AWUUSTRAILIA’S GIANT ANI species and subspecies once existed z Finding an explanation for exactly why these eastern Australia, where there was permanent creatires became extinct has locked scientists water and better vegetation The evidence for this in a heated debate since the hineteenth century. ongolng dasertfication of Australia over time Nas According to one hypothess, the arrival of humans, become firmer, thanks to new and mounting cata who hurted them down and caused bush fires, from scientists studying ice cores in Antarctica This could account for their demise. Humans arrived in data shows a marked drying, beginning at around ‘Ausiralia around 45,000 years ago, butnew research 50,000 years ago, which is around the same time that seems to show that most of the glant species had) humans arrived in Australia, and this Is consistent already cisappeared from the continent before that. with evidence for the decine of inland lakes there. ‘t's now thought that no more than 7§ per cent of Many questions remain The aim that humans ‘these species overlapped in time with humans. played a role in the extinction of the species that ‘At the encl of the last ice Age, Australia’s climate were stil present when they arrived carnot be changed from what is termed cold-dry to wan entirely dismissed. However, itis increasingly clear hy. AS a resuit, surface water became scarce that the disaopearance of giant species took place ‘Most of the vast inlaid lakes dred! up and forests over tens of thousands of years primarily because and grassiands turned to desert. the giant species of the influence of clmate change, and that at the ‘mostly ate piant matter and so lostboth their natural time the first humans arrived, the environmental ‘habitat and their main source of food. They tended, conditions that were favourable to giant species hac! therefore, to retreat to @ narrow band of land in already deteriorated. Read the summary and think about the type of information that is needed to complete ‘each gap. Which gaps are likely to need: a anumber? b a placename? © aspecificterm? da pluralnoun? ‘Summary White NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER in each gop. ‘Around 50,000 years ago, Australia was inhabited by as many as 1. different giant animal species, which included both mammals and 2 For many years, scientists have linked their extinction 10 the arrival of humans on the continent, who may have started 2.___.__and algo hunted the animals for food. But recent research cuggests that climate change is a more likely explanation. Evidence suggests that Australia's climate gradually changed into the type known as 4_.__., anda process of 5 followed as a result. This process destroyed the natural habitat of the giant animals whose diet consisted mostly of 6 -- Evidence for this change in climate has come from research carried out in 7. ‘as well as in Australia itself. Itis though! that as 8 — became less ‘abundant, so did the animais’ source of food and these species became increasingly confined toanareain9............. Australia, AS tew as 10 of these species are thought to have been in existence by the time the first humans arrivedIELTS PRACTICE TASK The Effect of the Full Moon on Sleep There has long beena popular belie! that human sieep patterns ate affected by the moon People compiain, for ‘example, that they sleep badly, or that their sleep is disturbed, when there isa full moon, Some people put this down to the bright glow that is created in the sky when the moon is ful, whilst others look for an explanation in the: ravitational pull of the Earh’s closest neighbour. A recent study at the University of Basel in Switzerland put these theories to the test Chvistian Cajochen and his coleaques were discussing these beliefs wien they suddenly realised they aready had data thet might give them the answer. In an earlier, untelated study, conducted between 2000 and 2003, researchers in Basel had collected detailed observations of some thirty men and women of various ages wilo had slapt for three days at varus times of the manth in the university's siaep lab. The amount af ight in this lab is antilicialy controlled to ensure that anyone sleeping there cannot perceive the changes in light that occur at different times of the night and day. Cajocien decided to revisit the cata colected during the study to see what it might reveal about the effects of the phases of tie moon on sleeping patterns What he found was that when the moon was ful, there was a reduction in brain etivty related 10 deep sieep of around thirty per cent. He also found that people were taking five minutes Longe: to dropoff to sleep, and tat the overal ime spent asleep fell by twenty minutes. Its also recorded that participants caporied feeling that they'd slept less well atthe time. What's meve, they seemed to have reduced levels of melatonin, a hormone known to reguiete sleep. It was the fst time that alink had been establshed between lunar cycles and human sleep patterns. The lunar cycle seems to infuence human sleep. even when the ‘moon itself eannct be observed! While conceding that the findings may not be replicated by larger-scale studies, Cajochen says it would be interesting 10 investigate the idea that there might be what he cals a circalurar clock in tie brain, and whether the ‘moon also has power over other aspects of human behaviour, such as cognitive performance and mood. ‘Questions 1-8 Complete the summary below Choose NO MORE THANTWO WORDS AND/ORA NUMBER fron the passage for each answer For a long time it has been commonly believed thet people sleep less well when there fsa full moon, either because of the light t creates or because of the 1 _ influence that the moon has over the Earth Christian Cajochen of Basel University as shown that human sleep is affected by the lunar cycle, even when the moonitself cannat be seen. 7b do this, he studied existing data collected in the university's 2 where ‘subjects were kept in 3 conditions so that they had ne idea i itwas ight or dark outside. Cajochen knew that certain types of 4 ‘are associated with deep sleep, and discovered that tns fel by around 5 ‘wher the moon wes full. He also found that the onset of sleep was delayed by as much as 6 ‘and tha: there was a fal hn the amount of a hormone called melatonin which is understeod to 7 sleep patterns in the body, Cajochen is row keen to see if there is such @ thing asa® in the brain and whether the moon affects other aspects of human behaviourIELTS PRACTICETASK In Pursuit of the Perfect Tomato For supermarket shoppers, the omato symbolises what has been lost in terms of taste and texture, in ‘exchange for being able 10 buy cheap vegetables and fruit all year round. But afight-back for flavour is under way — and its scientic champion is Harry Klee, horticulture professor at the University of Rorida in the USA. The big problem with the modern commercial tomato is that growers are not paid for flavour, they're paid for yield and extended shelf life’ says Klee. He thinks that the answer isto ‘put together an integrated system that starts with the consumer and what they want. We have come up with a recipe to breed a realy great tomato, but a lot of work will be needed to get it into the commercal system, which has other priorities’ Kiee's research started with what are sometimes called heritage tomatoes, which date back to the period before mass commercialisation, and compared these with modern varieties. He found that, in general, the toss of flavour coincded with the intensive breeding that began in the second half of the twentieth century. ‘Since flavour started going dovin, yields of tomatoes have gone up by three hundred per cent’ says Klee. Biochemical analysis of the best-flavoured varieties — with input from many tasting panels - identified sixty. eight flavour-associated compounds. Most mportant ate ‘volatiles’, many of which also contribute strongly to the enticing smell of freshly-picked tomatoes. Some chemicals, such as cis-3-hexanal, which scientists had previously thought important for taste were not, while others auch as geranial, which had been regarded as ‘marginal contributors, were actually key. At the same time, scientists are discovering the genetics of tomato flavour, appearance and durability. One Particular mutation, favoured because it gives ripe tomatoes a beautifully even scarlet surface, turns out to reduce the biosynthesis of flavouring compounds. Now the Flonda researchers have breda tomato which ishallanay between the great-tasting tomatoes of the past and modern commercial ines. ‘People love the taste of this hybrid and it's easier to grow; Klee says. id say we have a hundred per cent of the flavour of old varieties and eighty per cent of the performance of modem ones — but we need a hundred per cent of the performance before commercial growers will take them up ‘Although Kiee worked for a large chemical company until 1995, developing genetically modified (GM) crops, he does not see a role for GM technology in breeding better tomatoes, because of public resistance and because it would be to0 costly and time-consuming to obtain regulatory approval. ‘We can do it through conventional breeding, using modern genetics and flavour chemisty’ he says,Questions 1-8 Complete the summery below Choose NO MORE THANTWO WORDS fren the pess090 fer each answer ‘Summary Professor Harry Klee of the University of Florida recoanises that today's mass-produced tomatoes, although ‘cheap and avaiable throughout the yes, ae lacking in both Navour and 1 He identifies the reason for this as the fact that growers are encouraged 10 gow tomatoes that have a high yield and wi have a tong 2 _. inthe supermarket, His solution to this problem is a new approach to tomato growing that has 3... preferences as its starting point, Klee compared modern tomatoes with so-called 4 varieties and found the latter more flavoursome. He put the blame for the loss of flavour on intensive breeding techniques. klee found that compounds known as volailes gave tomatoes a distinctive 5... as wellas a ‘9004 flavour and that a chemical called 6 was more important in this respect than had been previously thought. Kiee’s team have row produced what he cals a7 ____..tomato that combines the qualties of oid and new varieties. It tastes good but camot yet compete on yield. Klee thinks that a tomatoes are unlikely 1o be developed, however, predicting that tiaditional breeding techniques will eventually produce a tomato that isboth tasty and commercially viable.IELTS PRACTICE TASK The history of colour How the invention of synthetic colour changed our word ‘Today, in the urban centres of the 2st century, we are surrounded by a vast spectrum of colours that once only occurred wthin the natural world. We now take it for granted that the products that we buy and the packaging they are presented in will be available in our preferred shade or tone. Colourful man-made abjects have become so ubiquitous that it requires a stratch of the imagination {0 conceve of a time wnen such a range did not exist, Dut until the rid-1sin century, this was indeed the case. twas the ancient civilizations of China, Rome, Persia, India and Egypt where the cratt of dyeing fabric was developed; an often complicated and labour-intensive process. Dyes that were derived from vagetables were usually cheaper and more easily obtainable than ones derived from animals. ‘The reots of a plant called madder were usad to create a strong red colour, and the leaves of the Indigo shrub produced a colour between blue and violet. Saffron and turmeric plants, now used to colour and flavour food, once created yellow and orange hues for cloth. Because of the scarcity of certain sources or the complexity of production, some colours were only worn by very wealthy people or royalty, for example, purple which originated in the Mediterranean and was a dye created ‘from the secretions of sea snails; and black, coming from oek or chestnut wood, which indicated high status in 14th century Europe. In the 15th century, South America began exporting large ‘quantitios of a dye called carmine to Europe; this deep crimson-red colour was derived from the ‘crushed bodies and eggs of the cochineal beetle, Carmine remains a major component of food ‘colouring and cosmetics even now. ‘Athough dyeing methods had evolved over the millennia, the use of natural sources would always be impractical; there was no guarantee thal the colour of dyed material would be consistent or that ‘he material, when exposed to the sun, would not suffer from fading over a period of tme. Furthermore, it would often take months to produce a reletively small quantity of fabric, an Insufficient supply for growing populations. In the 19th century, the expanding European textile industry created a need for larger quantities of cheaper and more adaptable dyes. It was a young English chemist, Wiliam Henry Perkin, who responded to this need, qute by accident. In 1896, he ‘was experimenting in his laboratory, with the zim of synthesising the drug quinine, used to help people suffering from malaria. One of the chemical compounds he was testing was aniline. From this, he obtained a black solid, and then isolated a dye that could colour sik purple. The dyed silk {id not fade in the sun and did not wash out. Perkin hed thus created the frst synthetic dye. He built ‘a factory to manufacture the dye on an industrial scale, and developed a technique to apply the dye to cotton matorials that could be made into dresses and accessories,‘The new colour, which Perkins named ‘Aniline Purple’, quickly became fashionable and much in ‘demand, both in Britain and overseas, Due to its growing reputation in France, Perkins made a ‘sonsiblo marketing decision and changed the name to ‘mauve’, after the French word for the purplo mallow flower. Perkin’s discovery not only inspired other scientists and researchers to experiment with synthatic colours, but alsa demonstrated fo manufacturers that colour novelty could be used to attract customers. Now, when It comes to establishing a brand, It's often tne use of colour or a colour combination that speaks to potential buyers, and itis colour which often determines ‘consumer choice. Questions 1-8 Complete the summary below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY trom the passage for each answer Write your answers 1-8 below. ‘Summary ‘The craft of dyeing has been practised since ancient times. Early civilizations found it was more difficult to get dyes from 4 .. .. than from plants, and so it was plants that they tended to rely ‘on, sometimes using roots but also the 2 . depending on the species, and whether they wanted red, blue, yellow or orange dye. Some colours were traditionally Wor Only By 3 .-.e-e- OF the very rich, such as purple and black. By the 15th century, a crimson-red dye, which Is stil used in 4 ceossonsnee PM {0 20d COlOUF to food products, was Iinported by Europe from South America. However, there were various problems with using natural sources; it was never certain that the exact ‘same colour would appear in dyed material; gradual 6 ........... was likely to occur, and quantities of the dyed material were never enough to meet demand. Fortunately, in 1896, while chemist William Henry Perkin was attempting to find a way of treating 6 he accidentally discovered that a purple dye can be obtained from the chemical aniline. His purple-dyed fabrics made of 7 ........... quiokly became popular, and he ended up calling his synthesized colour ‘mauve’. Companies now rely heavily on colour to MaKe tHe B ....sonnnn KNOWN to people, and to persuade them to buy.IELTS PRACTICE TASK The amazing brains of babies Recent soientiic techniques have challenged our beliefs about the way that babies think. In the past three decades remarkable discoveries have been made about the way babies think and the development of their brains. It was previously thought in the scientific community that babies and young children were amoral and therefore unable to understand the perspective of other people, and ‘that they were algo quite rational; unable to make sense of the world around them. However, new ‘scientiic techniques have proved otherwise. From an evolutionary point of view, one of the most {fascinating things about humans is that they take a very long time to develop all the skills and knowledge required fo survive independenty of ther parent. In other words, humans experience a ‘far longer childhood than any other species. Nevertheless. this does, in fact. benefit them in the long Ff course, the young of some animal species can fend for themselves within hours or days of being born. Known as ‘precocial’ species, these animals enter the worid with specific innate capabilities that allow thom to survive in a particular set of environmental circumstances. They can move with ‘agit, search for food, and avoid predators intuibvely — without conscious thought. In other words, they just know what to do. ‘Atricial species behave rather dferently. They must lear how to co- ordinate their limbs, need feeding by ther parents, and must be protected from enemies. But whlle all this is happening, learning is stil occuring in ther very flexible brains. Neurons, or nerve cells as they are also known, are the cells in the brain that process end transmit information through «electrical and chemical signais. These signals between neurons happen via synapses, specialized ‘connections with othor colle. It is now known that the brains of babies have many moro connections between neurons than adults. The area of tne brain called the pretrontal cortex takes a particularly long time to develop, however. In an adult, this region allows a person to focus on achieving internal ‘goals, and to work out which actions are most likely to achieve them quickly and effectively. It's also the area which allows a person to control thelr feelings and moderate their social behaviour. On the surface, therefore, it may seem thet the slow development of the prefrontal cortex is a disadvantage, but actually it may aid the process of learning, The prefrontal cortex also restricts irrelevant thoughts ‘er bohaviours, and in a baby, because they aro uninhibited in this way, it may encourage thom to ‘explore freely and learn flexibly, giving them an eventual advantage over other species. ‘What are the Implications of inis for tne way we raise our young chiloren? Scrence nas certainly ‘demonstrated how vitally important a child's early years are, and some policy makers have responded to this by insisting on the establishment of early education programmes and continual testing. Many parents are also anxious to give their children a head start by enrolling them in extra ‘classes and paying for out-of-school tuition. Yet sclence suggests that children learn best from ‘normal daily interaction with other people and things, and from playful exploration of their ‘environment within a ssfe setting. This is when all those neurons get excited the most.‘Questions 1-6 Complete the summary using the ist of words, A-, below. Witte ine correct letter, A, Delow. How babi think ‘Thirty years ago, scientists believed that human babies lacked 4 and had no sense of right and wrong. Today the common beliefs quite different. Scientists have realised that human babies’ period of 2 has an evolutionary advantage. Unlike precocial species which are born with 5 .. , humans belong to altrcial species which rely on ¢radual leaming to function well as adults. In humans, the pretrontal cortex, responsible for efficient action and 4 . takes a particularly iong time to develop. This siow development ofthe prefrontal cortex, however, allows in babies instead. What some scientists have Concluded, is that the most effective leaming in young children occurs when they take partinas many 6 as possible, ‘A emotional balance B academic situations instinctive abilties D communication strategies E basiclogio F everyday oxperionces G extended immaturity H creative thinking | intelectual developmentIELTS PRACTICETASK Biophilia in the city Biophila, as defined by evolutionary biologst E.0. Wilson is ‘the human bond with other species’ and the idea was elaboreted in his work Biopilia, pubished in 1984, n which he argues that our very existence depends on this close ‘elationship with the natural world. The concent of biophila with reference to whole cities S, however, a 21st-century ‘henomenon, as evidenced by the conmuniqué released at the end of the Copenhagen Climate Summit in 2009 ‘which stated “the future of our globe will be won or lost in the cities of the world’ Climate change has probably been the single greatest influence on ths debate. This idea hes been further fuelled by the United Nations identifying cities as the source of 75% of greenhouse gas errissions, which have an environmental impact around the world. Cities are also the consumers of 75% of the world's natural resources, the extraction of which affects many habitats ecross the globe. ‘Since 2009, work has been going on around Eurone and beyond to encourage city leaders to adapt their policies to the reality chmate change in a concerted manner. One group of cities has aonea step further and formed the Biophiic Cities Network, which recognises people's need to access and respond to nature as part of thei daly ives, Any ity joining the network is asked to commit 10 the fotowing aims: Wok diligently to protect ond restore nature within their boundaries and to forge new Inks with the natural ‘world wherever possible, ‘© Share information and insights about tools, techniques, programmes and projects which have been successfully applied nthe city © Assst other cies outside the group, which are aso stivng to become more biophite, offering help in data collection and analysis, sharing technical expertise anc knowledge, and other forms of professional support for the expansion of urban nature. '§ Meet perocically as a group to share experiences endinsights and provide mutual support and guidance in advancing the practice of biophilic urbanism. (Questions 1-6 Complete the summary using the list of words, A-K. below. Write tho correct lator; A-K. Biophilia Cities Network Biophita is the idea that human existence relies on meintainnga close relationship with the natural world, and it has recently been acknowledged that cites pigy @ key part in this. The United Nations identiied that cities are responsible {or creating 75% of greenhouse gas emissions whist at he same time consuming around the same 1 of the wor's natural resources. This fed to the 2 of the Biophilc Cites Network, a group of ety governments tha! has made a a ‘to work together in addressing not oly the issue of climate change, tut aso the need for thei Gitizens to have access to nature as part of their everyday lives. Each oty in the group will work towards the 4 of its own natural environment, as well as restoring nature wherever possible. Through co-operation with the other members, cities will share information about 5 which have worked. They will aso help non-membors to achieve the same goals through the sharing of both skills and 6 Regula: meetings of the group wil help to further these aims. A initiatives ——-B_fexmation © commitment D_ mpact E protection F_management —G nonmembers expertise | proportion J insights K collectionANCIENT ROMAN RUBBISH ‘The Ancient Romans had serious rubbish problem, though by our standards it was good-looking Fupbish. Their problem was amphorae. These were jars made of clay and the Romans needed milions Of them to ship liquids lke olve of and fish sauce around the empire. Often, they dici’t recycle their empties Sometimes they didn't even bother to ‘open them-—it was cuicker to cut off the neck or ‘the pointybase, drain the thing, then throw it away. in Rome there’s a hil rising {0 fifty meters called Monte Testaccio, that consists almost entirely of shattered amphorae, mostly seventy-liter olive oil Jats from Spain, They were tossed out the back Of warehouses along the River Tiber. Spanish archaeologists who've been digging into the dump believe its ise probably began in the first century, as the empire itself was rising toward is greatest heights. Around that time in Arles, on the Rhéne River in what is now southern France, port workers did things 2 bit differently: they threw their empties into the river. ares in the first century was the thriving gateway to Roman Gaul. Freight from all over the Mediterranean was unloaded from sea-going vessels and reloaded into riverbozts, before beng hauled up the Rhone by teams of ‘men to supply the northern reaches of the empire. “itwas a city at the intersection of all roads, which received products from everywhere.” says Oavid Djaoul, an archaeologist at the local antiquities ‘museim. in the city centre today, on the left bank of the Rhone, you can stil see the amphitheatre Summary The Ancient Romans used large 1 that seated 20,000 spectators for gladiator fights. But of the port that financed all this, and that stretched halt a mile or more along the right bank, not much remains—only a shadow in the riverbed that reveals the presence of the Roman rubbish. Rubbish to them, not to us. in the summer of 2004 2 diver surveying the dump for archaeological Fiches noticed a large lump of wood sticking out of the mud at a depth of four meters. it tured out to be the side of a thirty-meter barge. The barge was almost intact; most of it was stif buried under the layers of mudi and amphiorae that had sheltered it {for nearly 2,000 years. subsequent archaeological excavations revealed that it had held on to its last cargoanc! even toa few personalefiects left behind by its crew. it can now be seen ina branc-new wing of the Arles Museu jatscaled amphorae 10.2 liquid goods suc) 2s alive ol rom one part of their empire to another. The cone-shaped amphorae werenat 3 however, and most ended up in jubbish heaps. in Rome, for example, there isa hil fifty metres in height, that is composed almost entirely of A psiias thoy tended 10 end up in the Rivor Rhéno ‘amphorae, whereas in the port city of Arles in what is now southern Frence, Two thousand years ago, Arles was an importantport where goods were 5 ‘tom ocean-going vessels to river boats before continung their journey inland. Little is | the Roman port today, nowever, althoug) itis stil possbie to identity a 6 tof under the water that indicates where the Roman ubbish dump used to be. in 2004, @ diver spotted an interesting wooden 7 that was largely stil 8 which tuined out 10 be part of a thiny-metre barge Archeeologists later discovered the boat's final 8 8 wel as some of the crew's personal 10. 9 Complete the rest of the summary (6-10) using the list of words. A-K below. A intact E financed 1 sheltered B layers F possessions J boat © subbish G obect K excavations D shadow H cargo