Chapter 5 : Machining

Lecture 2 Metal Cutting

 Nose radius
• The nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools.

• The function of nose radius is as follows:

• Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the previous
shearing action and provides better surface finish.

• All finish turning tool have greater nose radius than rough turning tools.

• It increases the strength of the cutting edge, tends to minimize the wear
taking place in a sharp pointed tool with consequent increase in tool life.

• Accumulation heat is less than that in a pointed tool which permits higher
cutting speeds.
 Tool signature
It is the system of designating the principal angles of a single point
cutting tool.
The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the various angles, in
degrees, and the size of the nose radius.
There are several systems available like American standard system (ASA),
Orthogonal rake system (ORS), Normal rake system (NRS), and Maximum
rake system (MRS).
The system most commonly used is American Standard Association
(ASA), which is:
Back rake angle, Side rake angle, End relief angle, Side relief angle, End
cutting Edge angle, Side cutting Edge angle and Nose radius.
 Tool signature
For example a tool may designated in the following sequence:
8-14-6-6-6-15-1
1. Bake rake angle is 8
2. Side rake angle is 14
3. End relief angle is 6
4. Side relief angle is 6
5. End cutting Edge angle is 6
6. Side cutting Edge angle is 15
7. Nose radius is 1 inch
 Discontinuous
• Typically associated with brittle metals like –Cast Iron
• As tool contacts work, some compression takes place
• As the chip starts up the chip-tool interference zone, increased stress
occurs until the metal reaches a saturation point and fractures off the
workpiece.
 Discontinuous
• Conditions which favor this
type of chip
– Brittle work material
– Small rake angles on cutting
tools
– Coarse machining feeds
– Low cutting speeds
– Major disadvantage—could
result in poor surface finish
 Continuous
• Continuous “ribbon” of metal that flows up the chip/tool zone.
• Usually considered the ideal condition for efficient cutting action.
 Continuous
• Conditions which favor this type of chip:
– Ductile work
– Fine feeds
– Sharp cutting tools
– Larger rake angles
– High cutting speeds
– Proper coolants
 Continuous with a built-up edge(BUE)
• Same process as continuous, but as the metal begins to flow up the
chip-tool zone, small particles of the metal begin to adhere or weld
themselves to the edge of the cutting tool. As the particles continue
to weld to the tool it effects the cutting action of the tool.
 Continuous with a built-up edge(BUE)
• This type of chip is common in
softer non-ferrous metals and low
carbon steels.
• Problems
– Welded edges break off and can
become embedded in workpiece
– Decreases tool life
– Can result in poor surface finishes
Serrated Chips
Types of Chip in Machining
Factors Influencing the Chip Formation Process
Tool
Material
Properties
Work
Machine
Material
tool
properties

Chip
Formation
Chip
Cutting
Control
Condition
device

Tool Cutting
Geometry Fluid
Forces in Orthogonal Machining
Merchants Formula
Cutting-Tool Materials
o High-speed steel
o Cast alloys (such as stellite)
o Cemented carbides
o Ceramics
o Cermets
o Cubic Boron Nitride
o Polycrystalline Diamond
Hardness
– Cutting tool material must be 1 1/2 times harder than the material it is being used to
machine.
Capable of maintaining a red hardness during machining operation
– Red hardness: ability of cutting tool to maintain sharp
cutting edge
– Also referred to as hot hardness or hot strength
Wear Resistance
o Able to maintain sharpened edge throughout the cutting operation
o Same as abrasive resistance .
• Shock Resistance
o Able to take the cutting loads and forces
• Shape and Configuration
– Must be available for use in different sizes and shapes.
Carbon Tool Steel Material
There are following properties of Carbon tool steel
• Cheap
• Heat sensitive
• Mostly obsolete but still used for tap and die, hacksaw blades and reamers
• Hardness up to around HRC 65
• Fast cutting edges possible
Oldest of tool materials
• Used for drills taps,broaches ,reamers
• Inexpensive ,easily shaped ,sharpened
• No sufficient hardness and wear resistance
• Limited to low cutting speed operation
High-Speed Steel
• May contain combinations of tungsten, chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, cobalt .
• Can take heavy cuts, withstand shock and maintain sharp cutting edge under red
heat
• Generally two types (general purpose)
o Molybdenum-base
o Tungsten-base
• Cobalt added if more red hardness desired
Retains its hardness at high temperature
• Red hardness….
• Relatively good wear resistance
• Retain hardness at moderate temperatures.
• Now the most commonly used cutting material
• Used extensively for drill bits and taps
• Hardness up to HRC 67
• Fast cutting edges possible
Cast Alloy
• Usually contain 25% to 35% chromium, 4% to 25% tungsten and 1% to 3% carbon
o Remainder cobalt
• Qualities
o High hardness
o High resistance to wear
o Excellent red-hardness
• Operate 2 ½ times speed of high-speed steel
• Weaker and more brittle than high-speed steel
Stable
• Costly
• High machining speed due to low hardness
• Not much use
• Hardness up to around HRC 65
• Fast cutting edges possible
Commonly known as stellite tools
• Composition ranges – 38% - 53 % cobalt 30%- 33% chromium 10%-20%tungsten
• Good wear resistance ( higher hardness)
• Less tough than high-speed steels and sensitive to impact forces
• Less suitable than high-speed steels for interrupted cutting operations
• Continuous roughing cuts – relatively high g=feeds & speeds
• Finishing cuts are at lower feed and depth of cut
Cemented Carbide Material
Cemented carbide is a powdery metallurgical material; a composite of tungsten carbide (WC) particles and
a binder rich in metallic cobalt (Co). Cemented carbides for metal cutting applications consist of more than
80% of hard phase WC. Additional cubic carbonitrides are other important components, especially in
gradient sintered grades.
The cemented carbide body is formed, either through powder pressing or injection moulding techniques,
into a body, which is then sintered to full density.

Properties of Cemented Carbide are following

• Stable
• Moderately expensive
• Highly used in industry
• High resistance to abrasion
• Used for turning tool bits, milling cutters and saw blades
• Hardness up to HRC 90.
•Fast edges are generally not recommended.
Coated Carbides
• Cemented carbide insert coated with one or more thin layers of wear
resistant materials, such as TiC, TiN, and/or Al2O3
•Coating applied by chemical vapor deposition or
• physical vapor deposition
•Coating thickness (0.0001 to 0.0005 in)
•Applications:
• cast irons and steels in turning and milling operations
• Best applied at high speeds where dynamic force and thermal shock
are minimal
Cermets
• Combinations of TiC, TiN, and titanium carbonitride (TiCN), with nickel and/or
molybdenum as binders.
•Some chemistries are more complex
•Applications: high speed finishing and semi finishing of steels, stainless steels, and
cast irons
• Higher speeds and lower feeds than steel-cutting carbide grades
• Better finish achieved, often eliminating need for grinding
Ceramics
• Used as grinding wheels.
• as cutting tool inserts. These are used in a similar way to cemented
carbide inserts.
• they can withstand extremely high machining temperatures.
• They also have a high resistance to abrasion
Ceramic cutting tools can he used to machine ‘difficult’ materials at really
high cutting speeds — sometimes over 2000 m/min.
Compare this with the cutting speed for carbon steel cutting tools — 6
m/min.
• Ceramic cutting tools are very brittle.
• They can be used only on machines which are extremely rigid and free of
vibration
Cubic boron Nitride ( CBN ) :
• Layer of poly crystalline cubic boron nitride to a carbide substrate by sintering
under pressure
• While carbide provides shock resistance CBN layer provides high resistance and
cutting edge strength
• Cubic boron nitride tools are made in small sizes without substrate
Construction of a polycrystalline cubic boron nitride or a diamond layer on a
tungsten-carbide insert.
Inserts with polycrystalline cubic boron nitride tips and solid polycrystalline CBN
inserts
Diamond :
• Hardest known substance
• Low friction, high wear resistance
• Ability to maintain sharp cutting edge
• Single crystal diamond of various carats used for special applications
• Machining copper—front precision optical mirrors for ( SDI)
• Diamond is brittle , tool shape & sharpened is important
• Low rake angle used for string cutting edge
 Tool Wear and Tool Life

Ways of measuring tool life Modes of tool failure Temperature failure

No. of pieces of work machined Rupture of the tool point
Total volume of material removed Plastic deformation of CE due to high temp
Total length of cut Cracking at the CE due to thermal stresses.
Limiting value of surface finish Rupture of the tool point
Increase in cutting forces Chipping of tool edge due to mechanical
Dimensional accuracy impact
Overheating and fuming Crumbling of CE due to BUE
Presence of chatter Gradual wear at tool point
Flank wear
Crater wear
 Attrition wear At low cutting speeds
Flow of material past cutting edge is irregular and less stream lined
BUE formed and discontinuous contact with the tool
Fragments of tool are torn from the tool surface intermittently High
Slow and interrupted cutting
Presence of vibrations
Found in carbide tools at low cutting speeds

Diffusion wear
Diffusion of metal & carbon atoms from the tool surface into the w/p & chip.
Due to High temp High pressure
Rapid flow of chip & w/p past the tool
Diffusion rate depends on the metallurgical relationship
Significant in carbide tools.
Abrasive wear Due to Contributes to flank wear
Presence of hard materials in w/p material.
Strain hardening induced in the chip & w/p due to plastic deformation.
Contributes to flank wear
Effect can be reduced by fine grain size of the tool & lower percentage of
cobalt

Electrochemical wear When ions are passed b/w tool & w/p
Oxidation of the tool surface
Break down of tool chip tool interface

Chemical wear Interaction b/w tool and work material

Plastics with carbide tools
Cutting fluid
Plastic Deformation
When high compressive stresses acts on tool rake face- tool deformed
downways – reduces relief angle
Modifies tool geometry and accelerates other wear processes