AQAA LEVEL Prepared for Adenekan fer persnal Use orces er 1, Data Representation 1.1. Number Systems + Natural Numbers: base 10 numbers used for everyday counting, Postve integers for Dto= * Uses: counter n processor, identi location of data ina structure, score variables, counting N= (0,1,2,34...) + Integer Numbers: whole numbers (no fractional part) that can be posite or negative Z=(...-3,-%—1)0)1,2,3,4...) + Rational Numbers: canbe expressed fractionally, as quotients). Quotient can equal 1 (5/5=1 soll integers are rational + Denominator cannot be 0 Q = (1/3,1/2,3/4...) + rational Numbers values after decimal place do not repeat. Cannot be represented as 2 ratio between two integers. "Programmer needs to decide how many decimal places to use + Egv2orm + Real Numbers: any postve or negative number, with or withouta factional part. Fractional part canbe any length, allowing any level of precsion/accuraty + Refines possible reaorld quantities + Usesi measurements, CNC, time, robotics, data control systems + Ordinal Numbers: number used to identily postion telatve to other numbers + Cardinal Numbers: a number that defines the sizeof something + Well Ordered Set: group of related numbers with 8 defined order 1.2. Number Bases “Number base! defines how many digits are used to represent a number. + Decimal: uses 10 digi (0 + ) and increases by powers of 10 ‘Uses: humans for counting + Base 10: + Binary: uses 2 digs (0 and 1) ‘+ Uses: computers, because electronic gates can only be open or closed + Base2:# + Hexadecimal: used 16 digits (0+ F) ‘+ Why: shorthand for binary, as 2 hex digits can represent a byte. Requires less digits than binary, takes up less screen space, easier for humans to Understand than binary strings ‘Uses: HTML hex colour codes, MAC addresses, ‘memory dumps, error messages Base 16: ft. + Binary -> Decimal using binary columns, add up all values that have a1 underneath. + Decimal —- Binary using binary columns, see if value will fit under most significant colurnn, then repeat with remainder and next colurnn. Or, start with the least significant column and divide by 2 each time. If remainder is 0, then 0 is placed inthe column. + Decimal -> Hex convert to binary, split into nibbles, then tur each nibble into hex, and push values together. ‘+ Hex — Decimal take each hex value, turnit into binary, then push the nibbles of binary together. Turn binary into decimal 1.3. Units of Information + Bit: the fundamental unit of information, that is either 0 ort + Oisoff, and 1 is on inary Digit + Byte: a group of 8 bits ‘+ 2n values represented with n bits: where nis the umber of bits used, 2n is the number of possible ‘combinations ‘+ Eg. 2°=B, so with 3 bts, there are 8 combinations ‘Units: binary increments in 102, Decimal units Increment in 1000 ‘+ Inthe past, kilobyte has been used to mean kiblbyte (1024 bits) W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORGces er 1.4. Binary Number System Unsigned Binary ‘+ Binary that only represents positive whole numbers ‘+ Minimum value (for n bits) = 0 ‘+ Maximum value (for n bits) = 2n-1 + eg. maximum number in 8 bits = (241) = 255 igned binary: binary that represents a positive or negative whole number ‘+ Adding unsigned binary: add the two numbers together inbinary + Carrying a t: where the answer of 1+1 = 10, or 14141 1 ‘+ Multiplying unsigned binary: multiply the binary by the first digit ofthe second number. Repeat forthe next ligt, shifting the answer along by 1. Then add che resultant numbers together for the answer. ‘Two's Complement (Signed Binary) ‘+ Amethod that can be used to represent negative Integers, where the most significant bits negative. Converting to denary ‘+ An B-bittwo's complement number has -128 as the most significant bit, + Write out denary equivalents (with sufficient columns (Goubles each time) for the length ofthe binary string) + Enter binary string in eg. 10071700) + Add up values (eg. = 100) Converting from denary W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG + Flipthe bits and add 1 ‘+ Write out the positive binary equivalent + eg, +102 = 01100110 pall bits ‘+ Perform binary addktion with 1 to get the answer ‘+ Computers can only add binary, soto perform the calculation 20-13 = 20 + (-13) + 20=a0010100 213211110011 + The answer can be checked by converting the final answer into denary ‘+ Inthis case there is an overflow bit. tis handled separately to the calculation + Calculate range: using bts, 256 numbers can be represented (-128 to 127) + Arbitrary number of represented + Unsigned binary: 2n- (as 0is representable) + Two's complement range “+ Minimum representable value = (-2n-1), ‘+ Maximum representable value (2n-1-1) 2n numbers can be Fractional Parts Fixed point ‘+ Representing a fractional part using a fixed decimal point. After the point, aigits become fractions ‘= Smallest representable number using 8-it fixed point is 0900.0001 = 1/16 = 0.0625, 256 combinations ‘an be produced ‘+ Negative numbers can be made by making the MSB. negative + eg (8) +4424 H+ O15 Floating pointces er ‘+ Representation of number where the decimalbinary point moves, Uses two's complement ‘+ Mantissa: represents the significant digits (actual value) + Exponent: represents the power to which a number is raised to (how many places the points to move) ‘+ Floating point to decimal: 00001100 0011 + Work out the exponent. Ifitis negative, the point in the mantissa moves to the left. f positive, move to the right. + 0011 = 43 |0}*+J0-]0-101111]0/0] lolololojelti11ojoy © Add colurnn headings to the mantissa and work out the value. Any columns after the point are fractional. 005+0.25=0.75 + Decimal to floating point: -10.5 + Write out positive fixed point representation oFlip the its and add 1 to get number into two's complement ‘© Normalise the number by moving the point so that it starts in 10 (fora positive number: 01) Itfeloltsolti1 10104 O Fillin mantissa and exponent (number of places the point moved) It fort foiss4 ojo} [1poyoy 1.5. Binary Errors W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG + Rounding errors: it's not possible to represent every decimal number, because fractions are being used -the representation of some numbers may be inaccurate. + eg, 0.95 = 19/20, The binary progression of fractions. allows us to get close, but never exact. ‘+ Some numbers (0.110) can never be accurately represented. ‘+ Absolute rounding errors: the difference between the value intended to be stored, and the actual value that can be stores + Eg, 6.95 (target value) - 6.9375 (actual) = 0.0125 + Relative rounding errors: percentage difference between actual result and the expected result ‘relative error= (absolute valuey/(number intended to be stored) + Ee, 0.0125/6.95 *1 Underftow and Overftow 18% + Will use erroneous results or a program crash. Can be dealt with using flags + Underflow: when a number is too small o be represented with the number of bits alocated ‘+ Example: representing 1/32 s impossible using &-bit fixed point numbers - smallest that can be represented is 1/16 + Overflow: when a number is too bi with the number of bits allocated to be represented ‘+ Example: adding 00000001 (1) and 01171111 (127), would praduce 10000000 (128), but in two's complement, the answer would be 128 1.6. Floating Point vs. Fixed Pointces er + Range + Floating point can represent a wider range of numbers with same number of bits as fixed point + Precision + Fixed point’s absolute error does not change between numbers, so retains precision + Precision can vary wit floating point, asthe binary point does not have a fixed position + Speed of calculation + Fixed point quicker to process, asthe binary point does not need to be moved for each number Normalisation of Floating Point ‘+ Normalisation adjusts numbers onto a common scale that represents them as accurately as possible relative to the number of bits available Ensures that there is only one way to represent a number + Positive normalised: must start with 0.1 ‘+ Negative normalised: must start wi 1,7. Coding Systems Character Form of Decimal ch character has a character code, which is its representation in binary ‘+ Decimal numbers can be represented either with a character code or in pure binary ‘+ Character Code: used just to represent a number, where the actual value is nat crucial lke ina phone umber ‘+ Pure Binary: used to represent a number when ns need to be performed, and the decimal ‘number will equal the binary value ASCII and Unicode + ASCII: American Standard Code far Information Incerchange. Introduced as a standard binary coding system for characters and numbers ‘Standard: 7-bit code gives 128 permutations + Extended: #-bit code gives 256 permutations ‘+ Umitations: 256 characters not enough, no multi- lingual support, web use requires universal coding system, new programs need wider character range + Unicode: standard binary coding system that has surpassed ASCII since it allows for more permutations land hence more characters/languages. ASCII was ‘absorbed into Unicode, so all original codes remain the same ‘+ UTF-16: 16-bit code allows characters for 20+ countries, special characters and emojs ‘Vitalin the age of international communication so that data does not arive corrupted 1.8. Error Checking and Correction + Parity Bits: an adaltional bie added onto a binary string ‘to make total number of 1s/9s even or odd. Ina byte, 7 bits are sent + the adcitional parity bit ‘+ Even Parity: parity bit added to make total number of 1s an even number. Checked on receiving end + Odd Parity: party bit added to make total number of ‘1s an odd number. Checked on receiving end ‘+ Majority Voting: each bit in a binary code Is sent a set number of times, and then checking i the binary digit is the same each time. ‘+ 10 sent as [4] = 11110000 + Aninvalid transmission of 10 as [4] could be: soro001 + Checksums: isthe result ofa cryptographic hash function ran on a piece of data to return a value. If the value returned is equal to the value provided by the ‘source data, then transmission was successful + Check Digits: digit is added on the end of binary data to check itis accurate, Modulo-11 is a common way to calculate a check digit ‘Eg, 23045 is sent as 230456, so check digit is added, and then ‘modded’ until the value reaches 0. If calculation performed on receiving end does not match, and error message is created W/\W/\W/ZNOTES.ORG