Ministry of higher education and scientific research
Northern technical university
Technical college of engineering Kirkuk
Medical instrumentations engineering techniques
Hydrostatics: Pressure and Forces on Submerged
Surfaces
Prepared by :
Ahmed Essam
Yara Mohammed
Supervisor :
Dr. Haidar Toran Mahdi
Introduction
Hydrostatics, a vital branch of fluid mechanics, is concerned with the study of
fluids at rest and the forces they exert. Unlike fluid dynamics, which deals with
moving fluids, hydrostatics focuses exclusively on stationary fluids, making it a
cornerstone of understanding how fluids behave under static conditions. The
principles of hydrostatics are widely applied in engineering, architecture, and
natural sciences. For example, the design of structures like dams and levees relies
heavily on hydrostatic principles to withstand the immense pressures exerted by
large volumes of water. Similarly, in the maritime industry, the stability of ships
and submarines depends on hydrostatic calculations to ensure they remain buoyant
and balanced in water. Hydrostatics also governs the operation of hydraulic
systems used in modern machinery and vehicles.
A fundamental concept in hydrostatics is pressure, which is defined as the force
exerted by a fluid per unit area. Pressure in a static fluid varies with depth due to
the weight of the fluid above it. This variation in pressure is crucial for
understanding how forces act on submerged objects, such as pipelines, underwater
habitats, and deep-sea vehicles.
Principles of Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure arises from the weight of the fluid exerting force on the
surfaces it contacts. At any given depth, this pressure depends on three key
factors: the fluid’s density, the gravitational acceleration, and the depth
below the fluid’s surface. The mathematical expression for hydrostatic
pressure is:
P=ρgh
Where:
P: Hydrostatic pressure (in pascals, Pa)
ρ: Density of the fluid (in kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m³)
g: Acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s² on Earth)
h: Depth of the fluid (in meters, m)
This equation shows that hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with depth,
making it predictable and manageable in practical applications. For instance, a
deep-sea diver experiences higher pressures as they descend, necessitating the
use of specialized suits to withstand the force exerted by the surrounding water.
Similarly, in dam engineering, the depth of the reservoir determines the pressure
exerted on the dam's walls, influencing the choice of materials and structural
design.
By understanding hydrostatic principles, engineers and scientists can accurately
predict the behavior of fluids in static environments, enabling safe and efficient
designs across numerous industries.
Fig. 1 : diagram showing hydrostatic pressure distribution with depth
This relationship indicates that pressure increases linearly with depth, irrespective
of the shape of the container holding the fluid.
Forces on Submerged Surfaces
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, it experiences a force due to the
hydrostatic pressure exerted by the fluid. This force is distributed across the
surface and increases with depth because hydrostatic pressure is proportional to
depth. The total force acting on the submerged surface can be determined by
integrating the pressure over the entire surface area. Understanding these forces is
crucial in the design of structures such as dams, retaining walls, and ships, where
submerged surfaces must withstand significant fluid forces.
1. Flat Surfaces
For flat surfaces submerged in a fluid, the analysis is relatively straightforward. If
the surface is vertical, the resultant force acts perpendicular to the surface and
passes through the center of pressure, which is the point where the total force is
considered to act. The total force FFF on a flat surface can be calculated using the
equation:
F=ρ g hc A
Where:
F: Total hydrostatic force (in newtons, N)
ρ: Density of the fluid (in kg/m³)
g: Acceleration due to gravity (in m/s²)
hc: Depth of the center of pressure below the fluid surface (in meters, m)
A: Area of the submerged surface (in square meters, m²)
The depth of the center of pressure, hch_chc, is slightly deeper than the
geometric center of the surface and depends on the shape and orientation of the
surface. For rectangular surfaces, it can be calculated with additional formulas
accounting for the moment of inertia and surface inclination.
2. Curved Surfaces
The analysis of forces on curved surfaces is more complex due to the varying
directions of the forces acting on the surface. To simplify the problem, the total
force is often resolved into two components:
Horizontal Force (Fh): This is equal to the hydrostatic force acting on the
vertical projection of the curved surface. The calculation follows the same
principles as for flat vertical surfaces.
Vertical Force (Fv): This corresponds to the weight of the fluid directly
above the curved surface. It is calculated by determining the volume of fluid
above the surface and multiplying it by the fluid density and gravitational
acceleration:
Fv = ρ g V
Where:
V: Volume of the fluid above the curved surface (in cubic meters, m³)
The resultant force acting on the curved surface is then found by combining the
horizontal and vertical components using vector addition:
Fresultant = (Fh2+Fv2 )1/2
Fig 2 : a diagram depicting force components on a curved submerged surface
1. Center of Pressure: The center of pressure is the point where the total force
acts and is generally below the centroid of the submerged area. For a vertical
surface, the center of pressure is determined using:
Where:
o : Depth of the center of pressure (m)
o : Second moment of area about the surface axis (m)
Fig . 3 : diagram illustrating forces on a flat submerged surface and center of
pressure
Applications of Hydrostatics
The principles of hydrostatics are foundational in various engineering and
scientific fields, where understanding fluid behavior at rest is essential for
designing safe, efficient, and functional systems. Below are some key applications
of hydrostatics:
1. Dam Design
Dams are structures built to hold back water, creating reservoirs for water storage,
flood control, or electricity generation. Engineers use hydrostatic principles to
calculate the forces exerted by water on the dam walls.
The hydrostatic force increases with depth, meaning the base of the dam
experiences the highest pressure.
Calculations include determining the total force and its point of application (center
of pressure) to ensure the dam's stability against overturning and sliding.
Modern dam designs often feature triangular or trapezoidal cross-sections to
efficiently distribute these forces.
2. Ship Buoyancy
Buoyancy, or the upward force that keeps objects afloat, is governed by
Archimedes' Principle, a fundamental concept in hydrostatics.
Ships are designed with hull shapes that displace a volume of water sufficient to
generate a buoyant force equal to their weight.
Hydrostatic calculations ensure stability, preventing capsizing by analyzing how
the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity align under various loading
conditions.
Submerged portions of the ship are engineered to manage pressure distribution
effectively.
3. Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic systems rely on the transmission of fluid pressure to perform mechanical
work, and hydrostatics forms the basis of their operation.
Examples include hydraulic lifts, brakes, and presses, where incompressible fluids
transmit force through confined spaces.
Pascal’s Principle, a key concept in hydrostatics, states that pressure applied to a
confined fluid is transmitted uniformly in all directions. This principle allows small
input forces to generate large output forces in hydraulic systems, enabling efficient
mechanical advantage.
4. Underwater Vehicles
Submarines, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), and autonomous underwater
vehicles (AUVs) are designed to operate at varying depths, where hydrostatic
pressure can be extreme.
Structural integrity is critical, requiring materials and designs capable of
withstanding the high pressures found in deep-sea environments.
Engineers use hydrostatic calculations to determine pressure loads, buoyancy, and
stability, ensuring these vehicles maintain functionality and safety during
underwater operations.
Ballast systems in submarines rely on hydrostatics to control depth by adjusting the
weight and buoyant forces.
Advanced Considerations
1. Non-Homogeneous Fluids: In cases where fluid density varies (e.g., salinity
gradients in oceans), the pressure distribution becomes nonlinear and
requires integration of the pressure equation considering density as a
function of depth.
2. Hydrostatic Paradox: The hydrostatic paradox illustrates that the pressure
at a given depth depends only on the height of the fluid column and not on
its total volume. This principle is demonstrated in systems like
communicating vessels.
Conclusion
Hydrostatics offers essential insights into the behavior of fluids at rest and their
interactions with submerged surfaces. It forms the basis for analyzing pressure
distributions, forces, and buoyancy, which are critical in a wide range of
engineering and scientific applications. From the design of dams and ships to the
operation of hydraulic systems and underwater vehicles, hydrostatics ensures the
safety, stability, and efficiency of fluid-related systems. By leveraging these
principles, engineers and scientists can solve practical challenges, advancing
technology while maintaining structural integrity and operational reliability. As a
fundamental branch of fluid mechanics, hydrostatics remains an indispensable tool
in the development of solutions for modern industries and environmental
management.
References
1. White, F. M. (2016). Fluid Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Education.
2. Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., & Okiishi, T. H. (2012). Fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics. Wiley.
3. Cengel, Y. A., & Cimbala, J. M. (2013). Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals
and Applications. McGraw-Hill Education.
