Studies on Individualistic
Cultures and Example
Behavior and Hofstede’s
Cultural Dimensions Theory
Hofstede and Individualism
• It was not until 1980 that Hofstede’s survey of American
culture popularized the idea of individualism in its modern
form.
• In a worldwide study of 116,000 employees of IBM, Geert
Hofstede (1980) found that the most fiercely independent
people were from the US, Australia, Great Britain, Canada,
and the Netherlands, in that order.
• In contrast, the most interdependent people were from
Venezuela, Colombia, Pakistan, Peru, and Taiwan.
Elements of a culture
• Symbols
• Language
• Values
• Norms
• Rituals
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Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory
Hofstede identified six categories that define culture:
1.Power Distance Index
2.Collectivism vs. Individualism
3.Uncertainty Avoidance Index
4.Femininity vs. Masculinity
5.Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation
6.Restraint vs. Indulgence
Power Distance Index
• The power distance index considers the extent to which inequality
and power are tolerated.
• A high-power distance index indicates that a culture accepts
inequity and power differences, encourages bureaucracy, and
shows high respect for rank and authority.
• A low power distance index indicates that a culture encourages flat
organizational structures that feature decentralized decision-
making responsibility, a participative management style, and
emphasis on power distribution.
• For example, in countries with high power distance, parents may
expect children to obey without questioning their authority.
• Conversely in countries with low power distance there tends to be
more equality between parents and children, with parents more
likely to accept children arguing or challenging their authority.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
• The individualism vs. collectivism dimension considers the degree
to which societies are integrated into groups and their perceived
obligations and dependence on groups.
• In individualistic societies, the emphasis lies on personal
achievement and rights, prioritizing the needs of oneself
and one’s immediate family.
• Collectivism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on
the goals and well-being of the group.
• A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “We” and
individuals from collectivist backgrounds often prioritize
relationships and loyalty more prominently than those in
individualistic cultures.
Uncertainty Avoidance Index
• This dimension considers how unknown situations, uncertainty, and
unexpected events are dealt with.
• A high uncertainty avoidance index indicates a low tolerance for
uncertainty, ambiguity, and risk-taking.
• The unknown is minimized through strict rules, regulations, etc. Both
the institutions and the individuals in these societies strive to reduce
uncertainty by employing vigorous rules, regulations, and similar
measures.
• A low uncertainty avoidance index indicates a high tolerance for
uncertainty and ambiguity.
• The unknown is more openly accepted, and there are lax rules,
regulations, etc. Individuals and cultures with low uncertainty
avoidance embrace and feel at ease in situations lacking structure or in
fluctuating environments.
Masculinity vs. Femininity
• The masculinity vs. femininity dimension is often referred to as gender role
differentiation and examines the extent to which a society values traditional
masculine and feminine roles.
• Masculinity includes the following characteristics: distinct gender roles, an
appreciation of assertiveness, courage, strength, and competition.
• Femininity includes characteristics such as fluid gender roles, modest,
nurturing, and concerned with the quality of life.
• A high femininity score suggests that traditional feminine gender roles hold
significant value within that society and for example, a country with a high
rating would probably offer improved maternity benefits and more accessible
childcare services.
• On the other hand, a country with a lower femininity score is likely to
highlight increased female representation in leadership roles and a higher
prevalence of female entrepreneurship.
Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation
• The long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation dimension
considers the extent to which society views its time horizon.
• Societies that emphasize long-term orientation prioritize future
outcomes, postponing immediate success for achievements over
the long term.
• In these cultures, values like persistence, endurance, frugality,
savings, sustained growth and adaptability take centre stage.
• Short-term orientation shows focus on the near future, involve
delivering short-term success or gratification, and place a stronger
emphasis on the present than the future.
• Short-term orientation emphasizes quick results and respect for
tradition.
Indulgence vs. Restraint
• The indulgence vs. restraint dimension considers the extent and
tendency for a society to fulfill its desires. In other words, this
dimension revolves around how societies can control their impulses and
desires. Example:(allowing people in the society to freely practice their
religion)
• Indulgence indicates that society allows relatively free gratification
related to enjoying life and having fun.
• Restraint indicates that society suppresses gratification of needs and
regulates it through social norms.
• In a society characterized by high indulgence, you may see individuals
allocating more funds to luxuries and relishing greater freedom in their
leisure pursuits. Conversely, within a restrained society, the inclination
leans towards thrift, savings, and practical necessities.
Advantages and Disadvantages
• While Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory provides a framework
to help in understanding etiquette and communication across
cultures, considerations are needed when recommending its
application.
Advantages
• Enhances cultural insight: It helps understanding of diverse
cultures, fostering an appreciation for diversity.
• Promotes global collaboration: It supports informed management
of individuals from diverse cultures to reduce misunderstanding
and conflict while optimizing communication and collaboration.
Disadvantages
• Dated dimensions: It could be argued that the dimensions of
power distance index, masculinity/ femininity, individualism/
collectivism, short term versus long term orientation and
uncertainty avoidance do not fully capture the intricacies of
various social cultures.
• Cultures not individuals: Although the model aims to define
cultures and not individuals, every individual is still ultimately
unique, shaped by personal experiences that influence their
values throughout life.
• Other sociologists have since added to these implications.
Waterman (1984) considered normative individualism to
be a focus on personal responsibility and freedom of
choice, living up to one’s potential, and respecting the
integrity of others.
• Schwartz (1990) calls individualistic societies
fundamentally contractual, consisting of small social
networks and specialized social relations, with specific
obligations and expectations focusing on achievement.
Examples of Individualistic Cultures
• Individualistic cultures tend to be found in western countries
such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
• Individualism exists on a spectrum, meaning that those
within a predominantly individualist society can have more
or less individualistic behavior depending on beliefs and
circumstances.
• For example, in the United States, a highly individualistic
culture, sociologists often consider ethnic minority groups to
hold more collectivist beliefs and behaviors than average
(Kemmelmeier 2001).
• Hofstede (1980) assigned each country an individuality index on a
scale of 0 to 100 based on responses in a large survey study.
• He determined that the United States — or more specifically, the
predominantly white, middle-and-upper class, mainline Protestant
culture of the United States — had the highest individuality index in
the world (91), followed by Australia, the United Kingdom, Canada,
and Hungary (Hofstede, 2010).
• American society expresses a high degree of individualism in its law
and societal values, guaranteeing, for example, freedom of speech.
• Families are relatively small, and one’s close social ties are generally
limited to one’s immediate family members and close friends, with a
large circle of acquaintances and loose relations specific to certain
activities (Putnam, 2000).
Effects on Behavior
Self Concept
• In individualism, the self is individual rather than interdependent.
Individualist cultures value personal success, self-esteem, and
distinctive attitudes and opinions (Triandis, 1995), and subsequently,
individualism considers creating and maintaining a positive sense of
self to be a basic human endeavor (Baumeister, 1998).
• Where one is geographically separated from one’s social networks, is
often considered to be a typical way of finding one’s self in an
individualistic culture (Bellah 1985).
• Over the past several decades, time spent doing leisure activities has
dropped in the United States while hours worked have increased
(Putnam 2000).
Relationships
• In individualistic cultures, individuals need relationships to attain
their goals, but relationships are seen as costly to maintain
(Kagitcibasi, 1997).
• Social theorists assume that individualists leave relationships and
groups when the costs of maintaining relationships outweigh
personal benefits and when personal goals shift.
• Individualistic cultures extend these loose relationships to family.
• Those in individualistic cultures are less likely to live in
intergenerational households and consider gaining independence
from one’s immediate family to be a hallmark of maturity.
Mental Health
• Those from individualistic cultures have smaller and less satisfying
support networks, less skill in managing both self and others’
emotions, lower intentions to seek help from family and friends for
personal and suicidal problems, and higher levels of hopelessness
and suicide ideation than those from collectivist cultures (Scott
2004).
• For both societies and individuals, individualistic cultures and
cultures that are becoming more individualistic have seen rates of
mental illness and suicide climb (Eskin et al. 2020).
• These negative mental health effects are even more pronounced in
individualists in highly collectivist cultures.
• Individualistic cultures see mental health problems as a
matter of one’s inherent personality rather than one’s
circumstances (Williams, 2003) and cognitive
behavioral therapy in the individualistic context tends to
focus on working on self-definition and recognizing
patterns in one’s own life (Morris 2011).
