CHAPTER 2: DESIGNING THE CURRICULUM

MODULE 3: The teacher as a Curriculum Designers

Written Report

Group 2:

Mary Clyde Alves

Erika Monique Jocutan

Janel Miano

Sarah Mae Dolojan

Michael Denn Charita

Jonabel Rivera

Jake Kenvy Omli

Mauren Jane Calma

What is Curriculum?

A curriculum is a structured framework outlining the learning objectives, content,

teaching methods, and assessment strategies for a particular course, subject, or
educational program. It serves as a guide for educators to ensure that learning
activities align with desired outcomes and standards.

Curricula can vary in scope, from national or regional frameworks to specific lesson
plans designed for individual classrooms. It is often tailored to meet the needs of
learners, comply with educational standards, and reflect cultural or institutional
priorities.

What does Curriculum design mean?

Curriculum design refers to the process of planning and organizing the content,
structure, teaching methods, and assessments of an educational program or course. It
involves creating a comprehensive framework that outlines what students are expected
to learn, how they will learn it, and how their progress will be evaluated

Roles of Teacher in Curriculum Design

Teachers play a crucial role as curriculum designers, as they are directly involved in the
process of shaping, implementing, and refining curricula to meet the needs of their
students and the goals of education. Here are the key points highlighting their
significance.
1. Tailoring to Student Needs
Teachers understand the diverse needs, abilities, and interests of their students. As
curriculum designers, they can adapt materials and strategies to ensure inclusivity and
relevance, fostering better engagement and learning outcomes.
Bridging Theory and Practice
Teachers bring practical classroom experience to curriculum design. They understand
what works in real-world teaching environments, ensuring that the curriculum is both
feasible and effective when implemented.
3. Enhancing Student-Centered Learning
As curriculum designers, teachers can create personalized and interactive learning
experiences. They can integrate innovative teaching methods, such as project-based
learning or technology-enhanced instruction, that prioritize student engagement.
Aligning with Educational Standards
Teachers are familiar with national or institutional learning standards. They ensure that
the curriculum aligns with these requirements while still being adaptable to local
contexts and school-specific priorities.
5. Promoting Lifelong Learning Skills
Through thoughtful curriculum design, teachers can focus on developing students'
critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills. They create opportunities for real-
world application, fostering lifelong learning habits.
6. Fostering Cultural Relevance
Teachers are attuned to the cultural and social dynamics of their classrooms. They can
design curricula that reflect and respect students' cultural backgrounds, making learning
more relatable and meaningful.
7. Continuous Improvement
Teachers have firsthand experience with the challenges and successes of implemented
curricula. As designers, they can refine and improve materials and methods based on
student feedback and assessment results.
8. Encouraging Collaboration
When teachers collaborate as curriculum designers, they bring diverse perspectives and
expertise to the process. This collective effort enhances the quality and depth of the
curriculum.

Importance of Curriculum Design:

● Ensures Coherent Learning: Helps in creating a structured and organized
learning path that allows students to build on previous knowledge.
● Aligns with Educational Goals: Ensures that the curriculum meets the
intended goals of the educational system or institution.
 ● Enhances Teaching and Learning: Guides teachers in providing effective
instruction and enables students to learn in a meaningful, organized manner.
● Promotes Flexibility and Adaptation: Allows for modifications based on
student feedback, assessment results, or changing educational needs.
In essence, curriculum design is a blueprint for education that guides both teaching and
learning, ensuring that students receive a well-rounded and purposeful education.

Fundamentals of Curriculum Design

The fundamentals of curriculum design are the core principles and elements that guide
the creation of an effective curriculum. These fundamentals ensure that the curriculum
is structured, purposeful, and aligned with educational goals, student needs, and
societal demands. Below are the key fundamentals:

Clear Learning Objectives and Outcomes

● Purpose: Establishing clear goals for what students are expected to know,
understand, and be able to do by the end of the course or program.
● Why It Matters: Well-defined objectives provide direction for both teachers
and students, ensuring that all teaching activities focus on achieving specific
learning outcomes.
2. Content Selection and Organization
● Purpose: Choosing relevant and important topics, concepts, and skills to be
taught, and organizing them in a logical sequence.
● Why It Matters: Content should be relevant to the curriculum goals and
tailored to the needs of students. The organization ensures that concepts
build upon one another progressively.
3. Instructional Strategies and Methods
● Purpose: Selecting teaching methods and approaches that will engage
students and facilitate learning effectively.
● Why It Matters: Different teaching strategies (e.g., lectures, group work,
experiential learning) cater to diverse learning styles and promote deeper
understanding.
4. Assessment and Evaluation
● Purpose: Determining how students' understanding and progress will be
measured and assessed.
● Why It Matters: Assessments should align with the learning objectives and be
used to track student progress, provide feedback, and inform instructional
decisions.
5. Alignment with Standards and Expectations
 ● Purpose: Ensuring the curriculum meets established educational standards,
whether local, national, or international, as well as institutional goals.
● Why It Matters: Alignment ensures that the curriculum meets academic,
social, and developmental requirements, and helps students succeed on
standardized assessments.
6. Adaptability and Flexibility
● Purpose: Creating a curriculum that can be adjusted to address the diverse
needs of students, changes in educational contexts, or emerging trends in the
field.
● Why It Matters: Flexibility allows teachers to modify the curriculum based on
feedback, classroom dynamics, or individual student needs.
7. Inclusivity and Diversity
● Purpose: Designing a curriculum that is accessible and relevant to all
students, considering their varied backgrounds, abilities, interests, and
learning styles.
● Why It Matters: An inclusive curriculum promotes equity in learning
opportunities, ensuring all students can succeed regardless of their starting
points.
8. Resource Selection
● Purpose: Identifying and integrating appropriate learning resources (e.g.,
textbooks, multimedia, online tools) that support instruction and enhance
student engagement.
● Why It Matters: Quality resources enrich the learning experience and offer
varied ways for students to engage with content, catering to different
learning preferences.
9. Cultural Relevance
● Purpose: Designing the curriculum to reflect the cultural contexts of the
students and the broader society.
● Why It Matters: Culturally relevant content makes learning more engaging
and meaningful, helping students connect with what they are studying.
10. Sequencing and Pacing
● Purpose: Determining the order in which content will be presented and the
pace at which it will be taught.
● Why It Matters: A well-structured sequence and appropriate pacing ensure
that concepts are learned progressively and that students are not
overwhelmed or under-challenged.
11. Collaboration and Stakeholder Involvement
● Purpose: Involving various stakeholders (teachers, students, parents,
curriculum specialists) in the curriculum development process.
 ● Why It Matters: Collaboration ensures that the curriculum is comprehensive,
relevant, and reflective of the needs of the community and educational
institution.

Building on Peter Oliva’s 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers

William R. Gordon II: He has served as a teacher, instructional leader, and district-
level executive leader in Florida. Notably, during his tenure as principal of Winter Park
High School, the institution was recognized as a "High-Performing School" by the State
of Florida.
Rosemarye T. Taylor: She is a co-author of "Developing the Curriculum" and has
contributed to various educational resources. While specific images are scarce, her work
is well-regarded in the field of curriculum development.
Peter F. Oliva: He has authored several editions of "Developing the Curriculum,"
providing comprehensive insights into curriculum development processes. His
contributions have been instrumental in shaping educational leadership and curriculum
studies.

Peter Oliva’s 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers

Peter Oliva's axioms for curriculum designers offer guiding principles that emphasize the
collaborative, iterative, and contextual nature of curriculum development. These axioms
serve as foundational ideas for creating effective, relevant, and dynamic educational
programs. Below is an exploration of each axiom, its implications, and practical
applications.
1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable.
Explanation: Change in the curriculum is a natural process driven by advancements in
knowledge, societal needs, and evolving pedagogical theories. Curriculum must adapt
to remain relevant and effective.
Implications:
● Educators and curriculum developers must embrace change as an opportunity
for growth.
● Flexibility and openness to innovation are critical.
Practical Application:
● Conduct periodic reviews to update the curriculum, incorporating new
research, technologies, and methodologies.
● Develop professional development programs to prepare teachers for
implementing changes.

2. Curriculum is a product of its time.

Explanation: Curriculum reflects the values, knowledge, and challenges of the era in
which it is developed.
Implications:
● Designers must consider the cultural, social, and technological context.
● Future trends should be anticipated to maintain relevance.
Practical Application:
● Integrate lessons on contemporary issues such as climate change, digital
citizenship, and global interconnectivity.
● Use case studies and examples that resonate with students’ lived
experiences.

3. Curriculum changes are made at different levels.

Explanation: Changes can occur at the national, institutional, or classroom level, each
requiring different approaches and considerations.
Implications:
● Coordination across levels ensures consistency and alignment with
educational goals.
Practical Application:
● Align national standards with institutional goals and classroom practices.
● Create platforms for collaboration among policymakers, school administrators,
and teachers.

4. Curriculum decisions are made based on data.

Explanation: Effective curriculum design relies on evidence gathered from
assessments, research, and feedback.
Implications:
● Data-driven decisions improve the alignment of curriculum with student
needs and outcomes.
Practical Application:
● Use student performance data to identify areas for improvement.
● Employ surveys and focus groups to gather insights from stakeholders.

5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity.

Explanation: The best curricula are created through collaboration among educators,
subject matter experts, students, and the community.
Implications:
● Diverse perspectives lead to more comprehensive and inclusive curricula.
Practical Application:
● Form committees that include teachers, parents, and industry professionals to
design and review curricula.
● Host workshops to gather input and foster collaboration.

6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process.

Explanation: Developing a curriculum involves selecting from multiple options to
create the most effective program.
Implications:
● Decisions should prioritize student learning and equity.
Practical Application:
● Use frameworks like backward design to focus on desired learning outcomes.
● Consider ethical implications and inclusivity in all curriculum decisions.

7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process.

Explanation: Curriculum is not static; it evolves based on feedback, assessments, and
societal changes.
Implications:
● Continuous evaluation and revision are essential.
Practical Application:
● Establish mechanisms for ongoing curriculum evaluation, such as annual
reviews.
● Pilot new modules or units and adjust based on outcomes and feedback.

8. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic

process.
Explanation: A structured approach ensures thoroughness and consistency.
Implications:
● Clear frameworks and models guide effective curriculum design.
Practical Application:
● Use models like ADDIE (Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate) or
the Tyler Rationale to structure the process.
● Develop templates for lesson planning and unit design to maintain
consistency.

9. Curriculum planners are leaders as well as managers.

Explanation: Curriculum designers must inspire and guide stakeholders while
managing the logistics of development.
Implications:
● Leadership skills are as important as technical expertise in curriculum design.
Practical Application:
● Train curriculum planners in leadership and change management.
● Foster a shared vision among all stakeholders.

10. Curriculum development involves both art and science.

Explanation: While curriculum development relies on data and systematic processes, it
also requires creativity and intuition.
Implications:
● A balance between innovation and evidence ensures effective curricula.
Practical Application:
● Encourage creative teaching strategies, such as project-based learning and
interdisciplinary approaches.
● Incorporate student choice and voice to foster engagement and creativity.

Conclusion
Peter Oliva’s axioms provide a comprehensive framework for curriculum designers,
emphasizing the importance of collaboration, adaptability, and systematic planning. By
applying these principles, educators can create curricula that are both relevant to the
present and adaptable to the future, ensuring meaningful and impactful learning
experiences for all students.

Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design

There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some would call it a syllabus or
a lesson plan. Some would call it a unit plan or a course design. Whatever is the name
of the design, the common components for all of them are almost the same. However
some schools. institutions or departments may add other minor parts or trimmings to
the design. Let us take the Lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum. A lesson plan or
teaching guide includes (1) Intended Learning Outcomes ([LO) or the Desired Learning
Outcome (DLO) formerly labelled as behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter or
Content, (3) Teaching and Learning Methods and (4) Assessment Evaluation. Each of
these components or clements is described below.

Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes Begin with the end

in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the reasons for
undertaking the learning lesson from the student's point of view; it is desired
learning outcome that is to be accomplished in a particular learning episode,
engaged in by the learners under the guidance of the teacher. As a curriculum
design, the beginning of the learning journey is the learning outcomes to be
achieved. In this way, both the learner and the teacher are guided 0) what to
accomplish.

The behavioral objectives, intended learning outcomes or desired learning

outcomes are expressed in action words found in the revised Bloom's Taxonomy
of Objectives (Andersen and Krathwohl, 2003) for the development of the
cognitive skills. For the affective skills, refer to the taxonomy made by Krathwohl
and for the psychomotor domain by Simpson.

The statement should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-

oriented and Time-bound. For a beginner, it would help if you provide the
Condition, Performance and Extent or Level of Performance in the statement of
the intended learning outcomes.

For example, if a lesson intends the students to identify the parts of a simple
flower as stated in the desired learning outcomes, then students should have
identified the parts of a simple flower, at the end of the lesson.

Sometimes the phrase intended learning outcomes is used to refer to the

anticipated results after completing the planned activity or lesson. In framing
learning outcomes, it is good practice to:

Express each outcome in terms of what successful students will be able to do.
For example, rather than stating Students will be able to explain the reason
why... it should be: 'Students must have explained the reasons why...' This helps
students to focus on what they have to achieve as learning. It will also help
curricularists devise appropriate assessment tasks.
Include different kinds of outcomes. The most common are cognitive objectives
(learning facts, theories, formulae, principles etc.) and performance outcomes
(learning how to carry out procedures, calculations and processes, which
typically include gathering information and communicating results). In some
contexts, affective outcomes are important too (for developing attitudes or
values, e.g. those required as a person and for a particular profession).

II. Content/Subject Matter

The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or subject matter that will be
covered. In selecting content, you should bear in mind the following principles in
addition to those mentioned about the content in previous lessons:

Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum. An

effective curriculum is purposive and clearly focused on the planned learning
outcomes.

Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit. An

effective curriculum is progressive, leading students towards building on previous
lessons. Contents which are too basic or too advanced for the development
levels of learners make students either bored or baffled and affect their
motivation to learn.

Subject matter should be up-to-date and, if possible, should reflect current

knowledge and concepts.

Subject matter should follow the principle of BASICS

III. References

The subject matter has been taken. The reference may be a book, a module or
any publication. It must bear the author of the material and if possible, the
publications. Some examples are given below.

1. Project Wild(1992) K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary Projectmentary

Conservation and Environmental Education Program.Council of Environmental
Education, Bethesda, MD

2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An Introduction to Physical

Science. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston MA

3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Exploratory Course Lorimar

Publishing Inc

Quezon City
 4. Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz, Brenda B. et al (2012). Th Teaching Profession
2nd Ed. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good
to keep in mind the teaching strategies that students will experience (lectures,
laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and make them learn. The teaching-learning
methods should allow cooperation, competition as well as individualism or
independent learning among the students. For example:

Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are

guided to learn on their own to find solutions to their problems. The role of the
teachers is to guide the learners. Democratic process is encouraged, and each
one contributes to the success of learning. Students learn from each other in
ways. Group projects and activities considerably enhance the curriculum.

Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility.

The degree of independence to learn how to learn is enhanced. This strategy is
more appropriate for fast learners.

Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against

another in a healthy manner, allow learners to perform to their maximum. Most
successful individuals in their adult life are competitive, even in early schooling.
They mostly become the survivors in a very competitive world.

The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experiences is

recommended. Online learning and similar modes are increasingly important in
many curricula, but these need to be planned carefully to be effective.

Some Behaviorist Teaching Learning Methods

A. Direct Instruction: Barak Rosenshine Model (in Ornstien & Hunkins, 2018)

Detailed Steps:

1. State Learning Objectives/ Outcomes: Begin lesson with a short statement of

objective or desired lesson learning outcomes.

2. Review: Introduce short review of previous or prerequisite learning.

3. Present new materials: Present materials in small, sequenced manner.

4. Explain: Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.

5. Practice: Provide active practice for all students.

6. Guide. Guide students during initial practice; or provide seatwork activities.

7. Check for understanding. Ask several questions, assess students comprehension.

8. Provide Feedback. Provide systematic feedback and corrections.

9. Assess performance. Obtain student success rate of 80 percent or more during

practice session.

10. Review and test. Provide for spaced review and testing.

B. Guided Instruction: Madeline Hunter Model (in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018)

1. Review. Focus on previous lesson, ask students to summarize main points.

2. Anticipatory set. Focus student's attention on new lesson. Stimulate interest in the
new materials.

3. Objective. State explicitly what is to be learned; state rationale or how it will be

useful.

4. Input. Identify needed knowledge and skills for learning new lesson; present
materials in sequenced steps.

5. Modeling. Provide several examples or demonstrations throughout the lesson.

Check for understanding. Monitor students work before they become involved in lesson
activities, check to see they understand directions or tasks.

Guided practice. Periodically ask students questions and their answers. Again monitor
understanding.

Independent practice. Assign independent work or practice. When it is reasonably sure

that students can work on their own with understanding and minimal frustration

C. Mastery Learning: JH Block and Lorin Anderson Model ( Ornstein &

Hunkins, 2018)

1. Clarify. Explain to students what they are expected to learn.

2. Inform. Teach the lesson, relying on the whole group instruction.

3. Pretest. Give a formative quiz on a no fault-basis, students can check their own
paper.
4. Group. Based on results, divide the class into mastery and no mastery groups (80%
is

considered mastery)

5. Enrich and correct. Give enrichment instruction to mastery group. Give corrective
(practice/drill) to non-mastery group.

6. Monitor. Monitor student progress; vary amount of teacher time and support for each
group based on group size and performance.

7. Posttest. Give a summary test for non-mastery group.

8. Assess performance. At least 75% of the students should achieve mastery by the
summative test.

9. Reteach. If not, repeat procedures; starting with corrective instructions (small study
groups, individual tutoring, alternative instructional materials, extra homework, reading
materials practice and drill).

D. Systematic Instruction: Thomas Good and Jere Brophy (in Ornstein and
Hunkins, 2018)

1. Review. Review concepts and skills related to homework, provide review exercises.

2. Development. Promote students understanding, provide controlled practice.

3. Assess comprehension. Ask questions, provide controlled practice.

4. Seatwork. Provide uninterrupted seatwork; get everyone involved, sustain

momentum.

5. Accountability. Check the students work.

6. Homework. Assign homework regularly; provide review problems.

7.Special reviews. Provide weekly reviews to check and further maintain and enhance
learning

Teaching-Learning Environment.

In the choice of the teaching learning methods, equally important is the teaching
learning environment. Brian Castaldi in 1987 suggested four criteria in the provision of
the environment or learning space in designing a curriculum. These criteria include (1)
adequacy, (2) suitability, (3) efficiency and (4) economy.
1. Adequacy- This refers to the actual learning space or classrooms. Is the classroom
large enough for student's mobility for class interaction and collaborative work Is there
enough light and ventilation so that the learning space is conducive, and safe for
learning? To provide learning condition that will provide opportunities that will develop
the 21st century skills, there must be a provision for the utilization of technology for
teaching and learning and the use of the cyberspace.

2. Suitability- This relates to planned activities. Suitability should consider

chronological and developmental ages of learners. Also to be considered will be the
socio-cultural, economic even religious background of the learners.

3. Efficiency. This refers to operational and instructional effectiveness

4. Economy- This refers to cost effectiveness. How much is needed to provide

instructional materials?

VI. Assessment/Evaluation

Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they
receive information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process by
which this information is generated is assessment. It has three main forms:

Self assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own
learning. This should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to
produce graduates who are appropriately reflective and self-critical.

Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other's learning. This can
be viewed as an extension of self- assessment and presupposes trust and mutual
respect. Research suggests that students can learn to judge each other's work as
reliably as staff.

Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives
feedback on the student's performance.

Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more) or
summative (expressing the judgement on the student’s achievement by reference to
stated criteria). Many assessment tasks involve an element of both, e.g. example an
assignment that i

marked and returned to the student with detailed comments.

Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks or grades. This helps
the teacher make decisions about the progress or performance of the students.

Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths and weaknesses of their
work than by knowing the mark or grade given to it. For this reason, summative
assessment tasks (including unseen examinations) should include an element of
formative feedback, if possible.

Application of the fundamental Components to other curriculum design

While our example refers only to designing a lesson plan which is a mini curriculum,
similar components will also be used in making a syllabus for teaching in higher
education courses or other curricular projects. Based on the curriculum model we have
learned, the fundamental components include the following: Major components of a
Course Design or Syllabus

1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)

2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)
3. Method/Strategies (with needed resources)
4. Evaluation (means of assessment)

Simply put, curriculum design is the organization of curriculum components. All other
additional components are trimmings that each designer may add. This may be
institutional template or suggested by other curriculum expert or required by
educational agencies like the Department of Education Regulation on Higher Education,
Accrediting Agencies, Professional Regulation Commission to achieve a specific purpose
of such agency

Lesson 3.2 Approaches to Curriculum Designing

Desired Learning Outcomes

Identify some familiar curriculum designs and approaches the designs

Analyze the approaches in the light of how these are applie in the school setting.

Take Off

You have been familiarized with the preliminaries of making simple design through
lesson plan components. You will further enrich your knowledge by looking into how
other curricularists approach the curriculum design. In this lesson, we will see how
several examples o curriculum designs are used in the schools and classrooms.

Content Focus
Types of Curriculum Design Models

There are many ways of looking at curriculum and designing one. For our own
purposes, let us focus on the most widely used examples.

Subject-Centered Design - This is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of

the curriculum. The subject-centered design corresponds mostly to the textbook
because textbooks are usually written based the specific subject or course. Henry
Morrison and William Harris are the few curricularist who firmly believed in this design.
As practised, school hours are allocated to different school subjects such as Science,
Mathematics Language, Social Studies, Physical Education, and others. This is also
practised in the Philippines, because a school day is divided into class period, a school
year into quarters or semester. Most of the schools using this kind of structure and
curriculum design aim for excellence in the specific subject discipline content. Subject-
centered curriculum design has also some variations which are focused on the individual
subject, specific discipline and a combination of subjects or disciplines which are a
broad field or interdisciplinary.

1.1. Subject design. What subject are you teaching? What subject are you taking?
These are two simple questions that the teacher and the learner can easily answer.
It is because they are familiar with the subject design curriculum.

Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for
teachers, parents and other laymen. According to the advocates, subject design has
an advantage because it is easy to deliver. Textbooks are written and support
instructional materials are commercially available. Teachers are familiar with the
format, because they were educated using also the design. In the Philippine
educational system, the number of subjects in the elementary education is fewer
than in the secondary level. In college, the number of subjects also differs

according to the degree programs being pursued. For each subject, a curriculum is
being designed.

However, the drawback of this design is that sometimes, learning is so

compartmentalized. It stresses so much the content and forgets about students'
natural tendencies, interests and experiences. The teacher becomes the dispenser of
knowledge and the learners are the simply the empty vessel to receive the
information or content from the teacher. This is a traditional approach to teaching
and learning.

1.2 Discipline design. This curriculum design model is related to the subject
design. However, while subject design centers only on the cluster of content,
discipline design focuses on academic disciplines. Discipline refers to specific
knowledge learned through a method which the scholars use to study a specific
content of their fields. Students in history should learn the subject matter like
historians, students in biology should learn how the biologists learn, and so with
students in mathematics, who should learn how mathematicians learn. In the same
manner, teachers should teach how the scholars in the discipline will convey the
particular knowledge.

Discipline design model of curriculum is often used in college, but not in the
elementary or secondary levels. So from the subject-centered curriculum, curriculum
moves higher to a discipline when the students are more mature and are already
moving towards their career path or disciplines as science, mathematics,
psychology, humanities, history and others.

Correlation design. Coming from a core, correlated curriculum design links

separate subject designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are
related to one another and still maintain their identity. For example, English
literature and social studies correlate well in the elementary level. In the two
subjects, while history is being studied, different literary pieces during the
historical period are also being studied. The same is true when science
becomes the core, mathematics is related to it, as they are taken in
chemistry, physics and biology. Another example is literature as the core with
an music, history, geography related to it. To use correlated design, teachers
should come together and plan their lesson cooperatively.

1.4 Broad field design/interdisciplinary. Interdisciplinary is a Broad field design

of the variation of the subject-centered design This design was made to cure the
compartmentalization separate subjects and integrate the contents that are relate to
one another. Thus subjects such as geography, economics political science,
anthropology, sociology and history are fuse into one subject called social studies.
Language arts will include grammar, literature, linguistics,

spelling, and composition. Sometimes called holistic curriculum, broad fields draw
around themes and integration. Interdisciplinary design is similar to thematic design,
where a specific theme is identified, and al other subject areas revolve around the
theme.

1. Learner-Centered Design
Among progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of the
educative process. This emphasis is very strong in the elementary level, however,
more concern has been placed on the secondary and even the tertiary levels.
Although in high school, the subject or content has become the focus and in the
college level, the discipline is the center, both levels still recognize the importance of
the learner in the curriculum.

Here are some examples of curriculum designs which are learner. centered.

1.1 Child-centered design. This design is often attributed to the influence of John
Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi and Froebel. This curriculum design is anchored on the
needs and interests of the child. The learner is not considered a passive individual
but one who engages with his/her environment. One learns by doing Learners
actively create, construct meanings and understanding as viewed by the
constructivists. In the child-centered design. learners interact with the teachers and
the environment, thus there is a collaborative effort on both sides to plan lessons,
select content and do activities together. Learning is a product of the child's
interaction with the environment.

1.2 Experience-centered design. This design is similar to the child centered

design. Although the focus remains to be the child experience-centered design
believes that the interests and needs of learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead,
experiences of the learners become the starting point of the curriculum, thus the
school environment is left open and free. Learners are made to choose from various
activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own
learning from the different opportunities given by the teacher. In a school where
experience-centered curriculums is provided, different learning centers are found,
time is flexible and children are free to make options. Activities revolve around
different emphasis such as touching, feeling, imagining, constructing, relating and
others The emergence of multiple intelligence theory blends well with experience-
centered design curriculum.

1.3 Humanistic design. The key influence in this curriculum design is Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers: Maslow's theory of self- actualization explains that a
person who achieves this
 level is accepting of self, others and nature, is simple, spontaneous and natural, is
open to different experiences, possesses empathy and sympathy towards the less
fortunate among the many others. The person can achieve this state of self-
actualization later in life but has to start the process while still in school. Carl
Rogers, on the other hand, believed that a person can enhance self-directed
learning by improving self-understanding, the basic attitude to guide behavior.

In a humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the ultimate objective

of learning. It stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling and
doing. It considers the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains to be
interconnected and must be addressed in the curriculum. It stresses the
development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills.

1. Problem - Centered Design

Generally, problem-centered design draws on social problems, needs, interest
and abilities of the learners. Various problems are given emphasis. There are those that
center on life situations, contemporary life problems, areas of living and many others.
In this curriculum, content cuts across subject boundaries and must be based on the
needs, concerns and abilities of the students. Two examples are given for the problem-
centered design curriculum.

2.1 Life-situations design. What makes the design unique is that the contents are
organized in ways that allow students to clearly view problem areas. It uses the past
and the present experiences of learners as a means to analyze the basic areas of living.
As a starting point, the pressing immediate problems of the society and the students'
existing concerns are utilized. Based on Herbert Spencer's curriculum writing, his
emphases were activities that sustain life, enhance life, aid in rearing children, maintain
the individual's social and political relations and enhance leisure, tasks and feelings. The
connection of subject matter to real situations increases the relevance of the
curriculum.

1.1 Core problem design. Another example of problem-centered design is core

design. It centers on general education and the problems are based on the common
human activities. The central focus of the core design includes common need problems,
and concerns of the learners. Popularized by Faunce and Bossing in 1959, it presented
ways on how to proceed using core design of a curriculum. These are the steps.
Step 1. Make group consensus on important problems.
Step 2. Develop criteria for selection of important problem.
Step 3. State and define the problem.
Step 4. Decide on areas of study, including class grouping
Step 5. List the needed information for resources.
Step 6. Obtain and organize information.
Step 7. Analyze and interpret the information.
Step 8. State the tentative conclusions.
Step 9. Present a report to the class individually or by group
Step 10. Evaluate the conclusions.
Step 11. Explore other avenues for further problem solving
Table 1: Overview of the Major Curriculum Design (Ornstein A & Hunkins, F, 2018)

Design Emphasis Underlying Source/ Spokesperson

Philosophy Focus Champion
Subject- Centered
Subject Design Separate Essentialism Science, Harris,
subject Perennialism Knowledge Hutchinn
Broad- Fields Interdisciplinary Essentialism, Science, Broudy, Dewey
design subjects, Progressivism Knowledge
scholarly
discipline
Correlation Separate Progressivism, Knowledge Alberty, Albeny
design subject, Essentialism
discipline linked
but identities
maintained

Learner-Centered
Child-Centered Child’s and Progressivism Child Dewey,
Design interest Kilpatrick,
Parker
Experience- Child’s Progressivism Child Dewey, Rugg,
centered experiences Shumaker
design and needs
Humanistic Experiences, Reconstructionis Psychology, Combs,
design interest, needs m Existentialism child, society Abraham
of a person and Maslow, Carl
group Rogers

Problem- Centered- design

Life-situation Life (social) Reconstructionis Society Spencer
design problem m
Transformatory Child focus on Open system Society Slattery
(or becoming society and the
change) world, all reals Post modernism
of culture
Reconstructioni Child, the Open system Post Roth
st design teacher, the modernism
world

Approaches to Curriculum Design Model

How will a particular design be approached by the teacher? After writing a
curriculum Based on the specific design, let us see how a teacher will approach this. We
will find out The utilization of the example design.
Child or Learner-Centered Approach. This approach to curriculum design is based
on the Underlying philosophy that the child or a learner is the center of education
process. It Means that the curriculum is constructed based on the
needs,interes,purpose and abilities Of the learner . The curriculum is also built upon the
learners knowledge, skills , previous learnings and potentials.
From its design, how should a child-centered curriculum be approached? Let us
consider
these principles.
Principle of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach
1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.
2. Make all activities resolve around the overall development of the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
4. Consider using differentiated instruction or teaching.
5. Provide a motivating supportive learning environment for the learners.
The child X
School centered approach
is anchored on is
theillustrated in the
theory of example
multiple below.
intelligences in all the
curricular and co-curricular activities. Every classroom provides
activity centers where the children can learn on their own with the different
learning resource material. Learners can just choose which learning center
to engage in with the different resources. This arrangement allows for the
capacity of every learner to be honed. It also allows learning how to learn,
hence will develop independence. The teacher acts as guide for every
learner. The learner sets the goal that can be done within the frame of
Subject-Centered Approach. This is anchored on a curricular design which
prescribes separate distinct subjects for every educational level: basic education, higher
education or vocational-technical education. This approach considers the following
principles:
1. The primary focus is the subject matter
2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems of living.
4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.
5. Teacher's role is to dispense the content.
Example of subject-centered
In another setting. Schoolapproach
Y aims is
togiven below.
produce the best graduates in a school
district. Every leaner must excel in all academic subjects to be on of every
academic competition. The higher the level of cognitive intelligence the
better the learner. Hence the focus of learning is mastery of the subject
matter in terms of content. Every student is expected to be always on top in
terms of mastery of discipline. Memorization and drill are important learning
skills. The school gives emphasis to intellectual development, and sets aside
emotional, psychomotor and even value development. Success means
mastery of the content.

Problem-Centered Approach. This approach is based on a design which assumes

that in the process of living, children experience problems. Thus, problem solving
enables the learners to become increasingly able to achieve complete or total
development as individuals.
This approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs :
1.The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving problems,
thus developing every learner to be independent .
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct
participation in different activities.
3.The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems in
seeking solutions. Learners are problem solver themselves.
An example
School of the problem-centered
2 believes that a learnerapproach is presented
should be trained tobelow.
solve real life
problems that come about because of the needs, interests and abilities of
the learners. Problems persistent in life and society that affect daily living
are also considered. Most of the school activities revolve around finding
solutions to problems like poverty, drug problems, climate change,
natural calamities and many more. Since the school is using a problem-
based design, the same approach is used. Case study and practical work
are the teaching strategies that are utilized. Problem-centered approach
has become popular in many schools.

We have given examples of curriculum design and the corresponding

approaches. Again, the choice of the design is influenced by philosophical and
psychological beliefs of the designer. It is very important that as a curricularist, you will
be able to understand the different design models and how to approach each one.

Curriculum Mapping

Curriculum mapping is a model for designing, refining, upgrading and reviewing

the.curriculum resulting in a framework that provides form, focus and function (Hale
and Dunlap, 2010). It is a reflective process tat helps teachers understand what has
been taught in class., how it has been taught and how learning outcomes are assessed.
This process was introduced by Heidi Hayes Jacobs in 2004 in her book Getting results
with Curriculum Mapping (ASCD, 2004). This approach is an ongoing process or "work-
in-progress". It is not a one time initiative but a continuing action, which involves the
teacher and other stakeholders, who have common concerns.

Curriculum mapping can be done by department, the whole school or district or the
whole educational system Some curricularists would describe curriculum mapping as
making a stakeholders, like teachers, colleagues, parents, school officials and map to
success.
There are common questions that are asked by differen community as well. These
questions may include:

1. What do my students learn?

2. What do they study in the first quarter?

3. What are they studying in the school throughout the year? 4. Do my co-teachers who
handle the same subject, cover th same content? Achieve the same outcomes? Use
simila strategies?

5. How do I help my students understand the connections between my subjects and

other subjects within the year) Next year?

Curriculum mapping, may be able to answer these questions above Furthermore,

mapping will produce a curriculum map, which is a ven functional tool in curriculum
development.

Benefits of Curriculum Mapping

1. Curriculum mapping ensures alignment of the desired learning outcomes, learning

activities and assessment of learning.

2. Curriculum mapping addresses the gaps or repetitions in the curriculum. It reveals if

certain program goals or learning outcomes are not adequately covered or overly
emphasized in the current curriculum.

3. Curriculum mapping verifies, clarifies and establishes alignment between what

students do in their courses and what is taught in the classrooms and assessed as their
learning.
4. The curriculum maps visually show important elements of the curriculum and how
they contribute to student learning.

5. Curriculum mapping connects all initiatives from instructior pedagogies, assessment

and professional development. facilitates the integration of cross-curricular skills.

THE CURRICULUM MAP

Curriculum are visual timelines that desired learning outcomes to be achieved,

contents, skills and values taught, instructional time, assessment to be used, and the
overall students movement towards the attainment of the intended outcomes.
Curricular maps may be simple or elaborate that can be used by an individual teacher, a
department the whole school or educational system. A map is geared to a school
calendar.

Curriculum maps provide quality control of what are taught in schools to

maintain excellence, efficiency and effectiveness. It is intended to improve instruction
and maintain quality of education that all stakeholders need to be assured of.

Sometimes, parents and teachers would ask questions like: "Why is my

friend's son studying decimals in Mr. Bernardo's class and my own son is not
studying the same in Miss Julia's class when they are of the same grade
level?" or "Why do some of my students recognize the parts of speech while
others are totally lost?"

Parents, teachers and the whole educational community can look at the
curriculum map to see that intended outcomes and content are covered. A map can
reassure stakeholders specific information for pacing and alignment of the subject
horizontally or vertically. It will also avoid redundancy, inconsistencies and
misalignment. Courses that are not correctly aligned will allow teachers to quickly
assess the mastery of the skills in the previous grade, to avoid unnecessary reteaching.

Horizontal alignment, called sometimes as "pacing guide", will make all teachers,
teaching the same subject in a grade level follow the same timeline and accomplishing
the same learning outcomes. This is necessary for state-mandated, standard-based
assessment that we have in schools. Vertical alignment, will see to it that concept
development which may be in hierarchy or in spiral form does not overlap but building
from a simple to more complicated concepts and skills. Alignment, either vertical or
horizontal, will also develop interdisciplinary connections among teachers and students,
between and among courses. Teachers can verify that skills and content are addressed
in other courses or to higher levels, thus making learning more relevant.

A curriculum map is always a work in progress, that enables the teacher or the
curriculum review team to create and recreate the curriculum. It provides a good
information for modification of curriculum, changing of standards and competencies in

order to find ways to build connections in the elements of the curricular.

Example of a Curriculum Map

Here are two examples of a curriculum map. Sample A is for Basic Education and
Sample B is for a College Level.

Example A: Excerpt from DepEd Curriculum Guide for Science 3 shows a sample of a
map for Quarter 1 and 2. A column for Code was not included.
Curriculum Quality Audit

Curriculum Quality Audit (CQA) is a form of curriculum mapping. It is a process of

mapping the curricular program or syllabus against established standards. This process
is supported by Susan Rafe when she said that the best practice in curriculum
development and implementation require that discipline based standards embody
curricular and program scopes and sequences (Arafeh, 2016, p. 585) The curriculum
quality audit requires a written curriculum and the tested curriculum linked to both the
taught and the written curricula.

For those who want to engage in curriculum quality audit, the following questions are
worth considering:
1. Is the curriculum planned, executed, and assessed in accordance with appropriate
standards?

2. How does the school system conform to the standards of quality in instructional
organization like specificity, quality and scope for teaching, learning and assessment?

3. Are all students achieving success equally and effectively? If not, what can be done
about it?

Benefits of Curriculum Quality Audit

1. Identify gaps, under and overrepresentation of the curriculum based on the

standards.

2. Ensures alignment of learning outcomes, activities and assessment to the standards.

3. Achieves an internationally comparable curriculum as standards become the basis of

the curriculum analysis.

The Philippine Professional Standards for Teacher (PPST) can be used as anchor in
curriculum quality audit. The PPST aims to set clear expectations of teachers along well
defined career stages of professional development from beginning to distinguished
practice. The Philippines has adopted and implemented the PPST through the
Department of Education Order (DO) 42, s. 2017. Teacher educators, program heads
curriculum planners may refer to the PPST to 'quality audit the pre-service teacher
education curriculum as basis for quality assurance provision of teacher education.

The first CQA in teacher education curriculum in the Philippines was initiated by the
Research Center for Teacher Quality (RCTQ), the Philippine Normal University, Cebu
Normal University, West Visayas University, Western Mindanao State University and
other member universities of the National Network of Normal Schools (3Ns). Using the
curriculum quality audit (CQA) process, pre- service syllabi were mapped to the PPST to
ensure that standards for beginning teachers (career stage 1) are addressed in the pre-
service curriculum. Using the CQA, teacher educators are assured that pre-service
teachers embody the competencies of beginning teachers as they practice their
profession in the Department of Education.
There are other standards that can used in the CQA aside from the PPST. CHED CMOs
74 to

83 are standards set by the Commission on Higher Education, specific to the degree
program being offered and the teachers who are the outcomes of the programs. They
have both the generic standards for all teacher education degree programs and specific
standards for each degree program. For example CMO 74. S. 2017 contain the
standards for Bachelor of Elementary Education, or for teachers who will teach in the
elementary level and CMO 75, s. 2017 contain the standards for Bachelor of Secondary
Education or for teachers who will teach in the secondary level.

Aside from the national standards for teachers, there are also international standards
for globalization like the Competency Framework for Teachers in Southeast Asia (CFT-
SEA) of SEAMEO and SEAMES and the European Tuning Asia Southeast (TASE) teacher
competences.