5. Family history

Self-Assessment Questions 2
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. False

10.9 SUGGESTED READING AND REFERENCES

Arneson, R. J. 1999. “Human Flourishing versus Desire Satisfaction.” Social Philosophy and
Policy 16: 113–42..
Crisp, R. 2006. “Hedonism Reconsidered.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 73
(3): 619–45.
Diener, E. 1984. “Subjective Well-Being.” Psychological Bulletin 95 (3): 542–75.
Schwarzer, Ralf (April 2001). “Social-Cognitive Factors in Changing Health-Related
Behaviours”. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 10 (2): 47–51. doi:10.1111/1467-
8721.00112.
Weiten, W. & Lloyd, M.A. (2008) Psychology Applied to Modern Life (9th ed.).
WadsworthCengage Learning. ISBN 0-495-55339-5.
Snyder, C.R. (ed.) (1999) Coping: The Psychology of What Works. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-511934-7.
Vaux, A. (1988). Social Support: Theory, Research and Interventions. My, NY: Praeger.

Online references
[Link]
[Link]

114
UNIT-11 APPLICATION OF SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY TO MENTAL HEALTH-II
Structure:
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biases in Clinical Decision Making
11.3 Treatment and Prevention of Mental Health Problems
11.3.1 Psychotherapy
11.3.2 Meditation
11.3.3 Self Help Plan
11.3.4 Hospitalisation
11.3.5 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
11.3.6 Community Based Treatment
11.3.2 Prevention of Mental Health Problem
[Link] Parenting
[Link] Mental Silence Meditation
11.4 Let Us Sum Up
11.5 Unit End Questions
11.6 Glossary
11.7 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
11.8 Suggested Readings and References

11.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
● Describe the biases involved in clinical decision making;
● Discuss the different ways of treating the mental health problems; and
● Explain the different ways of preventing mental health.

11.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you were already acquainted with some of mental health problems,
socio-cultural and economic factors in diagnosis, psychological test for mental health
problems and counselling techniques. This unit will introduce the biases in clinical decision-
making and treatment and prevention of mental health problem. It will also provide details
of psychotherapy, meditation, self-help plan, hospitalisation, parenting, pre-emptive CBT
and mental silence meditation.

* Ms Preeti Sehrawat, Psychologist, Delhi

115
Areas of Application of 11.2 Biases in Clinical Decision-Making
Social Psychology

A cognitive bias is a type of error where psychologists misinterpret the source of knowledge
or imformation about the lients personal environment. conditions. It is considered that
human brain is strong but it has some limitations, in context simplify processing of the
information. So, cognitive bias helps to reach on decision making at relative speed. In
clinical practice, cognitive bias is described as an affective bias, where it involves with
client (patient) interfering with decision making situation at an emotional stage. Cognitive
bias affects decision making process and thinking or life events as well. It may be called
“first impression bias”, where we conclude on the basis of our biases; and form opinions,
and then it is hard to consider further options or alternatives. Usually, people get distressed
or take immediate decisions.

11.3 Treatment and Prevention of Mental

Health ProblemS
Mental health problems consists of a combination of emotional, behavioural, and cognition
components. A person who are marked primarily by disorganization of thoughts, feelings,
emotions, minds or personality, indicate towards the abnormal condition or such mental health
problems of patients impair of the normal social functioning in environment lead to access
the treatment of mental health problems. It may be hazardous for their family members,
communities, related premises or society to live with because it influences othersas wel. An
individual may engage in different type of treatments; Let us discuss about few of them, day
treatment, psychosocial rehabilitation, assertive community treatment, etc.

11.3.1 Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is the therapeutic effective treatment of mental health problems conducted
by professional trainer. The aim of the psychotherapy is to improve the human behaviour,
thoughts and feelings, explore a person’s well-being, to provide positive attitude, maintain
better relationships, and overcome psychiatric problems. Psychotherapy is long-term therapy
for months or even years, which focuses to build relationship between the therapist and client.
Many scientists and psychologists have proved that psychotherapy is the best treatment for
depression, fear, anxiety, stress, relationships issues, and panic attacks. To get fast recovery,
psychotherapists combine medication with therapy. The psychotherapy involves Exposure
therapy, Relaxation therapy, Behaviour therapy, and mainly cognitive behavioural therapy
(CBT).

11.3.2 Medication
Medication is an important field that helps to cure a disease we infections, control blood
pressure, relieving from pain, body ache, and mental health problems. Psychiatric medicines
are the made of synthetic chemical compounds that effect on nervous system of human brain
which leads to treatment of mental health problems or psychiatric disorders and reduce
the cost of hospitalization. Then it could be confined that many patients have been treated
without getting admitted in any psychiatric hospital, rehabilitation and deinstitutionalization.
But taking the heavy dose or without consultation from any medical consultancy, can cause
hazardous or infectious. It is argued that combinations of typicall medicines and somatic
medicines (psychiatric) have never been tested, a results of psychiatric medication of adverse
effects, especially heart failure or additive effects of brain damage may occur. Mainly,
psychiatric of medications are divided in six groups which are as follows:
● Antidepressants: used for the disorders of severe depression, borderline personality
disorder and dysthymia problems.
116
● Anxiolytics: used for the treatment of anxiety disorders. Application of Social
● Mood stabilizers: used for schizoaffective disorders and bipolar disorders. Psychology to Mental
Health-II
● Stimulants: used to treat the patient suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity
(ADHD).
● Depressants: used for anaesthetics and sedatives.
● Antipsychotics: used for schizophrenic and psychotic symptoms.

11.3.3 Self Help Plan

Self-help is a plan for self-improvement where an individual is enabled to enjoy life again.
Self-help refer to enhanancing personal characteristics by implementing strategies that
contribute to the effectiveness of an individual. Every individual commit to make lifestyle
changes for personal happiness and self-satisfaction. Being mentally and emotionally caring
are very important. With the help of self-help plan, a person might to help to do something
such as spend time in the shadow of nature, to live at the peaceful areas like temple in order
to nurture own self, sharing quality of time with family and friends and thus, a person can
increase his/her strength. In a self help plan, an individual needs to avoid isolation, sleep
well, overcome from negative thoughts and perform each responsibility of any task.
11.3.4. Hospitalisation
In many cases, hospitalisation is needful in emergency were the mental illness conditions
of an individual, where his/her overall health would be monitored, properly diagnosed and
administered. Psychiatric hospitals are specialized in temporary or permanent caring for the
treatment of major depressive disorder, serious mental disorders and other mental illness.
Patients are admitted according to their unstable conditions, involuntary commitment and on
a voluntary bias.
11.3.5 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
Cognitive behavioural therapy helps in the improvement of mental health. It aims to focus
on psychosocial intervention. It helps in changing cognitive distortions i.e. thoughts, attitude
and feelings or behaviour. CBT is a psychotherapeutic treatment that influences the human’s
behaviour, it is commonly short-term therapy, which plays a fundamental role in every aspect
of life.
CBT is an effective combination of both the cognitive and behaviour psychology. In addition,
CBT is often first line of treatment to assist the effective strategies to find the symptoms
and diagnose mental disorder. CBT help individuals to replace maladaptive behavour with
more adaptive ones, can minimize negative thoughts and enhance, motivation. Sometimes,
CBT involves techniques such as cognitive therapy, relaxation therapy and self-awareness.
It is used in treating post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorder, obsessive-compulsive
disorder, psychotic disorder, opioid use disorder and behavioural disorders. Originally, it aims
to neutralize a stressor, to solve personal and interpersonal problems. Scientific researchers
and psychologists have recommended that CBT is empirically based therapy and involves a
wide range of treatment. Hence, it includes:
● Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) which is centred on irrational beliefs.
● Multimodal Therapy which focusses on drug, sensation, interpersonal factors and
biological considerations.
● Dialectical Behaviour Therapy centred on emotional regulation, thinking patterns and
mindfulness.
● Cognitive Therapy centred on identifying distorted thinking, behaviours, and change
inaccurately.

117
Areas of Application of 11.3.6 Community Based Treatment
Social Psychology
Stigma against mental disorders can cause individuals to not to seek help. Public stigmas can
harm public opportunities and may have harmful impacts on obtaining and keeping suitable
job. Research has shown the internalization of stigmas can lead a person to reflect negative
emotional reactions, which interferes with an individual’s quality of life. It tries to remove
the trend of avoiding treatment from personal experiences with mental illness. The other type
of mental illness treatment is community- based which provides suitable facilities to keep
individuals away from self harm and drug abuse. It also involves an aid to self-sufficiency,
electroconvulsive therapy, counselling, relaxation therapy, support therapy, alternative
medicine.

Self Assement Questions (SAQ I)

Fill in the following blanks:
1) CBT is a psychotherapeutic treatment that influences the ............................
2) ........................... is a plan for self-improvement where an individual is abled to enjoy
life again.
3) ........................... hospitals are specialized in temporary or permanent caring for the
treatment of major depressive disorder, serious mental disorders other mental illness.
4) Stigma against mental disorders can cause individuals to not to seek ............................

11.3.2 Prevention of Mental Health Problem

It is determined that there is no one way to eradicate the mental illness, but it can be reduced
by using various steps to control the effects. Some of the important ways for prevention of
mental health are parenting, Pre-emptive Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), and Mental
silence meditation. Let us discuss about few of them:
[Link] Parenting
Children begin their new lifestyle under guidance and teaching of their parents. The quantity
of time spent between parent and child is the best investment of bonding between the
relationship of child and parent. Every parent has his/her own style of parenting and they
may differ in the ways they nurture, show affection, efforts and attachment with their child.
Parenting behaviours are combination of parent’s responses and child’s demand. The child’s
temperament is influenced by the kind of parenting style. It is a psychological concept which
determines the ability of a child to meet his/her requirements during his adolescent stage.
The parenting styles are sensitive and responsible which require to provide emotions and
protection. While on the other hand, when a child feels separation, avoidant and lack of
attachment from the caregivers or parents, there occurs anxious, disorganised and reassured
feelings among children. Parenting styles reveals the response and demonstrating fair interest
towards their child.
[Link] Mental silence meditation
Sometimes silence and meditation can provide peace to the mental health. Silence has
strong impact on cognition, emotions, relief and reduces the stress of human’s life.
Mental silence and meditation facilitates the psychological condition and it prevents
from chances of mental illness, calmness, keeps energetic and rejoices the mood,
recapitulate the well-being state of mind and inter relate the silence and alertness. Most
important meditation are known as ‘Vipassana’ meditation. Vipassana meditation is an
ancient meditation which includes the mindfulness of breathing, our thoughts, feelings
and actions which provides ‘insight’ or ‘clear-seeing’ and ‘seeing deeply’. Meditation
provides positive vibration; a person start to accept the thing as well as present situation

118
and express gratitude. It is a never-ending practice aims to purify the state of mind, Application of Social
seeing more clarity and find happiness in every single moment. According to traditional Psychology to Mental
belief, meditation is the important process to provide us calm and silence. Few things to Health-II
considerate about meditation are as follows:
● We should not force us to stop our thinking.
● Thoughts will never go or may disappear, we need to let them come and go.
● It is all about to focus on our present situation and no need to worry about the past and
future.
● We should not change anything such as our thoughts, feelings, and emotions, just accept
them.
● Meditation helps to get more clarity in our existing situations.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)

State whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’
● A cognitive bias is a type of error where no one can interpret the source of
knowledge. ( )
● Every parent has same style of parenting for their children. ( )
● Meditation provides positive vibration to human beings. ( )
● Every parent has his/her own style of parenting. ( )

11.4 Let Us Sum Up

Many scientists and psychologists have proved that psychotherapy is best treatment for
depression, fear, anxiety, stress, relationships issues, and panic attacks. We are now aware
that, self-help is a plan for self-improvement where an individual addresses by enjoying life
again. Patients are admitted according to their unstable condition, involuntary commitment
and on a voluntary bias. CBT is an effective technique and is a combination of both the
cognitive and behaviour psychology. In addition, CBT is often first line of treatment to assist
the effective strategies to find the symptoms and diagnose of mental disorder. CBT techniques
help individuals to replace maladaptive behaviour with more adaptive ones, can minimize
negative thoughts and enhance motivation. Sometimes, CBT is related to techniques such as
cognitive therapy, relaxation therapy and self-awareness. A person who are marked primarily
by disorganization of thoughts, feelings, emotions, minds or personality indicate towards the
abnormal condition or impaired social functioning in environment which leads to access the
treatment of mental health problems.

11.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Elucidate upon the biases involved in clinical decision-making.
2) Discuss the treatment and prevention of mental health problems.
3) Write short notes on the following:
a) Psychotherapy
b) Meditation
c) Parenting

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Areas of Application of
Social Psychology
11.6 Glossary
Hazardous: A dangerous situation.
Peaceful: It is a calmness situation.
Psychotic: It is characterised by an impaired relationship with reality.
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy: It is a practical strategy aimed at assisting people in
dealing with irrational beliefs and learning to control their emotions, thoughts, and behaviours
in a more healthy and realistic manner.
Stimulants: A substance that raises the level of physiological and nervous activity.
Voluntary: An activity done by own decision.

11.7 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQ)

SAQ I
1) human’s behaviour
2) Self-help
3) Psychiatric
4) help
SAQ II
1) True
2) False
3) True
4) True

11.8 Suggested Readings and References *

Reference
Arneson, R. J. 1999. “Human Flourishing versus Desire Satisfaction.” Social Philosophy and
Policy 16: 113–42..
Crisp, R. 2006. “Hedonism Reconsidered.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 73
(3): 619–45.
Diener, E. 1984. “Subjective Well-Being.” Psychological Bulletin 95 (3): 542–75.
Schwarzer, Ralf (April 2001). “Social-Cognitive Factors in Changing Health-Related
Behaviours”. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 10 (2): 47–51. doi:10.1111/1467-
8721.00112.
Weiten, W. & Lloyd, M.A. (2008) Psychology Applied to Modern Life (9th ed.).
WadsworthCengage Learning. ISBN 0-495-55339-5.
Snyder, C.R. (ed.) (1999) Coping: The Psychology of What Works. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-511934-7.
Vaux, A. (1988). Social Support: Theory, Research and Interventions. My, NY: Praeger.

Online references
[Link]
[Link]
120
UNIT-12 APPLICATION OF SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY TO EDUCATION AND
CLASS ROOM *
Structure

12.0 Objectives

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Inter and Intrapersonal Processes

12.2.1 Academic Success

12.2.2 Failure

12.2.3 Dropout

12.3 Teacher and Student Interaction

12.3.1 Managing Bullying

12.3.2 Violence In Schools

12.4 Self-Perception and their Academic Consequences

12.4.1 Self Handicapping

12.4.2 Self- Serving Bias

12.4.3 Over Justification Effect

12.5 Let Us Sum Up

12.6 Unit EndQuestions

12.7 Glossary

12.8 Answer to Self-Assessment Questions

12.9 Suggested Readings and References

12.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
● Differentiate between inter and intra personal processes;
● Discuss the relevance of student and teacher interaction; and
● Describe self-perception and their academic consequences.

* Mrs. Preeti Sehrawat, Psychologist, Delhi.

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Areas of Application of
Social Psychology
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Education is the source of knowledge or information related to any domain. But the
education needs to share the information with the help of teaching technique which needs
a formal institution and a formal class-room. Both the education and classroom helps in the
improvement of cognition skills, teacher-student relationships, intellectual ability and learning
process of children. The contribution of educational social psychology is the application of
learning theory towards interpreting the learning mechanisms at school. It helps a teacher
to understand each student. Also, a teacher take initiateives to guide the students in right
direction, to develop student personality, or to provide strength. Social psychologists to helps
in managing education and classroom and facilitating the teaching and learning process.
Educational psychologists inform the instructional processes, According to the psychologists
to all child can not learn merely from education or in classroom setting and in such conditions
social life situations would become the best way of learning for them. Social psychologist try
to deal with behaviour modification of children to reduce the symptoms of deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) or dyslexia.
Education and psychology are co-related, it is determined that a teacher could not teach their
students without having knowledge of educational psychology. In this modernisation era,
education at psychology contributes in training of teachers because it is necessary to teach
the students according to their mental abilities and enhance teacher education programs.
Psychological knowledge has been used in teaching, schooling and classroom to understand
the psychology of the students. For this purpose, there is an essential requirement of teaching
certification, license, suggestions and understanding the learning process, development,
motivation and differences in all students. Several learning theories is utiliced on a day-to-
day basis in educational settings such as learning theory, behaviourism, cognitivism, and
constructivism. It acquires knowledge through the development of recognition, reflection, and
need evaluation. For example, read the psychology book (recognition), and get the meaning
of ideas (reflection) and then test the knowledge we get (evaluation).

12.2 Inter And Intra Personal Processes

The Interpersonal Process Approach (IPP) is an individual therapy, which integrates an
individual’s experience to bring awareness. Interpersonal means an individual’s relationship
with others. In our daily basis of life, a person always tries to cope with others in order
to become adaptive and, please others, to avoid aggression, emotional outcome and reduce
the conflict or issues. But sometimes, this coping behaviour might become rigid and
maladaptive; it can cause poor management of relationships or develop stress and anxiety.
In the interpersonal process. the therapist works to understand the relational strategies and
generate clients confidence and enable to sustain new life and manage circumstances of the
place where an individual lives. In other words, IPP is the belief of a client’s capability to
explore consciousness, this skill is to express own feelings and nourish fulfilling connections.
The Interpersonal process approach (IPP) is used in the following conflicts:
● Sadness
● Habits
● Women’s issues
● Depression
● Guilt feelings
● Anger
● Abuse
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● Social anxiety Application of Social
● Work problems Psychology to
Education and
Class Room
The Intra-personal process is a person’s intentional strategy to emphasize internal skills,
personal belief and one’s own attitude. In the process of an individual’s response to specific
stimuli, the stimuli can be internally or externally picked by the sense organs an individual’s
response and then sent to the brain.

12.2.1 Academic Success

Academic success provides an information on the level of learning, as it is strongly connected
to the positive result of students. Increase of academic success is very much important for the
development of a child who did better in school and will continue in the area of academics,
social situations and behaviour or attitude. When students of schools and colleges perform
well, then they transit the same in adulthood and achieve economic and professional success.
Adults who are academically successful are more likely to get high social assistance or many
opportunities in an occupational field and high paid salaries and are more organised. Such
individuals can tackle all the technologically demanding problems of the future. In contrast,
non-academic individuals do not get employment that easily, or do not achieve too much
success and lack healthier lifestyle. A person with high level of acadmic sucess can think
differently.

12.2.2 Failure
Failure in education leads to a catastrophic impact on student’s life. Educational
qualifications provide better economic and social conditions such as to reduced poverty,
improved life skills, confidence, social support, growth, strength and reduce the fear of
failure. In other words, without the fear of failure, individuals do not strive for success. In
such conditions, an individual tries to restructure the environment, is more willing to seek
achievement challenges. Additionally, a growth mindset leads to adaption and boost up
the motivation, make decision very well and overcome from all aspects of life. Failure is a
learning opportunity, and students, actions are reviewed on a long term basis to get an idea
of their progress and to enhance their successes. The standardized tests are used at schools
to encourage education, among the disadvantaged, low-income students and minorities.
Education can be considered to have potentials for better future of students and securing
the future of a country. Problems related to race, gender, socioeconomic and ethnicity to
be tackled and teaching the importance of leaning are taken care by social psychologists.

12.2.3 Dropout
Struggling is the basic fundamental of life. Dropping out is an act of student during the time of
completing the course from the schools, colleges and institution. Researches show that many
students leave school because of family responsibility, financial problems, poor guidance,
and high fees, unwilling to get the better facilities, unemployment, personal choice and for
achieving jobs and salaries. The consequences of dropping out from secondary schools are
less academic sucess and lesser chance to get a guaranteed job because of getting ‘dropped
out’ randomly. According to social psychology, it has a major effect on mental health, such
persons likely prefer to work in other domains which do not demand high education and get
low packages of salaries and they can not afford to get high achievement in business or in
education sector. As of now, there is a reduction of dropout rate due to increased awareness
among students, as well as by use of new technologies to continue the activities to engage
student, Government or private sectors provide suitable aid and financial support or good
facilities to the students according to their budget.
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Areas of Application of
Social Psychology
12.3 Teacher and Student Interaction
The teacher and student interaction is a vital relationship to construct the knowledge. Interaction
between them helps to develop the effective social skills, focus on teaching and encourage the
imparting of education. A teacher is the person who understands the psychology of students
in all prospectuses of life, and act like a light to the student who is surrounded by darkness
of unawareness. So, it impacts particularly on academic skills. This enables students to
manage their learning by using various strategies such as by using non-verbal communication,
following the instruction, do homework regularly, fulfilling the responsibility or participate in
all activities and make positive connections with teacher as well as relationships with peer.
From psychological perspective it is considered that teacher’s inspiration plays a key role for
every student, they learn first and folow the lifelong while those student who do not follow
these inspirations might suffer throughout the life. Differences between these inspirations are
as follows:

Posetive teacher-student Interaction Negative teacher-student Interaction

● Positive social behaviours ● Negative social behaviours

● Better Peer-relationships ● Poor peer-relationships

● Disciplined ● Not disciplined

● Being Responsible ● Being Irresponsibles

● Higher level of Confidence ● Low confidence

● Improved inter-personal relationships ● Decline inter-personal relationships

Fig. 12.1 : difference between positive & negitive teacher-student interaction

Establishing a positive interaction with the teacher helps a student to feel more comfortable,
satisfied and safe in their classroom environments. When students want to share their views
with the teachers and their class fellows then they may experience the fear of presence of
other students and humiliation. Many innovative views and creative work of students are
not respected by the teachers and they are poorly graded for not agreeing to the teacher’s
opinions. So therefore, students may be suffer from low confidence by avoiding their personal
thoughts and humiliation. From the following perspective, the teacher and other students
should allow the student to express his/her ideas without letting them face any counter attack.

12.3.1 Managing Bullying

Bullying refers to the tendency to suppress and humiliate others, particularly those students
who are junior, weaker, or are less in power. Bullying has a serious impact on victims and
bystanders. Bullies apply assertiveness to determine where students may became submissive
victims. Increasingly, it may range for days, weeks, months and years, if the bullying
continues contineus for a large period of time then it would become very difficult to manage
or controll the condition of victims. Many social psychologists, have found bullying as one of
the responsible factor of poor performance in academic achievements, due to which students
get aloof, attempt suicide, suicidal thoughts, lack of confidence, poor concentration level and
mental stress. It’s not a variety of aggression; it is harmful attempt to harm others; and also
it’s not the part of revenge or a thing of praise.
Though, it is considered to be a serious issue, authorities have already taken strict action
towards it. Instead of tolerating bullying, students should talk about this to the supervisor
or parents or anyone to get and give of their suggestions to all others and in classrooms
also. Teachers also should participate in managing the bullying by informing its positive and
124
negative consequences to all the students and identify the ways to overcome from and provide Application of Social
mental relaxation to the students. Along with teachers, parents also should helps to manage Psychology to
bullying as they can identify the behaviour of students at early stage and communicate with Education and
their child or tell them what steps should be taken to discourage such acts. Class Room

12.3.2 Violence in schools

Violence is a kind of aggression; thourgh, aggression can be shown externally or internally
but violence involves applying of in physical force or power by intention. There is no a
clear evident of the root cause of violence but at least to some extent it is proven by social
psychologist that school violence is created by students belonging to dysfunctional homes
and having psychological problems. School violence can also be the result of bullying,
students’ makes their group which is also called ‘gang’ for victims and they demand for huge
gang fights not only in the schools but outside also. It has a very serious impact on the life of
a student; they have to suffer throughout their life, there occurs psychological deficiencies,
poor concentration on their studies and other activities, drug abuse, aggression, anxiety, fear,
suicidal tendency and access to weapons, cyber abuse, crime irresponsible or not obeying
their parents and teachers. There can be mainly five types of violence, as follows:
● Physical Violence: It involves pinching, biting, hitting, pushing, pulling, hair pulling
and also forcing any one to have alcohol or drug use.
● Emotional Violence: It involves feeling of worthlessness, self-abuse, criticism, poor
relationships, sense of self-respect or feelings of helplessness.
● Sexual Violence: It involves attempting of coercive sexual contact, sexual abuse,
marital rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, coercing behaviour, aggressive
behaviour, attacks on sexual parts, forcing sex after physical injury.
● Economic Violence: It involves financial dependency; keeping an eye on other’s
money, lack of resources, lack of basic amenities, financial crisis, loss of business or
resignation and loss of job.
● Psychological Violence: It involves psychological abuse, harm to others, self-injuries,
threat to family members, partner, children and friends, not to talk to anyone, loneliness,
fear, anxiety, phobias, screaming, loud talk and impairment of brain.
Thus, students tend to show majorly the above mentioned kind of violences.
Self Assessment Question (SAQ) I

Fill in the blanks:

1) .................. refers to belief of a client’s capability to explore consciousness.
2) Increase of academic success is very much important for the .................. of a child.
3) Educational qualifications are support to progress .................. and ..................
conditions.
4) A .................. is the person who understands the psychology of students in all
prospectuses of life.
5) .................. involves feelings of worthlessness, self-abuse, criticism, poor relationships.

12.4 Self-Perception and their Academic

Consequences
The concept of self-perception was introduced by the psychologist Daryl Bem (1967)
with reference to the formation of attitude. The theory suggests that the attitudes determine
125
Areas of Application of behaviours, people develop their attitudes for others without accessing others the internal
Social Psychology thoughts, mood and behaviour. Bem described that it is the interpersonal simulation that
govern our behaviours and determine our perceptions. For example, emotions like, happiness,
like, dislike, frustration, anger, etc. are followed by behaviour. These behaviours change the
facial expression such as, at the timing of smile, the facial muscles is in relax state; while at
the time of anger, the nature of expression is at frowning state. In other words, a person’s
facial expression indicates the behaviour. Some of the therapy to enhance self perception
focus on cognitive theory; if failure is attributed to effort, the individuals would try and try
again. The therapies for boosting self percetion of indivitudls also follows the Social learning
theory: it is important to learn emotions and behave according to society.
Academic Consequences is related to the mental health. Further, mental health is the well-
being of psychological, emotional and social condition. It influences the person’s behaviour,
thoughts and response. Positive mental health is the way to stay positive, physically active
with full potential and remain stress free. Mental health states the self-efficacy, absence of
mental illness, the quality of life, ability to enjoy the life, coping up with stress and living
healthier lifestyle. Mental health is very important to enhance the psychological condition
of person including the behaviour, mood and thoughts or feelings. Mental health problems
incluade feeling of loneliness, sad, distress, suicidal tendency, self injury, death of close ones,
break up, failure of relationships, learning disability and other mental illness. Schools may
respond for many of the consequences of academic failure to district mandates, depending
on their achievement levels, prior rates of suspension letter, bearing on policy compliance
and implementation. The school should emplasise on finding suitable ways to develop the
education, to build a safe and powerful school culture, to do better work. It may experience
worse outcomes at the domains of academics and become a disadvantage for the school or it’s
economical condition. Significantly, pattern of attendance and achievement in the classroom,
schools, and grade and at individual levels can play a crucial role to reduce the academic
failure.

12.4.1 Self-Handicapping
Self-handicapping can be explained as cognitive strategy in which a person does not make
any effort to perform with a fear of failure that can damage their self esteem.
Self-handicapping is a human behaviour which has been observed across the culture and
regions. The effects of self-handicapping can be found in small and large environment.
Self-handicapping is a strategy of self-protection and self-enhancement. The term ‘self-
handicapping’ was introduced by Jones and Berglas in 1978. In other words, people knowingly
may change their surroundings, their personal belief, thoughts and behaviour to enhance their
self esteem and blame others for their failures. An example of self-handicap is the fear of not
completing the task and refusal of technique of project. For example, alcohol consumption,
procrastinating and spend night at outside the home, partying late night, taking drugs a night
before exam. Self-handicap can also be the justifications for failure of task and make excuses
or reasons for their failaures. It is merely an obstacle to performance.

12.4.2 Self- Serving Bias

A self-serving bias is the process of cognitive or perceptual ability to maintain and enhance
self-esteem. Self-serving bias is significantly a position in which a person is not able to accept
his/her mistakes or problems despite this he/she would blame on others or external factors for
a particular problem. Another aspect is derived that a person try to attribute positive events
to his/her own character but attribute negative events by blaming on others. For example,
most people see themselves as better or superior than average. These cognitive and personal
tendencies would contribute to the self-serving bias to better understand the biological and
emotional or neural activation. It also emphasise oneself towards a more favourable position
126
or obsession for success. There are some signs which have been found to indicate that a Application of Social
person is suffering from self-serving bias are as follows: Psychology to
Education and
● Lack of accountability Class Room
● Inability to recognize failure
● Blaming on others
● Over-inflated ego
● Inability to take criticism
● Obsession with praise

13.4.3 Over- Justification Effect

The over-justification effect is the reward for doing something and reduces intrinsic
motivation to complete the action. Over-justification is simply to engage in activities to
get happiness and pleasure. The main goal of over-justification effect is to pursue the task
properly to achieve an expected external incentive such as money or prize but decreases a
person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task. Over-justification is an explanation for the
phenomenon known as motivational "crowding out." The overall effect of offering a reward
for a previously unrewarded activity is a shift to extrinsic motivation and the undermining of
pre-existing intrinsic motivation.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)

State whether the following ‘True’ or ‘False’

1) The concept of self-perception was developed by Aristotle. ( )
2) Positive mental health is the way to stay positive, physically active with full
potential. ( )
3) The effects of self-handicapping can be found only in small environment. ( )
4) Self-serving bias is position in which a person would blame on others or external factors
for failures. ( )
5) The main goal of over-justification effect is to motivate to pursue the task properly. ( )

12.5 LET US SUM UP

Education is the source of knowledge or information related to any domains. But the spread of
education needs to be spread with the help of teaching technique which needs better schools
and effective class-room. Both the education and classroom helps in the improvement of
cognition skills, teacher-student relationships, intellectual ability and learning process.
The contribution of educational social psychology is to analyse the corresponding learning
theory with interpreting the learning strategies of school. Social psychology emphasises
education to specialise in specific ways for diffrent groups, teenagers, adolescents, and
adulthood. Interestingly, psychology helps to reduce the symptoms of deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) or dyslexia among student. The Interpersonal Process Approach (IPP) is an
individual therapy, which integrates an individual towards awareness. Interpersonal means
one’s relationship with others. In our daily life, a person always tries to become adaptive,
please others, avoid aggression, searches positive emotional outcome and ways to reduce the
conflict or issues. But sometimes, this coping behaviour might become rigid and maladaptive;
it can cause poor management of relationships or develop the stress and anxiety. An organised
individual can tackle all demanding problems of the future. In scontrast, non-academic
individual does not get high level of employment, or do not achieve too much success and
127
Areas of Application of lack healthier lifestyle. Non-academic can block out the issues or distractions and academic
Social Psychology can open door of any walk of life.
Additionally, a growth mindset leads to adaption and boost up the motivation, help in making
decisions and overcome all problematic aspects of life. Failure is a learning opportunity,
and students who try and try again after failures attempt to achive success. According to
social psychology, it has a major effect on mental health, and is unable to maintain the neural
network among those individuals who do not learn from failures prefer to work in other
domains where there is less demand of higher education, these exist low packag salaries, can
not afford to get high achievement of business or in education sector. -
The lifelong impact of mental health particularly is on those academic skills of students who
manage the learning by using various strategies such as by using non-verbal communication,
follows the instruction, do homework regularly, fulfill the responsibility or participate in all
co-curricular activities and make positive connections with teacher and pupils and have better
peer relationships. Many social psychologists have found bulling as a responsible factor of
suicide, suicidal thoughts lack of confidence, poor concentration lavel and mental stress.
School violence is also the result of bullying issues, students’ makes their group which is also
called ‘gang’ for them and they demand for huge gang fights not only in the schools but outside
also. It has a very serious impact on the life of a student; they have to suffer throughout their
life, they undergo psychological deficiencies, poor concentration on their studies and others
activities, drug abuse, aggression, anxiety, fear, suicidal tendency and access to weapons,
cyber abuse, crime irresponsible obeying their parents and teachers. Self-handicapping is the
concept of cognitive strategy in which a person ignores the effort to escape potential failure
and prevent damaging of their self esteem and also observed in the human behaviour.

12.6 Unit End Questions

1) Explain the inter and intra personal processes.
2) Enumerate the relevance of teacher and student interaction.
3) Explain the concept of academic consequences self perception.

12.7 Glossary
Inter personal: It refers to something involving, or occurring among several people.
Intra personal: It refers to something that exists within one person.
Dysfunctional: Not to operate in a proper or organising way.
Intrinsic: Anything comes to belong naturally or essential.
Extrinsic: It is something which is not a part of the essential.
Maladaptive: The situation which is not adjusting or adequately.
Aloof: It is a situation in which person does not want anyone existence.
Bias: It is an inclination for or against one person or group.

12.8 Answer to Self Assessment Questions

SAQ I
1) Interpersonal process

128
2) Development Application of Social
3) Economic; social Psychology to
Education and
4) Teacher Class Room

5) Emotional

SAQ II
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True
5) True

12.9 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

FrédériqueAutin, Jean-Claude Croizet. Improving Working Memory Efficiency by Reframing
Metacognitive Interpretation of Task Difficulty.. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General, 2012; DOI: 10.1037/a0027478.
Christie, C.A., Nelson, C.M., &Jolivet, K. (2005). Prevention of antisocial and violent
behaviour in youth: A review of the literature. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky.
Retrieved 2009-05-01.
Bandura, A. (1983). Psychological mechanisms of aggression. In R. G. Geen& E. I.
Donnerstein (Eds.), Aggression: Theoretical and empirical reviews. New York: Academic.
ISBN 0-12-278801-X.
Brunelle, J. P. (2001). The impact of community service on adolescent volunteers' empathy,
social responsibility, and concern for others. The Sciences and Engineering, 62, 2514.
Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental
Social Psychology, (6th ed.). New York, NY: Academic.
Myers, D.G. (2015). Exploring Social Psychology, 7th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill
Education.

129
 Unit 13 Application of Social
Psychology to community*
Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Meaning and Sense of Community
13.2.1 Application of Social Psychology to Community
13.3 Diversity

13.3.1 Cultural Diversity

13.3.2 Intergroup Relations

13.4 Prejudice and Stereotype
13.5 Social Change
13.6 Let Us Sum Up
13.7 Unit End Question
13.8 Glossary
13.9 Answer to Self-Assessment Questions
13.10 Suggested Reading and References

13.0 Objectives
● After reading this Unit, you would be able to:
● Describe the concept of community;
● Describe the application of social psychology to community;
● Discuss the applications of social psychology to diversity.
● Define the concept of prejudice and stereotype; and
● Explain the concept of social change.

13.1 Introduction
In the present Unit, we will mainly focus on the concept of community and how social
psychology can be applied to community. Community life is all about shared practices,
common values and belief system. For instance, Goa – has the ‘Goan’ community - as it is
often referred to. Being geographically on the coast and four centuries of Portuguese rule has
led people of the state to have their own way of life and sustenance. The Portuguese influence
is evident in the area and is still reflected in their names, food, architecture, music and all this
is beautifully blended with Hindu festivals, the Konkani language, the farming, fishing and
tourist industry and an undeniable Indian culture. Thus, we will not only they understand the
concept of community but will also look at the application of social psychology to community.
There are varied socio-psychological markers like gender, age, race, sexual orientation etc.

* Dr. Tina D Cunha, SEN Inclusion learning mentor and key worker.
130
that contribute towards human diversity. These factors along with the physical, social and Application of Social
cultural environment aid in building social identities. Such diversity encourages positive Psychology to
group relations and an appreciation and value to others in the community. Further, the unit community
will also explains the concept of prejudice, stereotype and social change.

13.2 Meaning and Sense of Community

The communities we live in or are a part of has a great influence on people’s day-to-day
lives and are central to humankind. They contribute to the development and sustenance of
in-group knowledge and identity and also provide strong tools for empowerment. Under this
section we will explore the applications of social psychology to community life starting by
understanding the concept of a community.
According to the Oxford dictionary, the English-language word "community" derives from
the Old French word comuneté (currently "Communauté"). Archaeological studies of social
communities use the term "community" in two ways. The first is an informal definition of
community as a place where people live their life (example a village, city or town). The
second meaning resembles the usage of the term in other social sciences: a community is a
group of people living near one another who interact socially.
Community therefore can be explained as a group of people who are functionally related
and reside in a certain geographical locality at certain point of time. The people also display
cohesiveness and a common culture. These people are a part of a social structure and display
awareness regarding their identity as a group that is unique and have separate identity.
Community can be differentiated from society as, society, can be explained as a system of
relationships amongst individuals and community can be described as a group of people
who reside in certain locality and display cohesiveness to one another. Thus, there are group
of individuals in both society and in community but the society denotes a system related to
social relationship whereas, community can be related with certain locality. Further, society
as such may not have cohesiveness of we-feeling that is often displayed by a community.
Community is a concrete concept and society is an abstract concept. Though, community is
narrower when compared to society. Community thus can be at the level of village or state
or national level, where as, a society is larger in size. Any society has differences as well as
similarities. However, community is developed mainly on the basis of similarity amongst the
individuals.
There are three broad categories of communities:
Rural Communities: It is difficult to explain the term ‘rural’. One characteristic of the
rural community is that they have a lower population density compared to the urban areas.
Rural communities are often understood to be quiet, isolated and untouched by the urban
developments of the world. These areas tend to have higher rates of poverty, unemployment
or under employment. They also place emphasis on family and blood lineages, kinship
relationships as well as, family and cultural preservation.
An interesting element in a social context emphasised that trying to understand rural
communities is like ‘understanding resilience’. Rather than examining what is not working
out in rural areas, this approach examines what is present in these communities and its own
strengths that could help to deal with any challenges. Margalit (2004) suggests that such
resilience is based on an inter-connection between the individual, family and the socio-
cultural adaptation.
Urban Communities: Urban communities tend to be more complex and diverse interms of
their social status and needs. They have higher level of demographic complexity and hence
the bond of connection between the members of these communities could be weaker. The

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Areas of Application of people in these communities could also come from many different places and often do not
Social Psychology know one another or the heritage of each others place. Unlike in rural areas, urban people may
have to travel long distances for work and their lives are more controlled by their working
hours. Overall, the social condition of people here is more developed and generally more
educated.
Suburban Communities: These are usually lower density areas that separate residential and
commercial areas from one another. They may be part of a city or urban area. Suburban
communities often have more job opportunities than rural areas though may not be as many
as in urban areas. The people there often also benefit from better access to healthcare, spaces
for physical activity and recreation.
The discipline of psychology holds the view that we as individuals are social beings and
we exist in a community culture and we follow each of our community lives in order to
realise our distinct sense of self, attachment and individuality. Community life integrates
individuals into a society. It connects personal histories and experiences to shared cultural
values and practices. Social representations such as community symbols, histories, rituals
and aspirations of people shape community life and these formulate a strong sense of social
behaviour and knowledge for people. Communities play an important role in influencing the
behaviour of individuals who are its members. Communities provide social norms that direct
and regulate the behaviours of the individual.
Social psychologists also highlight that a community helps us in our need for ‘belongingness’.
It is important to note that a community cannot develop in isolation or that it is influenced
by other communities as well. Hence, they construct their roots and identity based on the
social life and experience of people living in it. Though, there are numerous problems and
issues world wide and they occur at various levels like economic issues, health issues,
climate change, population, wealth distribution etc., conflicts are bound to develop in
groups and among individuals. Conflicts are present in every community group as well.
There are differences in thought, opinions and experiences. These need to be minimised
and resolved in a fair and open manner.
Further, in all societies we notice that some groups are socially excluded and may face
discrimination. Social exclusion describes a process by which certain groups are systematically
disadvantaged because they are discriminated on the basis of their ethnicity, race, religion,
sexual orientation, caste, descent, gender, age, disability, HIV status, migrant status or where
they live. Discrimination occurs in public institutions, such as the legal system or education
and health services, as well as social institutions like in the household. An HIV positive lady
gave this testimony “I got HIV from my husband. After an year of our marriage, my husband
died from AIDS. When it was discovered that I am infected with HIV, my in-laws stopped
contacting with me and disowned me. So I had to move back to my parents’ house. After this
tragedy I went looking for a job. Before my marriage I used to teach in a school, so I thought
when I needed a job I could apply to the same school again. But the school authorities found
out about my HIV status and refused to accept my application. Not only that, I was also
humiliated and looked down upon. Later, I got in touch with a foundation which helped me to
get HIV treatment. Through them I found my present job.” Social exclusion can also be subtle
or unintentional like in the cases of disability where the common spaces like educational
institutes, market places, government offices are not designed to be disabled friendly. One of
the direct consequences, among other factors, of social exclusion is the condition of poverty
in various communities. Socially excluded people are often denied of opportunities causing
low income and are left economically behind. Living with low income can increase parental
stress and affect family bonding. Poverty could indicate poor living and housing conditions,
overcrowded neighbourhoods and unsuitable environments and influences like crime. It has
negative influences on children’s health, development and overall wellbeing.
Thus, there could be numerous issues in communities, that may need interventions based on
the principles of social psychology.
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13.2.1 Application of Social Psychology to Community Application of Social
Psychology to
In the context of application of social psychology to community, we can discuss about the community
term community psychology that also encompasses effective application of principles of
social psychology to community.
Community psychology can be described as focusing on how individual relates with
communities and society. It also focuses on improvement of quality of life for individuals
as well as in communities and society as a whole and this is done with the help of research
and action. According to Lafreniere et. al. (2012, page 275), the main values of community
psychology include “family wellbeing, sense of community, respect for diversity, social
justice, participation of citizens, collaboration and community strengths and empirical
grounding”.
Some of the relevant values and approaches in community psychology (Lafreniere et. al.,
2012, page 276 and 277) are discussed as follows:
Sense of community: This is denoted by the feelings of belongingness and membership that
the individuals in the community have towards the community. The main characteristics of
the sense of community are interdependence and attachment towards other members of the
same community.
Ecological perspective: The focus here is on fit between the individual and his/ her
environment. The outcomes of a lack of such a fit is also highlighted. Further, any issue
or problem is to be analysed at various levels as individuals are influenced simultaneously
by multiple systems like microsystem (family and peers), organisations (school, college,
workplace), macrosystem (cultural group or political structures of the State of Country).
Promotion of wellbeing and prevention of problems: Wellbeing here can be explained
in terms of both physical and mental wellbeing. The focus of the community psychology
is on enhancing wellbeing and also on prevention of problems that can negatively impact
wellbeing of the individuals.
Respect for diversity: The community psychology also strives towards inculcating respect
for diversity amongst the individuals.
Social justice: Social justice denotes fair and equal distribution of resources and opportunities
in the community. The rights of the underprivileged members are also upheld.
Collaboration and community strength: Attempts are made to develop a relationship that is
collaborative and in which the expertise and the experiences of the community members are
utilised while the research is designed and programmes are planned.
Participation and empowerment of the citizens: This involves encouraging the active
participation of the members of the community in dealing with the social issues and problems
in the community and in bringing about betterment of the community. The goal is also to
make individuals in the community take control of their lives and become empowered.
Social action and bringing about social change: Community psychology aims at bringing
about positive social change and direct social actions in order to resolve social issues and
problems.
Empirical grounding: In this, the focus is on research and empirical methods that can be used
to study social issues and problems and develop suitable interventions in order to alleviate
them.
In order to encourage positive influence of the community on the individuals and to enhance
their sense of community, the social psychologists can focus on the four main elements that
are described as follows:

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Areas of Application of ● Membership: This denotes that any community will have boundaries that are social
Social Psychology and geographical and individuals can be seen as belonging to certain community or
other. Sense of membership can lead to feelings of safety and belonging ness amongst
the individuals, which in turn will lead to desire to work for the benefit of one’s own
community.
● Influence: This mainly focuses on the power that is the influence that the community has
on the individual and vice versa. Individuals who feel that they have a presence or value
in their community will have a strong sense of belongingness with that community.
● Interdependence: The members in the community are interdependent and play a role
in fulfilling each others needs. There is also sharing of resources, goods and values
among the members of a community.
● Shared emotional connection: A community that is cohesive in nature will have
a stronger shared emotional bond with the community and with the members in the
community. This can be promoted with the help of shared experiences, rituals and
celebrations.
Cultivating sense of community can lead to wellbeing of individuals as the community will
provide the much needed direction and social support. Interventions based on the above
elements of sense of community can be developed in order to enhance the sense of community
among to the individuals.
With regard to application of principles of social psychology to community, the focus can be on
understanding deindividuation, that refers to a loss of sense or self identity that is experienced
when the person is in a crowded place or is burdened with overstimulation. This is often seen
in urban cities, where despite of all the amenities and facilities, the individuals may not be
fit to the environment and may experience stress and various other issues (Lafreniere et. al,
2012). Psychological experiences of living in an urban set up are not only due to various
aspects like pollution, crowding etc.) but they could also be as a result of stimulus overload.
Stimulus overload can be explained as a condition that is denoted by an overloaded nervous
system that makes it difficult to respond simultaneously to varied stimuli in the environment.
This can lead to adaptation in form of psychological retreating where response is not provided
to all the stimuli that demand attention. According to Milgram (as sited by Lafreniere et. al,
2012), the following are the ways in which the psychological retreat takes place:
● Rushing through social situations and less time is devoted to dealing with obstacles.
● Prioritisation takes place and thus, tasks that are of low priority get less attention or will
be avoided.
● Structures are created in such a way that personal element has no place. Automation,
technology and so on reduces social interaction to a greater extent.
● Barriers are created in order to avoid social interaction in day to day life.
● Specialised agencies are created to deal with certain issues and problems. Thus, any
problem is directed to that agency and the individuals do not have to feel responsible.
In the context we can also discuss about diffusion of responsibility, that can take place when
none of the individuals feel responsible and each one feels that some one else will help. This
also leads to the bystanders effect that we study in social psychology. The term bystander
effect refers to the tendency for people to be inactive in high danger situations due to the
presence of other bystanders (Latané&Nida, 1981). Thus, people tend to help more when
alone than in a group. A young woman called Kitty Genovese was murdered in New York,
while several of her neighbors looked on. No one intervened until it was too late. Latané
and Darley (1970) identified three different psychological processes that might prevent a
bystander from helping a person in distress: (i) diffusion of responsibility; (ii) evaluation
apprehension (fear of being publicly judged); and (iii) pluralistic ignorance (the tendency to
rely on the overt reactions of others when defining an ambiguous situation).
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Thus, when a social psychologists works in a community setup, especially in an urban Application of Social
community, the points discussed above need to be taken in to considered for enhancing the Psychology to
person- environment fit and avoiding deindividuation and diffusion of responsibility that community
could negatively affect the overall development and wellbeing of the community.
The main focus of community psychology (that could be of interest to social psychologists as
well) is on how the community or society have an influence on an individual’s wellbeing. The
focus is mainly on the disadvantages and aversive conditions in the social environment of an
individual that can have an impact on his/ her mental health and wellbeing. And if community
play a role in an individuals wellbeing, then various interventions at community level can
have a positive impact and can play a role in enhancing the wellbeing of the individuals in
the society.
Community-based mental health services are emphasised in the World Health Organisation’s
Mental Health Action Plan, the World Bank’s Disease Control Priorities, and the Action
Plan of the World Psychiatric Association. There is increasing evidence for effectiveness
of mental health interventions delivered by non-specialists in community platforms in low-
and middle-income countries (Kohrt et. al., 2018). The availability and integration of mental
health services into communities can promote accessibility, acceptability, affordability, and
scalability of services, as well as promote adherence to treatment and increase the likelihood
of positive clinical outcomes. Moreover, community services can play a crucial role in
promoting mental health awareness, reducing stigma and discrimination, supporting recovery
and social inclusion, and preventing mental disorders. In a study by Nimgaonkaret. al. (2015)
in Tamil Nadu used low cost task shifting by providing community education and identifying
and referring individuals with psychiatric problems as effective strategies for treating mental
disorders in tribal communities. Through the program, the health workers established a
network within the village, which in turn helped the patients to interact with them freely.
Certain patients volunteered at the educational sessions to discuss their experience about
the effectiveness of their treatment. Community awareness programs altered knowledge and
attitudes toward mental illness in the community.
Thus, community based interventions can play an important role in promoting mental health
and wellbeing amongst individuals of the community.
Social psychologists also need to focus on diversity and respect and acceptance of diversity
among the members in the community. Interventions can be designed by social psychologists
in order to promote respect and acceptance of diversity and reduce stigmatization, prejudice
and discrimination.
Community psychology also focuses on research and action in order to bring about social
change. This is in accordance with the definition of applied social psychology, where
empirical research is carried out in order to understand a social issue or problem and then
based on the results intervention strategies are designed, developed and implemented.
Community psychologists aim to create a positive social change within a social structure at
two levels, first order changes, that involves encouraging changes at individual level, in order
to prevent or fix a community problem. And second order changes that involves changing the
social system that contribute to problems in order to ensure that individuals fit well into their
environments and interventions can be developed accordingly in order to bring about first
order or second order change.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ-I)

State whether the following statements are true or false.
1) Community can be explained as a group of people.
2) Community psychology can be described as focusing on how individual relates with
communities and society.
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Areas of Application of 3) Community based interventions can play an important role in promoting mental health
Social Psychology and wellbeing amongst individuals in the community.

13.3 Diversity
If we look around, we certainly understand that we exist in a ‘diverse’ social world. People
around us belong to various nationalities, ethnic identities, cultural backgrounds, socio-
economic status, religious beliefs etc. We still continue to live alongside this diversity as
individuals with a strong sense of belonging to our particular community or group.
Human beings have varied social differences based on their gender, height, physical and
mental capabilities and such attributes reflect how we perceive others. Some common types
of diversity are:
Religion: People belong to various religious backgrounds and faith around us.
Age: In any given place, people of different ages and more importantly, generations co-exist
together.
Sex/ Gender: Gender has numerous aspects to it which makes it diverse. Agender, gender
conformity, gender dysphoria, sexual orientation are just a few ways of looking at the concept.
Disability: The diversity in the experiences of people having disabilities (both physical and
psychological) requires the world around to adjust and help in adaptation by making it an
inclusive environment.
Besides these, there exist some intangible characteristics like education, personality, life
experiences etc. that contribute towards human diversity. The presence of diversity often
leads to experiences of bias and discrimination. These biases lead to the way perceptions are
formed of each other. In examining the concept of diversity in the social context, let us focus
our learning on intergroup relations and culture in the community.

13.3.1 Cultural Diversity

One of the main concepts that can be focused here is cultural diversity. Culture can be
described the shared values that guides to live. The term was first used by Taylor in 1871.
Taylor defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”
(Berry, Poortinga, Breugelmans, Chasiotis, and Sam, 2002). Matsumoto and Juang (2004,
page 10) defined culture as “ a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established
by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and
behaviours, shared by a group but harboured differently by each specific unit within the
group, communicated across generations, relatively stable with the potential to change across
time”. As is clear from the above definition, culture have many dimensions and it can have
a significant influence on the individual behaviour. Culture is socially transmitted through
enculturation and socialisation. Thus, most of the behaviours that can be perceived in a
context and culture is a prominent context. As individuals belonging to various cultures come
together due to various reasons like migration for work and education, due to globalisation
and so on, the result is cultural diversity.
There are various dimensions of culture as stated by Hofstede, that leads to individual
differences in the values and preferences that are learned. These are discussed as follows:
Individualism and collectivism: An idiocentric individual, that is an individual with
individualism orientation will follow his/ her own goals without taking in to consideration
the views of his/ her family members. On the other hand, an allocentric individual, that is
an individual with collectivistic orientation will behave in manner that is seen as beneficial
for the group and for that he/ she may even give on his/ her personal goals. United States of
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America and Canada can be seen as allocentre examples of individualistic societies. Whereas, Application of Social
India can be seen as an example of collectivistic society allocentre (Kwantes et al. 2012). Psychology to
community
Power distance: This is yet another dimension of culture and can be explained as the extent
of acceptance of inequality (that is based on status in society, power, physical characteristics
and so on) by the individuals in society. Thus, there can be cultures that have high power
density (for example, Malaysia and Philippines) and cultures that have low power density
(Germany and New Zealand).
Masculinity and femininity: This dimension mainly focuses on work related goals. Cultures
that have high masculinity focus in encouragement of recognition at work place, competitions
and advancement at workplace. Whereas, cultures that have high femininity focus on
relationships and provide significance to harmony. Examples of masculinity culture are Japan
and Italy and examples of femininity culture are Sweden and the Netherlands (Kwantes et al.
2012).Gender differences may exist in values endorsed in masculinity cultures, whereas such
a gender difference is not found amongst femininity cultures.
Uncertainty avoidance: This mainly has to do with coping process when uncertainties are
faced. High levels of uncertainties can lead to generation of stress and anxiety amongst the
individuals. And this is relevant in this context because every society will teach its individuals
ways of coping with uncertainties. Societies with low uncertainty avoidance believe that
uncertainties cannot be avoided and they need to be firm. Example of such a society is
Singapore. Societies with high uncertainty experience threat, when faced with uncertainty,
example of such a society is Germany.
Long or short term orientation: In cultures with long orientation, the future rewards are
valued and thus patience, harmony and persistence are given more importance for example,
Taiwan and South Korea. Whereas, in cultures with short term orientation, the focus is on
immediate rewards and quick gratification, for example, Canada.
Thus, culture can contribute to the diversity amongst the individuals to a greater extent.

13.3.2 Intergroup Relations

As part of the various social groups in any community, humans differ in their perceptions,
attitudes, expressions and behaviours. They reflect strong similarities between themselves
and members of their own group and highlight the differences between their own group
and other groups. When viewed from a cultural perspective, this behaviour showcases the
concept of ‘Ethnocentrism’ which is a tendency to use your own culture as the standard to
judge and evaluate other cultures. In groups, however, is viewed as ‘in-group favouritism’
wherein people have a tendency to evaluate themselves and their groups more positively
than others.
Intergroup relations refers to how people belonging to various social groups perceive and
interact with those belonging to other groups. Most often these interactions involve hostility,
prejudice and intolerance. A challenge to humanity is to reduce these negative occurrences
among diverse groups and promote harmony. Prejudice can be described as a negative attitude
that is based on membership of a group and discrimination can be described as the behaviour
that is directed towards other individuals on the basis of membership of certain category. And
these can have a negative impact on the intergroup relationships.
Two of the prominent approaches on reducing prejudice and discrimination are:
Intergroup contact approach: According to social psychologist Gordon Allport (1954),
‘contact hypothesis’ can help in reducing prejudice. The hypothesis suggests that intergroup
contact among diverse groups under appropriate conditions can help to reduce prejudice. The
four key conditions suggested for contact situations are:
Equal status: Members in the contact situation should have an equal hierarchical relationship.
137
Areas of Application of Intergroup cooperation: Members should work together in a non-competitive environment.
Social Psychology Common goals: Members must rely on each other to achieve their shared desired goals.
Support by social and institutional authorities: There should be authorities in the social
domain that support the positive contact.
Pettigrew (1998) explained how these conditions facilitate prejudice reduction. He listed the
following processes of change;
Learning about the ‘out group’ or reappraising how one thinks about one’s own ‘in-group’;
Changing behaviour to open oneself to potential positive contact experiences;
Generating affective ties and friendships and reducing negative emotions.
In group reappraisal
Social identity approach: The social identity theory by social psychologist Tajfel (1978)
highlights that people’s self concepts are based on their membership in social groups. These
social identities affect attitudes and behaviours of people in their in-group and out-group
interactions. Some of the strategies of this approach include:
De-categorisation: Involves teaching people from different social groups to focus on a
person’s unique individual characteristics rather than the group they belong to. Also known
as individuation, this process helps to divert the attention from group differences to individual
characteristics – for example, instead of talking about others belong to different religions as
‘they’, ‘them’, instead bringing the focus to ‘me’, ‘you’.
Re-categorisation: Individuals with different group identities are made aware of the fact that
the groups to which they belong are part of a bigger group – for example, a person belonging
to any state in India would be made aware that they are Indians.
Crossed categorisation: Individuals from opposing groups are made aware of the fact that
they simultaneously belong to a third separate group and the membership in the third group
is emphasised – for example, John is an Indian national while David is a British national. But
they both are catholic, male in gender and having similar political and social outlooks.
Diversity can pose various challenges like prejudice could develop amongst the individuals
and there can also be discrimination. Besides, there can also be development of stereotypes,
that is, beliefs that individuals hold regarding the characteristics, attributes and behaviours of
certain group members (Kwantes et al. 2012). Diversity could also lead to conflict amongst
the individuals, that mainly stems from lack of compatibility in interests of the individuals.
Despite of the challenges posed by diversity, there are many positives to it too. Experiencing
diversity prepares people to adjust anywhere across the globe with others of different
backgrounds and lifestyles. Diversity encourages learning provokes deeper thought and
creativity. It also provides fulfilling experiences in one’s social life. The presence of diversity
promotes healthy attitudes and enhances self awareness. Following are some of the advantages
of diversity:
• It can enhance group processes: In this context we can discuss about functional diversity,
that is, in a group, different individuals will bring different talents, skills and strengths.
Different individuals will bring different point of view, opinion and information to the
group that can enhance the group effectiveness. Though it is also important to ensure that
there is respect and acceptance amongst the group members and any difference in opinion
or conflict is managed effectively.
• It will lead to innovation and creativity: As the group members are able to share diverse
opinions and perspectives, innovation and creativity will be enhanced.
• Effective problem solving: Diversity leads to effective problem solving as the problm is
viewed from different perspectives and diverse solutions can be generated.
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13.4 Prejudice and Stereotype Application of Social
Psychology to
community
A prejudice is a negative belief or feeling about a particular group of individuals. Prejudices
are often passed on from one generation to the next.
Prejudice is a destructive phenomenon, and it is pervasive because it serves many psychological,
social, and economic functions. It allows people to avoid doubt and fear. It gives people
scapegoats to blame in times of trouble and can boost self-esteem. Evolutionary psychologists
suggest that prejudice allows people to bond with their own group by contrasting their own
groups to outside groups. For example, most religious and ethnic groups maintain some
prejudices against other groups, which help to make their own group seem more special.
Prejudice legitimizes discrimination because it apparently justifies one group’s dominance
over another. People’s social identities depend on the groups they belong to. From a person’s
perspective, any group s/he belongs to is an ingroup, and any group s/he doesn’t belong to,
is an outgroup. People generally have a lower opinion of outgroup members and a higher
opinion of members of their own group. People who identify strongly with a particular group
are more likely to be prejudiced against people of outgroups. Prejudices in workplaces affect
how people perceive sexual harassment. Men are more likely than women to attribute blame
to the victim. Changing men’s attributions regarding sexual harassment may help to prevent
it. The theory also helps in criminal law to understand the psychology of criminals. In today's
world, with the increase in crime and global terrorism understanding criminal psychology has
become essential.
Stereotypes are the beliefs about people based on their membership in a particular group.
Stereotypes can be positive, negative, or neutral. Stereotypes based on gender, ethnicity, or
occupation are common in many societies. Stereotypes have several important functions:
1) They allow people to quickly process new information about an event or person.
2) They organize people’s past experiences.
3) They help people to meaningfully assess differences between individuals and groups.
4) They help people to make predictions about other people’s behaviour. Nevertheless
stereotypes can lead to distortions of reality for several reasons:
a) They cause people to exaggerate differences among groups.
b) They lead people to focus selectively on information that is in consonance with
the stereotype and ignore information that disagrees with it.
c) They tend to make people see other groups as overly homogenous, even though
people can easily see that the groups they belong to are heterogeneous. One
way to simplify things is to organize people into groups. For each group, we
have a stereotype, a fixed set of characteristics we tend to attribute to all group
members. Stereotypes enable us to make quick judgments, but these are often
wrong.

13.5 Social Change

Social change is the transformation of the social order in the community by making
adjustments and variations to social institutions, behaviour, and relations. It involves social
evolution where the society makes amendments to traditional societal norms leading to the
necessary change. However, the modification of the developmental psychology is crucial
in ensuring that the necessary change is successful. It results from various factors, which
support the change making it inevitable. Social change leads to increased awareness and more
understanding among people due to the presence of more information in the community,
which enables people to make informed decisions based on the scenario at hand. There is
139
Areas of Application of also improved civic participation attributed to change in the attitude of the public, which
Social Psychology motivates them to correct instances of injustice (Cohen, 2011). According to psychology,
social change begins with the personal change, which leads to commitment and motivation
needs to undertake group and community change in general.
Community social change entails transformative change, cultural change, and organizational
change. Transformative change involves making amendments based on plans in the
community. The building blocks of social change include various crucial factors that need
to be fulfilled to achieve the required change. The first component is transformative change.
It involves addressing of pressing and sustainability issues and challenges such as loss of
biodiversity in the society and climatic changes. To ensure the success of this component,
the social and cultural systems need to be amended to enable the transition to sustainable
humanity civilization. It is done through the application of practical knowledge and experience
that will facilitate the transformative change.   Another critical component of social change is
engagement and participation.

Self-Assessment Questions II (SAQ II)

State whether the following statements are true or false.
1) Culture can be described as a way of life. ( )
2) A prejudice is a negative belief or feeling about a particular group of individuals.( )
3) Stereotypes are beliefs about people based on their membership in a particular
group. ( )

13.6 Let Us Sum Up

To sum up, in the present unit, we discussed about the concept of community. Community
can be explained as a group of people who are functionally related and reside in a certain
geographical locality at certain point of time. The people also display cohesiveness and a
common culture. These people are a part of a social structure and display awareness regarding
their identity as a group that is unique and has a separate identity. The three broad categories
of community, namely, rural, urban and sub-urban communities were also discussed. Another
aspect discussed in the unit was about social psychology and human diversity. People around
us belong to various nationalities, ethnic identities, cultural backgrounds, socio-economic
status, religious beliefs etc. We still continue to live alongside this diversity as individuals
with a strong sense of belonging to our particular community or group. Cultural diversity
with a focus on various dimensions of culture was also discussed. One of the attribute of
diversity is intergroup relations. Two of the prominent approaches on reducing prejudice and
discrimination among groups are the contact approach and the Social identity approach Tajfel
(1978).
The unit also focused on the application of social psychology to community. In this section,
prejudice, stereotype and social change were also covered.

13.7 Unit End Questions

1) What is a community? Describe the different types of communities.
2) Elucidate diversity.
3) Describe cultural diversity with a focus on dimensions of culture.
4) Write a short note on the following:
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 a) Prejudice Application of Social
b) Stereotype Psychology to
community
c) Social change

13.8 Glossary
Community: Community can be explained as a group of people who are functionally related
and reside in a certain geographical locality at certain point of time. The people also display
cohesiveness and a common culture. These people are a part of a social structure and display
awareness regarding their identity as a group that is unique and separate identity.
Community psychology: Community psychology can be described as focusing on how
individual relates with communities and society. It also focuses on improvement of quality of
life for individuals as well as in communities and society as a whole and this is done with the
help of research and action.

13.9 Answer to Self-Assessment Questions

Self-Assessment Questions I
1) True
2) True
3) True
Self-Assessment Questions II
1) True
2) True
3) True

13.10 Suggested Reading and References

"Community" Oxford Dictionaries. 2014. Oxford Dictionaries from [Link]
wiki/Communityon 19.07.2021.
Ackerman, C. E. (2018). What is Environmental Psychology? Retrived from https://
[Link]/environmental-psychology/ on 23.05.2020.
Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Breugelmans, S. M. Chasiotis, A and Sam, D. L. (2002). Cross-
Cultural Psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Berry,J. W., Poortinga, Y. H. and Pande, J. (1997) Handbook of Cross-cultural Psychology
Volume 1 Theory and Methods. London. Allyn and Bacon, 2nd edition.
Blaine, B.E. (2013). Understanding the Psychology of Diversity. New Delhi: Sage Publications
Inc., 2nd Edition.
Canuto, Marcello, A. &Yaeger, J. (editors). (2000). The Archaeology of Communities.
Routledge, New York. Hegmon, M. (2002). Concepts of Community in Archaeological
Research. In Seeking the Center: Archaeology and Ancient Communities in the Mesa Verde
Region, edited by Mark D. Varien and Richard H. Wilshusen, pp. 263–79. University of Utah
Press, Salt Lake City.
Cardwell, M. (1999). Dictionary of Psychology. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn.
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Areas of Application of Cohen, G. (2011). Social Psychology and Social Change. Science, 334(6053), 178-179. http://
Social Psychology [Link]/10.1126/science.1212887
Crisp, R. J., &Hewstone, M. (1999). Differential evaluation of crossed category groups:
Patterns, processes, and reducing intergroup bias. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations,
2(4), 307-333.
Eberhardt, J. L., P. A. Goff, V. J. Purdie, and P. G. Davies (2004). Seeing Black: Race, Crime,
and Visual Processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87(6), 876–893.
Emeghara, U. (2020). Bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility. Simply Psychology.
[Link]
Ensari, N., & Miller, N. (2001). Decategorization and the reduction of bias in the crossed
categorization paradigm. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(2), 193-216.
Evans, G. W. (2019). Projected Behavioural Impacts of Global Climate Change, Annual
Review of Psychology, 70(1), 449-474
Everett, J. A. C. Intergroup Contact Theory: Past, Present, and [Link], G. W. (1954).
The nature of prejudice. Cambridge/Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Retrieved from https://
[Link]/article/intergroup-contact-theory-past-present-and-future on 02/06/2020.
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2000). Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup
identity model. Psychology Press.
Goldberg, D., Huxley, P. (2012). Mental Illness in the Community: The Pathway to Psychiatric
Care. London: Routledge.
Guilford, R. (2012). Applying Social Psychology to the Environment. L In F. W. Schneider,
J. Gruman, & L. M. Coutts (Eds.), Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing
social and practical [Link]: Sage.
Hedin, D. P. (1989). Power of Community Service. Proceedings of the Academy of Political
Science. Volume 37. Werner and McVaugh
Hodgetts, D., Drew, N., Sonn, C., St , N., Sonn, C., Stolte, O olte, O., Waimarie Nikor aimarie
Nikora, L., & Cur a, L., & Curtis, C. (2010). Social psychology and everyday life. Basingstoke,
UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
International Dalit Solidarity Network. Report finds entrenched caste discrimination in
India’s criminal justice system. Retrieved from [Link]
discrimination-in-indias-criminal-justice-system/ on 29/08/2020
Joireman, J. (2005). Environmental Problems as Social Dilemmas: The Temporal Dimension.
In A. Strathman& J. Joireman (Eds.), Understanding behaviour in the context of time: Theory,
research, and application (p. 289–304). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Kohrt, B. A., Asher, L., Bhardwaj, A., Fazel, M., Jordans, M., Mutamba, B. B., Nadkarni,
A., Pedersen, G. A., Singla, D. R., & Patel, V. (2018). The Role of Communities in Mental
Health Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Meta-Review of Components and
Competencies. International journal of environmental research and public health, 15(6),
1279. [Link]
Kwantes, C. T; Bergeron, S; and Kaushal. R. (2012). Applying Social Psychology in
Diversity. In F. W. Schneider, J. Gruman, & L. M. Coutts (Eds.), Applied social psychology:
Understanding and addressing social and practical [Link]: Sage.
Latané´, B., &Nida, S. (1981). Ten years of research on group size and helping. Psychological
Bulletin, 89, 308 –324.

142
Margalit, M. (2004). Second-generation research on resilience: Social-emotional aspects of Application of Social
children with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 19, 45-48. Psychology to
community
Matsumoto, D and Juang, L. (2004). Culture and Psychology. CA: Wadsworth.
Nimgaonkar, A. U, Menon, S. D. (2015). A task shifting mental health program for an
impoverished rural Indian community. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 16:41–7.
Nizamie, H. S., Akhtar, S., Banerjee, S., Goyal, N. (2009). Health care delivery model in
epilepsy to reduce treatment gap: WHO study from a rural tribal population of India. Epilepsy
Res Elsevier, 84:146–52.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49 (1),
65-85.
Prabhakar, H., Manoharan, R. (2005). The Tribal Health Initiative model for healthcare
delivery: A clinical and epidemiological approach. National Medical Journal of India,
18:197–204.
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra &Ors v. State of Uttar Pradesh &Ors. Retrieved
from [Link]
ors-v-state-uttar-pradesh-ors on 30/08/2020.
Van Vugt, M. (2009). Averting the tragedy of the commons: Using social psychological
science to protect the environment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3),
169-173.

143
 Unit 14 Application of Social
Psychology to environment*
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Social Psychology and Environment
14.2.1 Effect of Physical Environment on Human Behaviour
14.2.2 Effect of Human Behaviour on the Environment
14.2.3 Social Dilemmas
14.2.4 Social Design
14.3 Let Us Sum Up
14.4 Unit End Questions
14.5 Glossary
14.6 Answer to Self-Assessment Questions
14.7 Suggested Readings and References

14.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
● Examine the applications of social psychology to environment; and
● Discuss the applications of social psychology to diversity.

14.1 INTRODUCTION
This case is also known as the ‘Dehradun Valley Litigation’. In Mussoorie hill range of
Himalayas, the activity of quarrying was being carried out. Limestone was extracted by
blasting out the hills with dynamite. This practice has also resulted in cave-ins and slumping
because the mines were dug deep into the hillsides, which is an illegal practice. Due to lack
of vegetation many landslides occurred, which killed villagers, and destroyed their homes,
cattle and agricultural land.
Creuza Oliveira tells the story of more than nine million Brazilian domestic workers, mostly
women, mostly black, for whom slavery was a way of life. Born in a family of poor rural
workers with no schooling, Oliveira began life as a domestic worker in Bahia when she was
a mere 10 years old. Unable to balance work and school, she had to pick work and dropped
out of school numerous times. At work, Oliveira would be beaten and taunted whenever
she broke something, she was often called as lazy, monkey, even "nigger". The physical and
psychological abuse was compounded by sexual abuse from the young men in the household
where she worked. To top it all, Oliveira was not paid. "I only started to receive the salary
as a domestic worker when I was 21," she told a gathering at a UN conference in Geneva.
"Until that age, my payment was in used clothes and food. I did not have a right to vacations
or any basic workers rights."
* Dr. Tina D Cunha, SEN Inclusion learning mentor and key worker.
144
Social Psychology today is concerned with its applications to human life and living. It lays Application of Social
great emphasis on the cognitive basis of social behaviour and pays more attention to the Psychology to
practical application of the disciplines, knowledge. Humans survive as a species depending Environment
on their capacity for social living. Most of human history involved people dependent on
others for survival. Humans naturally adapted to this form of existence.
Individual’s today make sense of the world around because of the shared understandings,
norms, and behaviours that exist in primary social groups such as the family. They adjust to
these even though they may have their own stereotypes and prejudice. As discussed earlier,
stereotype in social psychology is an overgeneralised belief about a particular category of
people (Cardwell, 1999). Prejudice is an affective feeling towards a person based on their
perceived social membership. It refers to preconceived, often unfavourable, evaluation of
another person based on gender, beliefs, social class, disability, race/ethnicity etc. (Dovidio,
2010).
According to social psychologists, people formulate ideas of the world through two main
approaches:
Social Cognition Approach: The approach focusses on the functioning of the human mind
which receives, processes, structures and stores information from the senses as mental
representations (Perloff, 2008).
Discursive and Narrative Approach: The approach focusses on how information in
individuals mind has already been constructed by other people. Thus, the information that
individual’s draw to make sense of the world arises from dialogues that have long cultural and
social histories (Billig, 2008).
Social psychologists agree that the construction of representations (or understandings)
of the world is central to the production of everyday knowledge. In an individual’s social
context, psychologists believe that even when an individual is physically isolated from others,
they make a psychological presence in their society. Hence, an important feature of social
psychology is about explaining human behaviour as a result of the interaction of mental states
and immediate, social situations.
In the present unit, we will discuss the reciprocal relationship between human beings and the
built as well as natural environment they live in. In this relationship there are varied socio-
psychological markers like gender, age, race, sexual orientation etc. that contribute towards
human diversity. These factors along with the physical, social and cultural environment
aid in building social identities. Such diversity encourages positive group relations and an
appreciation and value to others in the community. In a nutshell, this unit focusses on the
applications of social psychology to the environment and diversity.

14.2 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

In this section we will attempt to understand the interplay between people and the environment
by discussing how the physical environment affects human behaviour (climate, nature,
pollution etc.), how human behaviour affects the environment (Conserving energy, recycling,
reduced biodiversity etc.) and the tragedy of the Commons.
The interdisciplinary nature of environmental psychology enables us to understand the
relationship between behaviour and the environment. The Journal of Environmental
psychology explains the field as “the scientific study of the transactions and interrelationships
between people and their physical surroundings (including built and natural environments,
the use and abuse of nature and natural resources, and sustainability-related behaviour)”. The
case of Dehradun Valley Litigation mentioned at the start of the unit is a clear example of how
human behaviours disturb out natural resources and inturn affect humans themselves.

145
Areas of Application of 14.2.1 Effect of Physical Environment on Human Behaviour (Climate,
Social Psychology Nature, Pollution etc.)
We all exist in a physical world. Our perceptions of the environment around us relate to
the extent to which we engage with it. Humans are known to have an innate awareness
and sensitivity the towards the environment. In our need for safety and security (according
to Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs), we seek the environment around us for physical and
psychological comfort.
The environment we live in, affects us and our behaviour. Three such effects are on the
following:
Behavioural and Emotional responses: According to Evans, G. (2018), negative effect,
interpersonal and intergroup conflict and psychological distress has been linked to global
climate changes especially rise in temperatures. Natural disasters like floods, draughts cause
high stress, change in routines, decreased quality of the life and disturbed mood states among
people.
Health: Factors in the physical environment like air/ water/ noise pollution, proximity to toxic
sites, access to unhealthy food etc. can lead to various health concerns like cardiovascular
illness, respiratory issues, lifestyle diseases among other consequences. Besides these direct
influences, factors like geographical location, crowding, poor availability of resources can
contribute to vulnerabilities such as malnutrition, impairments etc.
Motivation: Environmental factors are known to affect every human that share common living
or work spaces. Such factors such as proper (or improper) lighting, noise, humidity, space
have huge impacts on human performance and productivity. People who have experienced
calamities or those that have a passion for the environment along with environmentalists are
motivated towards preservation and this motivation influences their knowledge, attitudes, risk
perception and overall behavioural responses.

14.2.2 Effect of Human Behaviour on The Environment (Conserving

Energy, Recycling, Reduced Biodiversity etc.)
Human beings affect the environment in numerous ways. These are manifested in positive
as well as negative behaviours that have a significant effect on our natural habitat. The
indispensable resources of air, water, soil once damaged can take years, decades or even
centuries to replenish. Three of the major impacts that harm the environment are:
Pollution: The trash and waste that the human population produces is inescapable. Pollution
in any form (water/ air/ noise) has serious impacts on the environment and eventually on
humans too. Such pollutants damage animal life, aquatic life by destroying their natural
habitats. In humans, their own irresponsible behaviours of causing the various forms of
pollution has health consequences like allergies, asthma, heart conditions etc.
Global Warming: Humans engage in large scale deforestation and one of the detrimental
effects of such behaviours is increase in carbon-di-oxide emissions that increase the planets’
average temperature. With rising sea levels, melting glaciers and disturbed wildlife habitats,
human activities such as burning fossil fuel, land abuse, clearing forest and green lands
continue to contribute towards global warming.
Climate Change: According to Solomonet al (2007) human activities such as those mentioned
above, cause variations in the atmosphere through the release of harmfull gases like carbon-
di-oxide in the air and hence contribute to climate change. The largest contribution comes
from the burning of fossil fuels and such activities cause major changes in natural processes
such as solar changes and volcanic eruptions.
Today, with awareness and activism to save the environment, times may be changing. Some of
the positive human behaviours to undo the damage done so far are as follows:
146
Conserving energy: Simple behaviours like using an outdoor clothes line to dry clothes
Application of Social
or using smart meters that display data on energy usage or not leaving taps running when Psychology to
brushing your teeth etc. help towards saving energy. Environment

Following the three R’s: The three R’s belong to what is known as the waste hierarchy
– Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. These actions are to be taken in order of priority to reduce the
amount of waste generated and create a sustainable life. By simply reusing or remaking old
products into new ones without exploiting resources from nature is one of the ways in which
humans can make a positive contribution to the ecosystem. Such eco friendly behaviours will
help sustain our natural resources in a long run. Responsible human behaviours of refusing
to buy items you do not need, reusing items more than once and disposing off items no longer
required at appropriate recycling centres are taking the focus in environmental campaigns
today.
Conserving and protecting natural resources: A lot of farming communities globally
are faced with decreased yields and low incomes because of high temperatures and erratic
rainfall. Individuals are realising the impact of their behaviours on such communities and
need to engage in more sustainable activities such as plating trees to prevent soil erosion,
rainwater harvesting, grow vegetation in catchment areas, treating industrial waste, using bio
fuels and reducing the usage of plastic among other things.

14.2.3 Social Dilemmas

When we discuss about social psychology and environment, we mainly focus on the effect
that the environment has on the individuals and also the effect that individuals have on the
environment. Our physical environment including the weather, pollution, buildings, the
natural setting etc.. can have an impact on our behaviour as well as our thinking and wellbeing.
Our behaviour and attitude related to conservation, waste management, conservation related
activities etc can have an impact on the environment.
The application of social psychology to environment calls for focus on social dilemmas.
Social dilemmas can be described as situations in which individuals have to make certain
choices. In social dilemma, the individuals could get greater rewards for noncooperation than
for cooperation, regardless of actions by others. But if a large number of individuals do not
cooperate then the rewards received by all are lower (Gilford, 2012).
There are three main forms of social dilemmas:
Public benefit dilemma: This denotes a dilemma whether to contribute to a certain activity
of project that will benefit everyone when it is a voluntary contribution. The contribution
can be in terms of finance, efforts or time. For example, cleaning the common area of your
society, which will benefit everyone in the society. The dilemma here can occur when you
have to contribute your time, energy or money. Also if only contribute the project will not be
as successful as when a large number of individuals contribute.
Social traps: These are the pleasures that are for a shorter period of time but in long term
could lead to pain or loss. For example, using pesticides while growing vegetables could help
in clearing the pests but in long run the pesticides can have an impact on the fields in which
the vegetables were grown.
Resource dilemmas: Resource dilemmas can be termed as common dilemmas that denote
the situations in which the individuals have to make a choice between one’s own interest and
that of the community or environment (Gilford, 2012). Each individual when taking certain
decisions like using private care in place of public transport can contribute to depletion of
resources. The issue may not seem large at an individual level, but when we see large number
of persons doing so, leading to traffic jams and pollution and also leading to consumption of
fuel, we realise the the issue is at a much larger scale.

147
 In context of social psychology and the environment, an interesting concept called the ‘tragedy
Areas of Application of
Social Psychology of the commons’ was coined by scientist Garrett Hardin in 1968. He described what could
happen in groups of people when individual’s act in their own best self interest and ignore
what is best for the whole group. In a fishing community, for example, the activity of fishing
is a main source of income and hence every fisherman will aim to catch as much fish as he
can while ignoring the fact that the rest of the group may also be engaging in such self interest
behaviours. As this behaviour continues, the common shared resource (fish) will get depleted
eventually and it will affect the entire community and people globally as well, due to non-
availability of fish.
People all over the globe need to share the common natural resources and preserve them as
much as possible rather than engage in behaviours resulting in their depletion. Mark van Vugt
(2009) outlined some common solutions to reduce the uncertainty of the future resulting from
the tragedy of the commons:
Information: According to Van Vugt, the more information a person has, the more secure
they feel about making rational decisions that may impact the environment they live in. For
example, people may conserve more water when they are made to understand how their
behaviours can directly alleviate water shortage.
Identity: Humans have a deep desire to belong to a social group. As social creatures, there is
a strong need for acceptance and feeling of belongingness. Being a part of an energy usage
group in the neighbourhood – where usage is reflected as a smiley face or a frown face based
on individual electricity bills – can make people change their consumption behaviours.
Institutions: Policies made by authorities and institutions need to engage in fair distribution of
resources. People will have low interest or motivation to participate in a group if the authorities
or institutions running these groups are corrupt or playing favourites. Such institutions can
encourage trust in people by listening to them and providing accurate unbiased information
about resources.
Incentives: Providing incentives by rewarding positive environmental behaviours and
highlighting harmful ones aims at motivating people to engage in ways that promote
environmental preservation.
Intervention strategies designed to focus on pro-environmental behaviours need to focus on
the above and need to be based on strategies that lead individuals to avoid taking actions
based on their self interest and go with larger interest of the community. According to Steg
and Vlek (Gilford, 2012), an intervention could involve the following steps:
● Specific behaviour that will have a positive impact on the quality of the environment
which is needs to be selected. For example, you could target the waste disposal
behaviour of individuals in your society.
● The primary factors underlying the specific behaviour (selected in step 1) are to be
identified and examined. Any behaviour is complex and have many determinants.
The primary factors could be values, awareness related to the problem, attitude, social
norms ans so on.
● Development of an intervention strategy to change the specific behaviour. Various
strategies based on the earlier steps can be designed. Strategies can be as follows:
Antecedent strategies: These strategies focus on the factors that lead to the problem. For
example, awareness based strategies.
Consequence strategies:These strategies focus on the outcome of the problem. For example,
reinforcement for certain pro - environmental behaviours.
Evaluating the effect of the intervention strategy. Any intervention is to be evaluated and
based on the evaluation the intervention, can be further improved or modified.

148
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I) Application of Social
Psychology to
1) What is resource dilemma? Environment

.........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

2) What are social dilemmas?

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................

14.2.4 Social Design

In the context of social psychology and environment, the term environment denotes the
situation in which we function and exist. It not only has to do with the natural resources but
also with our work set up or a class room set up that could enhance the work productivity
or learning process respectively. Our behaviour can be influenced by factors like lighting,
noise distractions, and temperature and so on. Thus, as students of social psychology, we also
need to focus on this aspect of social behaviour. And in this context we can discuss about
the term social design. Social design mainly focuses on how settings can be designed in a
way that help meet the desires and requirements of individuals. Social design is different
from technical design, that is, the engineering related details of a building. As described by
Guilford (2012, page 312), the approach of social design is “small scale, human oriented, low
cost, inclusive, democratic, tending to appropriate technology, and concerned with meaning
and context, the occupant or paying client, and a local focus”. The main goals of social design
(Guilford, 2012, page 322) include:
● Meeting or matching the needs of the occupants: Buildings need to be socially
designed in such a way that they match the needs and activities of the occupants. In this
context, it is important to focus on Press that denotes the characteristics of environmental
features that play a role in shaping of the behaviour. Press can be categorised as alpha
press and beta press. Alpha press denotes the reality that can be examined with the
help of an inquiry that is objective and beta press denotes individuals interpretation
about the reality. Congruence that is based on alpha matching denotes how the setting
objectively meets the needs of the occupants and habitability. Beta matching denotes
the environmental quality from the point of view of the occupants. As much a s possible
the social design must attempt to facilitate alpha and beta matching.
● Ensuring the satisfaction of the users of the building: The satisfaction of the
occupants can be reflected in habitability. And social design practitioners need to focus
on these aspects as well while designing the building.
● Bringing about change in behaviour: An adequate social design can lead to better
work productivity, learning experience and will facilitate overall positive behaviours.
● Facilitation of social support: Buildings can be designed in such a way that they
encourage social interaction. Furnitures can also be arranged in a Socio-Petal way that
encourage social interaction, rather than sociofugal way, arrangements that discourage
social interaction.

149
Areas of Application of ● Enhancing control: Individuals should be able to control their immediate environment
Social Psychology and should be capable to sense their loss of control. An example of low control setting
is a crowded area.
● Using imageability: The building should be understandable to individuals who use the
buildings.
Social designs can be applied to not only closed places but also to the outdoor areas and the
above goals are applicable for outdoor area as well.
In this context, we can also discuss about Defensible space theory. The theory was proposed
by Jane Jacobs and Oscar Newman (Guilford, 2021). The theory states that crime occurrence
and feelings of security can be influenced by certain physical design features. Thus, the spaces
can be designed in a such a way that the feelings of security of the people is increased and
likelihood of crime occurrence is reduced. There are six main elements on the basis of which
the crime vulnerability of a space (Guilford, 2021) can be assessed:
● the possible visibility or lines of sight of the public areas.
● presence of the residents who take benefit of the lines of sights.
● social involvement of the individuals in maintenance.
● good access and escape routes for victims but poor access and escape routes for the
criminals.
● surrounding needs to be attractive to promote caring behaviour on behalf of the
individuals towards the space that creates the impression that individuals are vigilant.
● whether there are structural safeguards or not.
Based on the above checklist, areas that could be prone to crime occurrence can be identified.
Thus, social psychology can be adequately applied to environment to enhance it and make it
safe.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)

Fill in the following Blanks:
1) ............................ mainly focuses on how settings can be designed in a way that help
meet the desires and requirements of individuals.
2) The term environment denotes the situation in which we ............................ and
.............................
3) The Defensible space theory was proposed by ............................ and ............................
(Guilford, 2021)
4) ............................ need to be socially designed in such a way that they match the needs
and activities of the occupants.

14.3 LET US SUM UP

We all exist in a physical world. Our perceptions of the environment around us relate to
the extent to which we engage with it. Humans are known to have an innate awareness and
sensitivity towards the environment. Human beings affect the environment in numerous
ways. Three of the major impacts that harm the environment are Pollution, Global Warming
and Climate Change. Today, with awareness some of the positive human include conserving
energy by following the three R’s– Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Conserving and protecting
natural resources. We also focused on the social designs and how they can have an impact on
the individual behaviours.
150
14.4 UNIT END QUESTIONS Application of Social
Psychology to
Environment
1) Discuss the effect of physical environment on human behaviour.
2) Examine how human behaviour affect the environment.
3) Elucidate upon social dilemma.
4) Describe the concept of social design.

14.5 GLOSSARY
Culture: Taylor defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief,
art, morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member
of society” (Berry, Poortinga, Breugelmans, Chasiotis, and Sam, 2002).
Social design: Social design mainly focus on how settings can be designed in a way that help
meet the desires and requirements of individuals.
Social dilemmas:Social dilemmas can be described as situations in which individuals have
to make certain choices.
Tragedy of the Commons: According to scientist Garrett Hardin (1968) is what could happen
in groups of people when individual’s act in their own best self interest and ignore what is
best for the whole group.

14.6 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

(SAQ)
Self Assessment Questions I
1) Resource dilemmas can be termed as common dilemmas that denote the situations in
which the individuals have to make a choice between one’s own interest and that of the
community or environment.
2) Social dilemmas can be described as situations in which individuals have to make
certain choices.
Self Assessment Questions II
1) Social design
2) function and exist
3) Jane Jacobs and Oscar Newman
4) Buildings

14.7 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Ackerman, C. E. (2018). What is Environmental Psychology? Retrived from https://
[Link]/environmental-psychology/ on 23.05.2020.
Berry,J. W., Poortinga, Y. H. and Pande,J. (1997) Handbook of Cross-cultural Psychology
Volume 1 Theory and Methods. London. Allyn and Bacon, 2nd edition.
Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Breugelmans, S. M. Chasiotis, A and Sam, D. L. (2002). Cross-
Cultural Psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
151
Areas of Application of Blaine, B.E. (2013). Understanding the Psychology of Diversity. New Delhi:Sage Publications
Social Psychology Inc., 2nd Edition.
Cardwell, M. (1999). Dictionary of Psychology. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn.
Crisp, R. J., & Hewstone, M. (1999). Differential evaluation of crossed category groups:
Patterns, processes, and reducing intergroup bias. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations,
2(4), 307-333.
Eberhardt, J. L., P. A. Goff, V. J. Purdie, and P. G. Davies (2004). Seeing Black: Race, Crime,
and Visual Processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87(6), 876–893.
Ensari, N., & Miller, N. (2001). Decategorization and the reduction of bias in the crossed
categorization paradigm. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(2), 193-216.
Evans, G. W. (2019). Projected Behavioural Impacts of Global Climate Change, Annual
Review of Psychology, 70(1), 449-474
Everett, J. A. C. Intergroup Contact Theory: Past, Present, and Future. Allport, G. W. (1954).
The nature of prejudice. Cambridge/Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Retrieved from https://
[Link]/article/intergroup-contact-theory-past-present-and-future on 02/06/2020.
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2000). Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup
identity model. Psychology Press.
Guilford, R. (2012). Applying Social Psychology to the Environment. L In F. W. Schneider,
J. Gruman, & L. M. Coutts (Eds.), Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing
social and practical [Link]: Sage.
Hodgetts, D., Drew, N., Sonn, C., St , N., Sonn, C., Stolte, O olte, O., Waimarie Nikor aimarie
Nikora, L., & Cur a, L., & Curtis, C. (2010). Social psychology and everyday life. Basingstoke,
UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
International Dalit Solidarity Network. Report finds entrenched caste discrimination in
India’s criminal justice system. Retrieved from [Link]
discrimination-in-indias-criminal-justice-system/ on 29/08/2020
Joireman, J. (2005). Environmental Problems as Social Dilemmas: The Temporal Dimension.
In A. Strathman & J. Joireman (Eds.), Understanding behaviour in the context of time: Theory,
research, and application (p. 289–304). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Kwantes, C. T; Bergeron, S; and Kaushal. R. (2012). Applying Social Psychology in
Diversity. In F. W. Schneider, J. Gruman, & L. M. Coutts (Eds.), Applied social psychology:
Understanding and addressing social and practical [Link]: Sage.
Matsumoto, D and Juang, L. (2004). Culture and Psychology. CA: Wadsworth.
Peery, D. (2011). Colorblind Ideal in a Race-Conscious Reality: The Case for a New Legal
Ideal for Race Relations. Northwestern Journal of Law and Social Policy, 6, 473.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual review of psychology, 49 (1), 65-85.
Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra & Ors v. State of Uttar Pradesh & Ors. Retrieved
from [Link]
ors-v-state-uttar-pradesh-ors on 30/08/2020.
Van Vugt, M. (2009). Averting the tragedy of the commons: Using social psychological science
to protect the environment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), 169-173.

152
UNIT-15 APPLICATION OF SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY IN WORK SETTING*
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Work Place Culture
15.3 Employee Engagement
15.3.1 Job Involvement
15.3.2 Commitment
15.3.3 Productivity
15.3.4 Personal Factors and Individual Differences
15.4 Motivation
15.4.1 Types of Motivation
15.4.2 Components of Motivation
15.5 Performance and Satisfaction
15.6 Individual Processes
15.7 Group Processes
15.8 Organisational Development
15.8.1 Why is organisational Development Important?
15.9 Let Us Sum Up
15.10 Unit End Questions
15.11 Glossary
15.12 Answer to Self-Assessment Questions
15.13 Suggested Readings and References

15.0 Objectives
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
● Explain the concept of workplace psychology;
● Discuss the relevance of workplace culture and employee engagement;
● Describe motivation and its types;
● Differentiate between individual and group processes; and
● Elaborate organisational development.

15.1 Introduction
‘Workplace psychology’ is the practice of psychological practises in a work environment.
Workplace psychology can identify the key skills, help employers, enhance work experience,

* Ms. Preeti Sehrawat, Psychologist, Delhi

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Areas of Application of and determine the employee’s requirements. Additionally, it is also referred to as industrial-
Social Psychology organizational psychology; other names may include IO Psychology, Work Psychology,
Workplace Psychology, Administration Psychology and Occupational Psychology. It helps
to understand the communication between supervisor and employee that may be designed
to enhance the performance of human resources and identify the compensation strategies for
pay performance plans. Increased motivation could be the result of increased productivity.
The aim of workplace psychology is to ask open-ended questions related to work and solve
the problems, encourage the staff, increase productivity, appreciation, promote employee
satisfaction, and make the environment positive. Workplace psychology is the field of
psychology that can also provide counselling to employees, or advisory to businesses tips on
productivity of the management.
According to industrial psychologists, work psychology significantly influences the cognition
and behaviour of an employee, relationships managing, interpersonal skills or their depressed
and anxious or confidence level. At least to some extent, employee can tackle the work
challenges with the productivity or work-related solutions to improve the workers’ mental
health. It can provide one to one counselling to the staff, make a plan for a career change,
team-building, cooperation between the workers, stop bullying to a weaker or younger
worker, to create friendly workplace and support or maximize the strength and minimize the
stress. Now a days, companies are hiring a psychologist to change the belief system to delve
in details to enhance the workplace safety, measure unsafe behaviour on a regular basis that
change a worker’s mindset and workplace.

15.2 WORKPLACE CULTURE

Workplace culture plays a powerful role to create the professional environment for employers.
Workplace psychology determines the progress; connection, interactions, organisation’s
management, relationships, beliefs, traditions, values and interpersonal skills of employees.
It determines the satisfaction and commitment of employees towards their organisation. It has
a direct influence on employee as well as employer, through hiring process of new employee
or keeping talented staff to attempt right cultural fit. Workplace culture is an important factor
to engage in spending more time at work than at home, to create a best or strong staff team.
Therefore, it may be called the ‘corporate agenda’.
A good workplace can be helpful towards achieving goals, recruit best employees, complete
task, and foster better performance. It also creates an environment to grow on a personal
and professional way and encourage worker’s opinions. Social psychologists emphasise
that management from successful companies considered a strong interrelation between the
workplace culture and financial performance. Strong relationships conduct ‘collaboration’,
‘respect’ and also ‘supportiveness’; such traits of employees ensure fulfillment of the corporate
task and development of the company.

15.3 EMPLOYEES ENGAGEMENT

Employee engagement is the result of how employees feel for their workplace. It is related to
job satisfaction and acceptance of company’s culture. An ‘engaged employee’ is found to be
enthusiastically involved in their jobs, readily accept workplace culture and are more likely to
take positive action for the development of organisation and its reputation or values. Engaged
employee helps to provide benefit for an organisation to maintain better relationships with
customer, higher productivity and turnover. Here are some list of various factor of engaged
employee are as follows:

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● Much more productive Application of Social
● Committed to increase investment and profits Psychology in
Work Setting
● Accepts organizational culture
● High performance
● High networking
● Team support
● Job involvement

It is a fundamental concept for describing the both qualitative and quantitative aspects.
Employee engagement is the outcome of the behaviour of healthy and supportive environment
where the employees, feel connected, supported, engaged, and have powerful business
strategy. Let us now discuss few of the components of employee engagement.

15.3.1 Job involvement

Job involvement is the system of social behaviour of a person or group at organisation.
Every worker who is active and participates in production system is said to have show their
involvement. Work involvement suggests the behavioural and psychological interference at
workplace. Involvement includes the emotional attachment and dedication to perform the
duty. As a result, the task would be sucessfull, because job involved people are enthusiastic,
motivated, interested and efficient. They are also highly connected with people, solve
problems at the work place, acquire skills, motivate others to work, and initiate new innovative
ideas. Employment participation refers to the involvement of employee with the capacity
of an employees to impact upon decisions rather than through representations. Some of the
prevalence systems that are determinants of job involvement are as follows:
a) The employment policies.
b) The development of human resources in organisation
c) The conditions of work and employment
d) Well-being of an employee
e) The motivation and commitment of an employee
15.3.2 Commitment
Commitment is the one of the best quality of worker, as it shows mental engrossment of
employees to perform the duties. A person can show their work commitments by being
sincere, following all rules and regulations including obligations, and behave confidently. It
also focuses to avoid obstacle in the progress of organisation, favour the time management.
Commitment has a direct impact on the person’s thoughts, belief and behaviour, their
characteristics may include positive attitude, interpersonal skills, confident, have the
capability to solve the problems, and are significantly reliable in all aspects. Commitment
enhances employee participation and are more likely to be involved in joint decision-making.
The success or failure of company is closely related to the commitment of its employees. The
proper definition of commitment is a promise or agreement to complete the task, which has
been committed and also to maintain the bond with their organisation; this bond may be it in
any form like, the level of enthusiasm or a feeling of connectedness to fit in and understand
the aim of the organisation.
15.3.3 Productivity
Productivity is the outcome of mixed factors such as motivation, encouragement, strengths,
talent, training, and growth, and positive work environment, assistance from each other,
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Areas of Application of time management, and even luck. Some people believe to be natural or original producers;
Social Psychology others look to regular productivity and establish potential habits to help them get things done.
Productivity hinges on mental energy level, a sense of motivation, activeness, sharpness,
alertness, and buoyancy. It might emerge naturally from work where a person finds inherently
meaningful or valuable. Productivity includes high expectations to earn more profit; as profit
increases it influence to maximizing sales and minimizing costs. Improving productivity in
the workplace premises can lead to save time. Productivity also assists to overcome workload,
creates positive morale so that employees would able to enjoy their jobs, make lesser mistakes
and make job easier or faster.

15.3.4 Personal Factors and Individual Differences

Individual differences refers to variation among individuals in their characteristics across
situations including affective, personality traits, family background, emotions, endurance,
preferences, past experiences, body size, genetic and intelligence. Every employee has his
/ her unique personality aims, responses, and goals or target, which are interrelated and
impact on their engagement levels. On the other hand, if employees are less engaged in work
and merely aim to complete their task, do not show interests and work only for the sake of
livelihood and necessities, they need to be involved more.

Self Assessment Question (SAQ 1)

Fill in the blanks:

1) .......................... is also known as workplace psychology.

2) .......................... understand the work of successful company’s culture and employees.

3) Employment participation refers to the .......................... of employee.

4) .......................... has a direct impact on the person’s thoughts, belief and behaviour.

5) Productivity influences to .......................... sales and minimizing costs.

15.4 MOTIVATION
Motivation is the process, which is helpful in all aspects of life. Motivation has been taken
from the word ‘motive’ which means need which requires satisfaction; needs could be in
the form of wants or desires. A person gets all the desires through the influences of society,
lifestyle and culture or values. Motivation can be direct, indirect or to be sustained, or either
physical or psychological. Generally, it comes by both the inspiration and enternal rewards,
that is extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is the motivation
in which an individuals is inspired by others or events while intrinsic motivation in the
motivation which is inspired by ones own self or within the individual.
In a particular situation, motivation can help to cope up for self-fulfilment to perform duty
well and feel comfortable at workplaces.
The incentive theory of movitation is based on reinforcements, which concerns a motive
or incentive to perform the duty to get compensation. Compensation helps to motivate the
workers in a company and employees in corporate life, students in their schools and colleges
in academic level. Every person needs achievement, reward and award for his / her better
performance. Incentive theory in psychology determines how the behaviours of the individual
are influenced by motivation to engage in opportunities and expected to be beneficial and
these actions are more likely to receive positive attitude as well as positive reinforcement;
the (reinforcing) stimulus has been identified to make the person feel happier. Where as, less
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motivation is expected to be unprofitable and these actions are more likely to receive negative Application of Social
attitude as well as negative reinforcement. Psychology in
Work Setting
15.4.1 Types of Motivation
Motivation can be of two main types, namely, intrinsic motivation, and extrinsic motivation.
● Intrinsic motivation involves the behaviour of satisfaction by achieving internal
rewards. These rewards can give a direct influence on human’s cognition capability,
social situations and physical development. In short, the behaviour is the result of
internal affective feelings. So, it’s a natural motivation tendency of getting satisfied
internally e.g. recognisation, determination. Self determination of an individual increase
the motivation level or vice versa. From the academic perception, intrinsic motivation
leads to the best performance of students, improve the skills, develop the interest to get
desirable marks, internal locus of control, and increase the capabilities.
● Extrinsic Motivation involves the behaviour cause of a person that comes from
outside. Extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes; the competition to perform
to get the award and hit/ beat others not for self satisfaction. In the sports stadium,
but for, a will to get the trophy reflects the extrinsic motivation. Social psychological
research has considered that intrinsic motivation can lead to enjoying the activity itself,
and extrinsic motivation can lead to over justification or may reduce the desirability of
an activity such as against others performance, threat of getting punishment but it can
easily promote motivation to goal completion.
15.4.2 Components of Motivation
Sometimes motivation requires endurance and tolerance. It follows, certain steps such as
activation, persistence, and intensity.
Activation is the process which leads to peforming an activity and to participate in particular
activities.
The next step, Persistence, is the process to make an effort towards the aim and acquires the
energy, time efficiency and utilisation of resources.
Lastly, Intensity is the process to pursue the greater opportunities with concentration and
grab the opportunities and to work towards a goal directed hehaviour.
Goal directed behaviour is the ability to do the work with potential, dedication and to fix a
motive.

15.5 Performance and Satisfaction

Job satisfaction refers focusing towards the positive relationship between employee
productivity and performance. Satisfaction makes worker feel more comfortable, easier to
show their talent, and become more independent or active. Employee, who is having job
satisfaction, feels self-motivated has better relationships with management, co-worker,
better work-life experience, and job security. It is one of important domains of workplace
psychology and highest researched variables in workplace as it is co-related with numerous
psychological problems especially; cognition and emotional. Cognitive work performance
proves the satisfaction of employee by defining their work including payment, hours, or
beneficial purposes. Emotional work performance is the effectiveness of workers including
the personal feeling by connecting the attachment relationship between a worker and the
job. An employee is influenced by certain feeling towards his/her job; this kind of affection
or feeling is based on workers’ perception and their satisfaction level, employee’s capability
to perform the task, interpersonal skills, meeting, discussion with co-operative employee,
management behaviour towards their workers or employees.
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Areas of Application of It also explains the multidisciplinary study of workers’ performance. Performance psychology
Social Psychology refers to the factors which influences the performance of employees or workers. It emphasises
on the domains such as sports, games, businesses and innovative ideas and creativity. The job
performance psychology is the main priority of workers to enable them to be perfect at their
task and produce highest results under the pressure of competition. Work performance refers
to the evaluation of job related where they evaluation of job-related aspects of the employees.
Workers show effective performance in companies where they enjoy the experience or
feelings of satisfaction and strong emotional attachment state when they realise about their
job or job experiences.

15.6 Individual Processes

Individual’s processes refers to an individuals beliefs and expectations. It provides on access
to the information for better leadership in organization. Many psychologist and researchers are
considered to inculcate work’s sensory experience. Positive and negative experience during the
time of work may impact on the psychological aspects of an individual process. The sensible
experience may consist of social cognition, self-belief, and attitudes, as well as intrapersonal
sills or capability to make powerful relationships with others. Individual’s processes involve
an individual’s perception process such as attraction, persuasion; altruism and frustration,
aggression towards a person, object or event. The success or failure of any organisation is
directly proportional to individual’s processes. Significantly, individual behaviour is influenced
by the personality traits, trust and optimism. The individual’s performance is influenced by
ambition, aim, favourable or unfavourable, realistic or unrealistic sense connected with ethic
value, positive attitudes, and feelings of an emotion or attachment of the employees with the
job.

15.7 Group Processes

Group processes are observed in the behaviours of working group consisting of two to twelve
members to perform the task completion and into decision-making process. The focus of
group process includes the characteristics to assign tasks, coordination, communication,
meeting goals, group function. Group roles underlie the socio-emotional role that provide
work feelings and the creativity of the bond when the group expects to fulfil the tasks role.
The socioemotional unity in many cases cause problems for its members and the companies.
Social psychological study encompasses that a wide range of group processes has many
different concerns; the social supports and effects, group performance.
Group role conflicts happens when the single employee is expected to complete more than
one task and is expected to try to play both roles as a management and subordinate; to desire
for same role or position in the group. It also may cause stress, aggression, loud action,
less initiation, lose the ability and develop the obstacle, lack of accuracy, dependency on
groups.

15.8 Organisational Development

Organisational development is a system which assist organisations with an innovative and
authentic leadership. Organizational psychology connects the principles of psychology with
investigation into various work place settings. I/O psychology is the study of human behaviour
relating to work and applies workplace psychological theories between the organisations and
individuals at their offices or work environment. The performance of the members of the
organisation is enhanced with training programs to check the organization’s health by using

158
‘structured activities’ conducting questionnaire interviews, surveys, group discussion, agent, Application of Social
system relationships and significantly interventions. Interventions are structured to enhance Psychology in
the learning processes of the employees and groups members. Every possible strategy Work Setting
is designed to improve the condition thus the intervention classified mainly in these sub
categories helps in generating: awareness, interrelation, conflicts or issues, qualifications,
feedback, knowledge and experience skills or personality traits of individuals.

In recent years, serious problems that have emerged at organisational level are emotional
trauma; which can lead to poor performance because of continual changes, harassment of
management, abuses of power, fear, apprehension, anxiety, outsources, group role, downsizing,
privacy concern, duration of time management. To acknowledge the organizational
development practitioners provide the suitable one-to-one questions, symbolize the trauma
and teach how to overcome from the fear or the way to be succeed into all aspects and
problem solving strategy. Another factor is the use of new technology that can support in the
domains of organization development. The initial step for this advancement of technology
is to connect the new technologies with globalisation; to integrate the company with world
economy. Some of these are done by using artificial intelligence, and robotics which focus
on saving time, less infrastructure, smart working styles, active, more effectively to align the
system, no boredom, high power, restrict the emotional level to get into the work, reducing
stress, prestigious and competing with their sub ordinates and make the full utilization of the
resources.

15.8.1 Why is Organisational Development Important?

As organisational psychology is concerned with studying of human behaviour in their
work environment, it has tremendous contribution towards improving the condition of an
organization. The concept of organizational development is important because it creates,
the systemic change to optimise the use the organizational resources and to enable the
organization to provide better facilities. It facilitates administration, specialization, enhances
dealing with situations such as decision-making issues, communication, change and internal
processes. It is the utilization of resources to develop productivity and solving problems with
efficiency. From psychological perspective, it helps to deal with stress, provide support and
guidance, encourage, the level of inter-personal belief, the level of satisfaction and dedication
of employees. The techniques of industrial management included dealing with employees at
work, the systemic approach and team building management.
The important concept of industrial psychology consists of the steps:
1) Maintaining Human Relations
2) Man-power Engineering
3) Recruitment, Requirements and Job Placement
4) Development and Personal Development
5) Accident Claim and Prevention
6) Promotional Schemes and Wages and Salary Administration
7) Motivation, Positive Attitude and Values

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)

State whether the following ‘True’ or ‘False’s

1) Intrinsic motivation is the motivation inspired by others or events. ( )

159
Areas of Application of 2) Persistence is the process which create an activity and motivates individual to participate
Social Psychology in that particular activity. ( )
3) Performance psychology is defined by the prominent categories of workplace
psychology. ( )
4) Experiences impact on the psychological aspects of an individual process. ( )
5) The use of new technology does not support in the domains of organization
development. ( )

15.9 Let Us Sum Up

It can be summed up that, workplace psychology can identify the key skills, help employers,
work experience, and employee’s requirements. Additionally, it is also referred to as industrial-
organizational psychology; other names may include IO Psychology, Work Psychology,
Workplace Psychology, Administration Psychology and Occupational Psychology. It helps to
understand the communication between supervisor and employee and may be designed to
consider the best performance in human resources and identify the compensation strategies
for pay performance plans. Increased motivation could be the result of increased productivity.
The aim of workplace psychology is to ask open ended questions related to work and solve
the problems, encourage the staff, greater productivity, appreciation, promote employee
satisfaction, and make the environment positive. Workplace culture plays a powerful role
to create the professional environment for employers. Workplace psychology determines
the progression; connection, interactions, and organisations management, relationships,
beliefs, traditions, values, interpersonal skills. An ‘engaged employee’ is enthusiastically
involved in their job and accepts organisational culture and are more likely to takes positive
action for the development of organisation.
Work involvement suggests the behavioural and psychological involvement of employees.
Involvement includes the emotional attachment and dedication to perform the duty. As a
result, the progress would become excellent, because job involved people are enthusiastic,
motivated, interested and efficient about work. It also focuses to avoid obstacle in
developing the progress of organisation, once a commitment has been given by the
workers they favour the time management, Productivity hinges on mental energy level,
a sense of motivation, activeness, sharpness, alertness, and buoyancy. It might emerge
naturally from work which a person finds inherently meaningful or valuable. Motivation
is the process, which is helpful in all aspects of life. Motivation is defined by the word
‘motive’ which means need that requires satisfaction; needs could be in the form of wants
or desires. A person gets all the desires through the influences of society, lifestyle and
culture or values. Motivation can be done by using numerous activities, it might be direct,
indirect or to be sustained, or either physical or psychological. Motivation can be defined
into two main types, namely, intrinsic motivation, and another is extrinsic motivation.
Social psychological research has considered that intrinsic motivation can lead to enjoying
the activity itself, and extrinsic motivation can lead to over justification or may reduce the
desirability of an activity such as against others performance, threat of getting punishment
but it can easily promote motivation to goal completion. Satisfaction makes worker
feel more comfortable, to show their talent, and become more independent or active.
Employee, who is having job satisfaction, feels self-motivated, better relationships with
management, co-worker, experience, and job security. It is one of important domains of
workplace psychology and highest researched variables in workplace as it is co-related
with numerous psychological problems especially; cognition and emotional. Cognitive
work performance proves the satisfaction of employee by defining their work including
payment, or beneficial purposes.

160
As organisational psychology is concerned with studying of human behaviour in their work Application of Social
environment, it has tremendous potentials to improve the condition of an organization. Psychology in
Work Setting
The concept of organizational development is important because it creates the systemic
change to use the organizational resources to enable an organization to provide better
respond.

15.10 UNIT END QUESTION

1) Explain the role of work place culture and employee engagement in context of
workplace psychology.
2) Why is motivation important at work place?
3) How do you relate performance and satisfaction in workplace?
4) Differentiate between individual and group processes.
5) Elaborate upon the concept and relevance of organisational development.

15.11 GLOSSARY
Inherently: A characteristic way or an essential.
Pessimistic:A person who has negative or worst thinking.
Traits: It is the quality or personality characteristic of an individual.
Buoyancy: The ability of positive attitude or disposition.
Quantitative: Something relate to measure by quantity wise.
Qualitative: Something relate to measure by quality wise.
Hinge: Something to attach or join.

15.12 Answer to Self Assessment Questions (SAQ)

SAQ I
1) Occupational psychology
2) Employee engagement
3) Involvement
4) Commitment
5) Maximizing
SAQ II
1) False
2) False
3) True
4) True
5) False

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Areas of Application of
Social Psychology
15.13 Suggested Reading and References
Shuck, Brad; Wollard, Karen K. (2011). "Antecedents to Employee Engagement: A Structured
Review of the Literature". Advances in Developing Human Resources. 13 (4): 4215–446.
doi:10.1177/1523422311431220.
Keenoy, Tom (October 30, 2013). "Chapter 11: A murmuration of objects?". In Truss,
Catherine (ed.). Engagement in Theory and Practice. Routledge. pp. 1157–220. ISBN 1578-
0-415-65742-6.
"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-05-14. Retrieved 2014-01-06.
^ "Employee engagement". Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD). August
2013. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
Building Better Organizations Brochure published by the Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology. Retrieved from [Link]
Iaffaldano M.T.,&Muchinsky P.M (11585). Job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-
analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 157, 251-273.
Seligman, M. E. P., &Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction.
American Psychologist, 55, 5–14.

162
UNIT-16 APPLICATION OF SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY TO SPORTS*

Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Team Dynamics in Sports
16.3 Team Building in Sports
16.3.1 Psychological Intervention
16.3.2 Communication Training Intervention
16.4 Motivation in Sports
16.5 Enhancing Team Performance
16.6 Coach- Athlete
16.7 Peer- Relationship
16.8. Let Us Sum Up
16.9 Unit End Questions
16.10 Glossary
16.11 Answer to Self Assessment Questions
16.12 Suggested Readings and References

16.0 Objectives
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the field of sports psychology;
• Explain the role of team dynamics in sports;
• Describe the interventions in team building;
• Explain the role of motivation towards the performance of sports person; and
• Discuss the importance of coach athlete.

16.1 Introduction
In this modern age, a lot of emphasis is usually laid down upon games and sports. Nowadays,
every nation wants to elate its image and reputation. For the fulfilment of this objective,
every nation sends best players for international level competitions. Therefore, every nation
is striving hard to achieve apex position in the field of sports and games. The standard of
sports in every country is having an increased trend. The proper functioning of physiological
system is physical fitness. In fact, physical capacity is more than the possession of strength
and endurance. Physical fitness is possessed by the individual, who remains enthusiast, work
cheerfully, and do the emergency work with vigour. Physical fitness implies a relation between
the task to be performed and the individual’s capability to perform it. The physical fitness
varies according to the nature of work, individual’s size, shape of the body, age and sex. A
* Ms. Preeti Sehrawat, Psychologist, Delhi
163
Areas of Application of physically fit individual should possess a sufficient reserve of energy to meet the situation
Social Psychology when a person requires unusual expenditure of strength, physical fitness. Wellness, social
fitness and emotional fitness are also its essential aspects. Sports and games provide an ideal
time to introduce the concept of wellness among young children. A healthy body produces
effective performance and allows the child to get maximum enjoyment. There are various
methods for improving wellness. These methods do not improve only health but also help in
sports achievement.
Sports and games contribute to wellness by components such as strength, speed, endurance,
flexibility and coordinate abilities. A health and nutritious diet helps to maintain an ideal
body weight for sports and improves performance. Good nutrition means essential nutrients,
including, fats, carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, minerals and water. It increases the working
efficiency of an individual and finally wellness of a person can be improved. Physical fitness
and wellness are very significant for leading a happy and well balanced life. Although
physical fitness varies according to the task to be performed, yet a certain level of physical
fitness is necessary for a common person too. Physical fitness is important to perform the
daily activities like walking, running, lifting and carrying. Physical appearance and physical
fitness changes our lifestyle or way of life. In this unit we will discuss how physical fitness is
necessary for everyone in every walk of life.

16.2 Team Dynamics in Sports

The word ‘dynamic’ is obtained from the Greek word, which means force. The ‘team’
dynamics’ means the existing forces which can operate in a team. Ultimately the behaviour of
an individual is persistently modified. Specially, an individual is influenced by the members
of its team, the forces, which influence surroundings, have a great significant role for the
development of individual’s proper behaviour pattern. A person’s attitude is always influenced
by all other team members of whom s/he is a member. So, if a group demands any change in
their attitude, s/he needs to bring some changes in their behaviour or attitude. Mostly learning
is delayed or hindered because of firmly relied obstruction from the groups. If the coach
desires to provide perfect coaching and better learning s/he has to remove these obstructions.
The team training is more effective than individual training in the domains of performance
of social activities. The interaction among the member in a sports team can be identified to
some extent through social factor. For example, in a coordinated team of sports, a member
who has different opinion than that of the particular team, s/he is mostly ignored by the
entire team members. But in a verbiage team of members, the member, who has dissonant,
opinion, will attract more attention. The team environment and the skillful and efficient action
of the team impacts the personality of the members of the team. Some pattern of members
behaviour decrease the level of tensions and reduce the stress. Each member’s beliefs and
actions are controlled by small team. Team dynamics is determined at the unconscious level,
psychological forces that impact towards the direction of behaviour and performance of
its members. Team dynamics are provided to understand the nature of the team's work, the
individual personalities within the team and manage the working relationships with other
member, and the atmosphere in which the team works. Team dynamics can be positive for
example, when it explores the entire team performance and to get the best result outcome of
individual team members. In addition, team dynamics can also be negative for example, when
it create the unproductive conflict, self-discourage or other members of team, and restrict the
team policy from achieving its goals.

16.3 Team Building in Sports

The team building refers to two or more players working together with a shared objective,
it is clear evident to see how crucial team building in sport can be. A sports team requires
164
a lot of time and energy dedicated to building values among team members which leads to Application of Social
achievement. Team building is one of the most widely used group-development activities in Psychology to
organisations or management. Sports

The concept of team building in the context of sports is described as:

● Aligning opinions of team members
● Maximize supportive working relationships
● Minimize the team members' role ambiguity
● Co-operate solutions to team problems.

16.3.1 Psychological Intervention

Sports psychology intervention are considered to help athletes and other sports participants
(e.g., coaches, administration, parents) from a wider literary of position, levels of competition
and ages, ranking from performance level of young participants to professional and Olympic
athletes. Sports psychology uses the psychological concept and skills to enhance performance
and well- being of athletes; development and social aspect of sports participation, and essential
issues linked with sports setting and sports organization. American Psychological Association
(APA) acknowledges sports psychology as a beneficiary obtained after a doctoral degree in
the primary areas of psychology and can coach sports teams.
Sports, psychology is a proficiency that assists psychological knowledge and capability of
powerful performance. It hepls participants to make sure that their physical and psychological
requirements are fulfilled.
Sport Psychological Perspectives focus more upon the basic demands of sports related
psychological interventions which are as follows:
● Each sport psychological intervention starts with a belief- building segment, in which
the athletes and the coach are able to understand the sport psychologist and learn to
trust him or her.
● Every sport psychological procedure has to be carried by the team's top management
and by the leader coach.
● The sport psychological interventions should be unified into the proper training
schedule.

16.3.2 Communication Training Intervention

Communication is the concept of prosperous sharing of information with the players of the
team. Coaches desire to motivate the athletes so that they can play with confidence and to
provide strength to them, to train them perfectly and maximize their performance. The current
review calculated the effectiveness and suitability of discussion. Training interventions that
involve a communication component helps to enhance professional and family careers. This
training method increases the communication skills and competence. It also increases the
knowledge of careers and contributes to the development in the wellbeing of members of the
sports team.

16.4 Motivation in Sports

As we know that, the mental process that originates, supports, or guides an athlete's conduct is
known as motivation (training, approach to competition, managing adversity, performance).
There are two types of motivation in sports:

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Areas of Application of i) Intrinsic motivation
Social Psychology
ii) Extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is defined as athletic conduct that is motivated by personal or internal
rewards (opportunities to explore, learn, and actualize potential). Intrinsically driven athletes
participate in sports for a variety of reasons, including enjoyment of the sport, the challenge of
competing and accomplishing new personal goals, skill development, potential exploration,
and so on. Intrinsically driven athletes focus on improving their skills and developing
themselves as athletes.
Extrinsic motivation is defined as athletic conduct aimed at obtaining external benefits or
avoiding punishment. Extrinsically motivated athletes engage in sports for a variety of
reasons, including external rewards (trophies, scholarships, government or public-sector
jobs, promotions, media exposure, and accolades). Extrinsically motivated athletes are more
concerned with the results of sporting competitions.

Self Assessment Question (SAQ I)

Fill in the blanks:

1) Team ..................... are provided to understand the nature of the team's work.

2) Team building is one of the most widely is used in ..................... activities.

3) Coaches are able to ..................... the sport psychology and to help sports person.

4) ..................... motivation involves the behaviour of satisfaction of internal rewards.

5) ..................... is the process to pursue the greater opportunities with concentration and
grab the opportunities.

16.5 Enhancing Team Performance

One of the first words that come to human’s mind when they think about the term team is
‘spirit’. A team is identified on basis of their performance. It obstructs a cohesive structure,
implies a good vibe and is highly likely to reflect better functioning group of people, working
perfectly towards a basic goal. However, a team to work effectively is far more challenging
than the performance of one single employee. Each team member should know the capacity
of team and performance of team members to access the goal. Direct communication
with the team or one-to-one team member would help to increase the motivation level
and reduce the fear. This step will keep everybody comfortable and contribute to enhance
their performance, which should be expressed internally and externally. Team enhance
basically need to surround the team with positive vibes, to help to sustain the team spirit
and performance.

16.6 Coach- Athlete

The Coach- Athlete relationship is described as a performance factor in a sporting
atmosphere. It is determined by the quality of understanding, emotions respect, belief,
ambiguity, logistically and pre-assumptions that exists between the coach and the athlete
or the team member. Coaches are also called as an athlete’s primary care giver. Coaches
are that person who plays very prominent role in the athletes’ lives who are expected to
increase the motivation, security, safety and emotional attachment. The fact is that we
are conditioned in sports area so all we want a coach to guide the sportsperson as a result

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of how we have been parented in our early childhood years. The coach is introduced to Application of Social
‘give the lead, make effective suggestions, guide towards right direction, act as a role Psychology to
model for others, gives decision, which are respected and carried out. In majority of Sports
the sports cases, what a coach does has a significant impact on others. A high potential
coach always observes his/her followers’ reaction to his/her command and actions and
must adjust them accordingly. So, coach should follow the rules which s/he expects to be
followed. Some coaches performs the groups, some use the groups for their confidential
ends. Coaches, therefore, drop down in alternative categories similar to what they do for
the group or with a group. Some of the coaches rely upon force. Coaches are generally
those, whose jurisdiction (power) has been invested in them by law. Such coaches are
sometimes mentioned to as ‘the chief to differentiate them from coaches chosen by the
group there are also some coaches who are called ‘condescending coaches, who are
selected to satisfy the demands of their followers and grab their loyalty and obedience.
Such kind of leadership is found in business concern.

There are five key themes for Success which are as follows:
1) The relationship between the coach- athlete: A mutual connection of trust and
respectful relationship should exist between the coach and athletes. Coach is a person
who already is aware what to expect from the athlete also known as predictability, s/he
understands how to communicate with athletes, s/he resemble the suitable place where
athlete can do best work and how to develop athlete’s power in the context of their
sport.s
2) Self- awareness of high level Athlete: It refers to the awarness level of atnelete on
thow to behave, what are their weakness and limitations are, what motivates them, who
can be the best guide them and how to adapt their credibility to produce more effective
outcomes.
3) Quality of the training atmosphere: It includes athletes’ equipment, support, comfort
ability environment and conditioning programs, maximize the strengths, participation
in activities and overall facilities used.
4) The Planning of management at the competition environment: It refers to the level
of planning for facing the competition environment and how logistically approved and
how disorganised circumstances should be managed so that it would not fix the limit for
athlete’s performance.
5) Support system mechanisms: It refers to the work-life balance of the athletes. He/she
should be capable to create a balance between family members, relatives, close friends,
could be a staff surrounding the athletes such as coaches, mentor, doctors, massage
therapists, psychologists, nutritionists, trainers, physiotherapists.

16.7 Peer- Relationship

Peer relationship play an important role in children’s development. It provides unique
opportunities for getting familiarized with the social norms and processes occurreing in
interpersonal relationships, and for learning new social skills. They also allow conditions
in which abilities for self-control may be tested and refined. Peer relations of childhood
are also multi-faceted; children experience, peer co-relations through their participation
in group or team activities, as well as through their dyadic (i.e. one-on-one) connections
with friends. These different facets of peer relationships and its experiences could be
seen as providing age-related progressively requirements for the construction of the self,
with peer group develop gaining in importance and terminating in middle childhood,
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Areas of Application of before collapses to friendships as the most prominent feature in late childhood and
Social Psychology adolescence.
Self Assessment Questions II (SAQ II)
State whether the following ‘True’ or ‘False’
1) Direct communication with team member would help to reduce the motivation level. ( )
2) Coaches are also called as an athlete’s primary care giver. ( )
3) The coach is introduced to ‘give the lead’ makes effective suggestions, shows the right
direction. ( )
4) Team provides positive vibes, team spirit and performance to the team in sports. ( )
5) Peer relationships are informed to play dominant role in children’s development. ( )

16.8 Let Us Sum Up

Nowadays, every nation wants to ameliorate its image and reputation. For the fulfilment
of this objective, every nation sends best players for international level competitions.
Therefore, every nation is striving hard to achieve apex position in the fields of sports and
games. The standard of sports in every country is having an increasing trend, but it is a
shocking matter for all of us that in spite of our best endeavours. The proper functioning
of physiological system is physical fitness. In fact, physical is more than the possession
of strength and endurance. Physical fitness is possessed by the individual, who remains
enthusiast, work cheerfully, and do the emergency work with vigour. Physical fitness
implies a relation between the task to be performed and the individual’s capability to
perform it. The word ‘dynamic’ is obtained from the Greek word which means force.
The ‘team’ dynamics’ means exist forces which can operate in a team. Ultimately the
behaviour of an individual is persistently modified. A sports team consist a lot of time and
energy dedicated to building a values which leads to achievement. Team building is one of
the most widely used group-development activities in organisations or management. The
Coach- Athlete relationship is described as a performance factor in today’s era sporting
atmosphere. Like any other is co-relation it is determined by the quality of understanding,
emotions respect, belief, and pre-assumptions that exists between two people. Sport
psychology is a proficiency that assists psychological and capability to the powerful
performance. Before inception a working relationship, provide all participants need to
make sure that these requirements are fulfilled. Motivation is defined by the word ‘motive’
which means need requires satisfaction; needs could be in the form of wants or desires.
Coaches are that person who plays very prominent role in the athletes’ life. The fact is that
we are conditioned in sports area so all we want a coach to guide the sportsperson as a
result of how we have been parented in our early childhood years. The coach is introduced
to ‘give the lead’ makes effective suggestions, shows the right direction, act as a role
model for others, gives decision, which are respected and carried out. Majority of the
sports cases, what a coach does impacts on others more than him or her. Peer relationships
are informed to play an important role in children’s development. It determined unique
opportunities for getting familiarized with the social norms and processes occurred in
interpersonal relationships, and for learning new social skills. Coach is a person who
already aware what to expect from the athlete also known as predictability, he understand
how to communicates with athlete, he resemble the suitable place where athlete can do
best work and how to develop athlete’s power in the context of their sport and also allow
conditions of participant’s abilities In the last two decades, there has been fundamental
research focused at understanding the nature, meaning and influence of peer relation
difficulties.
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 Application of Social
16.9 Unit End Questions Psychology to
Sports
1) Discuss the relevance of team dynamics in sports.
3) Describe the psychological intervention in team building.
4) How motivation affects on the performance of sports person?
5) Write down the importance of coach athlete.

16.10 GLOSSARY
Conflict: A fight or an argument
Ambiguity: The possibility of being understood in more than one way.
Presumptions: Something that is already assumed for something else to happen or exist.
Logistically: In a way that relates to logistics
Multi-faceted: The person having many sides.
Peer group: It is a group of people of approximately the same age, status, and interests.

16.11 Answer to Self Assessment Questions

SAQ I
1) Dynamics
2) Group
3) Develop
4) Intrinsic
5) Intensity

SAQ II
1) False
2) True
3) True
4) True
5) False

16.12 Suggested Readings and References

Salas, E., Priest, H. A., & DeRouin, R. E. (2005). "Team building", pp. 48–1, 48–5 in N.
Stanton, H. Hendrick, S. Konz, K. Parsons, & E. Salas (Eds.) Handbook of human factors and
ergonomics methods. London: Taylor & Francis.
Dyer, W. G., Dyer, W. G., & Dyer, J. H. (2007). Team building: Proven strategies for improving
team performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bas
Oertig, M., & Buergi, T. (2006). "The challenges of managing cross–cultural virtual project
teams". Team Performance Management. 12: 23–30. doi:16.1168/13527590616652774.

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Areas of Application of Youniss, J., & Smollar, J. (1985). Adolescents' relations with mothers, fathers, and friends.
Social Psychology Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) Socialization and Society, Boston: Little Brown and
Company. p5
Espelage, D. L.; Holt, M. K.; Henkel, R. R. (2003). "Examination of peer-group contextual
effects on aggression during early adolescence". Child Development. 74: 205–220.
doi:16.1111/1467-8624.00531.
Ryan, A. M. (2001). "The peer group as a context for the development of young adolescent
motivation and achievement". Child Development. 72 (4): 1135–1150. doi:16.1111/1467-
8624.00338.

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